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Copyright  1911,   Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

BIRD'S-EYE  VIEW  OF  THE  DOUBLE  LOCKS  AT  GATUN.      TOTAL 
RISE  FROM  SEA  LEVEL  TO  LAKE  LEVEL,  85  FEET. 


Scientific  American 
Reference  Book 

Edition  ^/- 1914 


Compiled  and  Edited 

by 

ALBERT   A.  HOPKINS 

For  Part  I.     Statistical  Information 

Editor  of  Scientific  American  Cyclopedia  of  Formulas 
Scientific  American  Handbook  of  Travel,  Etc. 
Member    of    the    American    Statistical    Association 

and 

A.    RUSSELL    BOND 

For  Part  II.   Scientific  Information 

Editor  of  Handyman's 
Workshop  and  Laboratory 

With    1000   Illustrations 


MUNN  &,  CO.,  Inc. 


NEW    YORK,    1914 


COPYRIGHT,  1912.  BY  MUNN  &  CO..  INC. 


COPYRIGHT.  1913,  BY  MUNN  &  CO.,  INC. 


This  work  is  protected  by  over  eighty  Copyrights, 
and  no  matter  must  be  reproduced  except  by  written 
permission.  Rights  of  translation  into  all  languages, 
including  the  Scandinavian,  are  reserved. 


Published  October.  1912. 


New  Edition.  October,  1913. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  by 
A.  H,  KeUogg  Co.,  New  York. 


PREFACE. 

The  Editorial  staff  of  the  ^^  Scientific  American ''  re- 
ceives annually  about  15,000  inquiries  covering  a  wide 
range  of  topics — no  field  of  human  achievement  or  of 
natural  phenomena  is  neglected.  The  information  sought 
for,  in  many  cases,  cannot  be  readily  found  in  text-books 
or  works  of  reference.  The  need  of  a  compendium  of 
useful  information  presented  itself  some  twenty  years 
ago,  and  a  part  of  the  field  was  covered  by  the  publication 
in  1901  of  the  '^Scientific  American  Cyclopedia  of  Re- 
ceipts, Notes,  and  Queries/'  of  which  over  25,000  copies 
were  sold.  This  book  becoming  obsolete  in  time  was 
supplanted  by  its  successor,  the  '^  Scientific  American 
Cyclopedia  of  Formulas,  '^  issued  in  191 1 .  There  was,  how- 
ever, another  field  which  was  not  covered:  the  public, 
or  at  least  the  public  of  the  ''Scientific  American/'  de- 
manded something  which  did  not  exist — they  wanted  a 
book  which  should  deal  with  a  vast  range  of  topics  other 
than  formulae.  They  wanted  information  about  the 
Antarctic  region,  the  Panama  route,  shipping,  navies, 
armies,  railroads,  population,  education,  patents,  sub- 
marine cables,  wireless  telegraphy,  manufactures,  agri- 
culture, mining,  mechanical  movements,  astronomy 
and  the  weather.  The  Editors  of  the  present  volume  felt 
constrained  to  compile  such  a  book,  which  was  issued  in 
1904,  under  the  same  title  as  this  book.  Its  success  was 
immediate,  and  an  edition  of  10,000  copies  was  inadequate 
to  supply  the  demand.  In  1905  a  second  large  edition 
was  issued,  and  was  eagerly  bought  up  by  those  who  wished 
this  useful  companion  for  the  desk  or  library.     As  the 


figures  became  obsolete,  it  was  allowed  to  become  ^'out  of 
print/'  and  now  in  response  to  a  considerable  number  of 
requests  a  new  book  is  presented,  following  to  some  ex- 
tent the  old  lines,  but  entirely  recompiled  and  rewritten. 

Immense  masses  of  Government  material  have  been 
digested  with  painstaking  care  by  competent  statisticians, 
and  the  result  will,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Editors,  fully 
warrant  the  expenditure  of  considerable  effort  and  results 
in  the  production  of  a  unique  book. 

It  is  perhaps  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  there  are  certain  inconsistencies  in  the  tables.  In 
procuring  the  figures,  for  example,  from  different  bureaus 
and  departments  of  the  Government,  with  reference  to 
any  subject,  it  is  found  that  statistics  vary  in  certain 
particulars.  These  differences  are  due  to  the  different 
methods  of  tabulation  or  to  different  points  of  view.  In 
many  cases  these  discrepancies  are  noted  in  this  book, 
to  prevent  the  reader  from  forming  erroneous  conclusions. 
These  cases  must  not  be  regarded  as  errors,  and  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  give,  wherever  possible,  the  date  of  the 
figures  and  the  authority.  Every  available  space  has 
been  taken  up  with  useful  information,  whether  germane 
to  the  chapter  or  not. 

The  debt  for  advice  and  help  is  a  heavy  one.  The 
compilation  of  this  or  any  similar  one  would  be  impossible 
without  the  co-operation  of  many  Government  officials. 
Our  thanks  are  especially  due  to  Dr.  Falkner,  late 
Assistant  Director  of  the  Census,  and  to  the  Hon.  E.  Dana 
Durand,  Director  of  the  Census;  the  Hon.  O.  P.  Austin, 
late  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  now  Assistant- 
Chief  of  the  new  Bureau  of  Domestic  and  Foreign  Com- 
merce, and  to  Mr.  N.  Eckhardt,  Jr.,  of  his  office;  to  the 
Hon.  Eugene  Tyler  Chamberlain,  Commissioner  of  Navi- 
gation; to  Captain  T.  M.  Potts,  of   the  United   States 

[iv] 


Navy;  to  Major  J.  D.  Leitch,  U.  S.  A.,  Secretary 
of  the  War  College  Division;  to  Mr.  C.  F.  Talman, 
of  the  Weather  Bureau,  for  his  condensed  chapter 
on  the  weather;  to  Senator  Wm.  Alden  Smith;  to  Mr. 
Slason  Thompson,  of  the  Bureau  of  Railway  News  and 
Statistics;  to  the  Hon.  S.  B.  Donnelly,  Public  Printer; 
to  Dr.  J.  A.  Holmes,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines;  to  the 
Hon.  Frank  H.  Hitchcock,  Postmaster-General;  to  Dr. 
A.  F.  Zahm;  to  Dr.  W.  W.  Share;  to  Dr.  Geo.  F.  Kunz;  to 
Mr.  Perry  B.  Turpin;  to  Dr.  F.  L.  Hoffman,  Statistician  of 
the  Prudential  Life  Insurance  Co.;  to  Captain  J.  L.  Jayne, 
U.  S.  N.,  Superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory; 
to  Captain  A.  W.  Lewis,  of  the  Associated  Press;  to  Mr. 
E.  Justice,  of  the  North  German  Lloyd  Steamship  Co.;  to 
the  painstaking  assistants.  Miss  Henrietta  von  Tobel  and 
Mr.  Albert  S.  Regula;  and  to  a  host  of  other  friends  whose 
help  was  invaluable.  A  number  of  interesting  com- 
parisons in  line  are  from  Prof.  A.  L.  Hickmann^s  Geo- 
graphical-Statistical Universal  Atlas  and  Philips'  Chamber 
of  Commerce  Atlas.  Acknowledgment  is  made  for  mat- 
ter from  The  American  Almanac  and  Year  Book,  The 
World  Almanac  and  the  Chicago  Daily  News  Almanac 
and  Year  Book,  The  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  publications  of  the  Census.  Many  items 
are  credited  where  used. 

New  York, 
October  15,  1912. 

PREFACE  TO  FOURTH  EDITION. 

The  edition  for  1914  has  been  brought  up  to  date. 
The  errors  found  were  trifling,  so  that  it  is  hoped  that 
the  verdict  of  users  of  this  edition,  as  well  as  the 
press,  will  be  favorable.  Editions  of  a  statistical  work 
aggregating  35,000  are  rare. 

New  York, 
October  22.  1913. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— STATISTICAL  INFORMATION. 

PAGE 

Chapter  I. — Population  and  Social  Statistics 1-42 

Chapter  II. — Farms,  Foods  and  Forests 43-74 

Chapter  III. — Mines  and  Quarries 75-96 

Chapter  IV.— Manufactures 97-136 

Chapter  V. — Commerce 137-192 

Chapter  VI. — Mercantile  Marine 193-232 

Chapter  VII.— Raiboads 233-264 

Chapter  VIII.— The  Panama  Canal 265-278 

Chapter  IX. — ^Telegraphs  and  Cables 279-298 

Chapter  X. — Wireless  Telegraphy 299-310 

Chapter  XL— Telephone  Statistics  of  the  World 311-322 

Chapter  XII.— Post  Office  Afifairs 323-350 

Chapter  XIIL— Patents,  Trade-Marks  and  Copyrights 351-388 

Chapter  XIV.— Armies  of  the  World 389-408 

Chapter  XV.— Navies  of  the  World , 409-436 

Chapter  XVI.— Aviation 437-456 

PART  II.— SCIENTIFIC  INFORMATION. 

Chapter  L— Chemistry 457-462 

Chapter  II. — Astronomy  and  Time 463-484 

Chapter  III.— Meteorology 485-518 

Chapter  IV. — ^Machine  Elements  and  Mechanical  Movements ,>.*.. .  .519—546 

Chapter  V. — Geometrical  Constructions 547-560 

Chapter  VL — Weights  and  Measures 561-586 

Note. — ^A  complete  Table  of  Contents  is  of  little  value  where  a  complete 
Index  is  provided.  Those  interested  in  a  subject  will  find  little  hardship  in 
perusing  the  whole  chapter  devoted  to  it. 


Copyright,    1912,    by   Munn   &  Co.,    Inc. 

THE  LONGEST  SHIP  AND  THE  TALLEST  BUILDING. 
The  "Imperator,"  900  feet;  Woolworth  Building,  750  feet. 


PART  I. 

STATISTICAL  INFORMATION. 
CHAPTER  I. 


POPULATION  AND   SOCIAL 
STATISTICS. 


POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


AREA. 

1910 

1900 

The  United  States  (total  area  of  enumeration) 

93, 402, 151 

I  77, 256,  630 

Continental  United  States 

91,  972,  266 
1,  429, 885 

75, 994,  575 
1,262,055 

Noncontiguous  territory 

Alaska 

64, 356 

191, 909 

1, 118, 012 

55,  608 

63, 592 

154, 001 

2  953, 243 

91,  219 

Hawaii                               .                          

Persons  in  military  and  naval  service  stationed  abroad 

« Includes  953,243  persons  enumerated  in  Porto  Rico  in  1899. 

»  According  to  the  census  of  Porto  Rico  taken  in  1899  under  the  direction  of  the  War  Department. 

COMPARATIVE    AREA   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES    AND 
FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AREA  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ACCESSION. 

Gross  area 

in  square 

miles. 

ACCESSION. 

Gross  area 

in  square 

miles. 

IContlnentalXr.  S 

/A.reaofU.S.inl790i 

Louisiana  Purchase,  1803 

3,026,789 

Outlying  possessions  . . . 
Alaska,  1867 

716,617 

892. 135 

827,987 

58,666 

13,435 

389, 166 

286.641 

529. 189 

29,670 

590, 884 

Hawaii,  1898 

6,449 

115,026 

3,436 

210 

lFlorida,J819 

Philippine  Islands,  1899.... 
Porto  Rico,  1899 

Territory  gained  through 

Treaty  with  Spain,  1819 . 

Texas  1845        

Guam,  1899 

Samoa,  1900 

77 

Oreeon,  1846 .- 

Panama  Canal  Zone,  1904. . 

436 

Mexican  Cession,  1848 

Gadsden  Purchase,  1853  . . . 

>  Includes  the  drainage  basi^i  of  the  Red  River  bf  the  North,  not  a  part  of  any 
acquisition,  but  previously  considered  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 


'—•/ ^ 


.z-^. 


THE  THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES.  WITH  THE  ACCESSIONS  OF  TERRITORY  GRANTED  BY 
THE  TREATY  OF  17S3  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


TIDES. 


Tides  are  caused  by  the  gravitational  at- 
traction or  pull  of  the  sun  and  moon  upon 
the  water  and  upon  the  earth  itself.  The 
close  relation  which  the  tides  of  high  water 
bear  to  the  times  of  the  moon's  meridian 
passage  shows  that  the  moon's  influence  in 
rising  tides  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the 
sun;  it  has  been  estimated  that  it  is  two  and 
one-half  times  as  great.  The  result  of  this 
attraction  of  the  moon  is  to  draw  or  heap  up 


the  water,  in  the  parts  of  the  eartb  nearest 
it,  successively  towards  it.  The  surface  of  the 
earth  rises  and  falls  twice  in  a  lunar  day  of 
about  24  hours  and  52  minutes.  The  tides 
do  not  always  rise  to  the  same  height,  but 
every  fortnight,  after  the  new  and  full  moon, 
they  become  much  higher  than  they  were 
in  the  alternate  weeks.  These  high  tides 
are  called  spring  tides,  and  the  low  ones  neap 
tides. 


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10 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CENTRE  OF  POPULATION. 


At  the  time  of  the  first  census,  the  centre 
of  population  was  23  miles  east  of  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  since  which  time  it  has  moved 
steadily  westward.  In  1800  it  was  18  miles 
west  of  Baltimore,  in  1810  40  miles  northwest 
by  west  from  Washington,  D.  C;  in  1820  16 
miles  north  of  Woodstock,  Va.;  in  1830  19 
miles  west-southwest  of  Moorefield,  W.  Va.; 
in  1840  16  miles  south  of  Clarksburg,  W.  Va.; 
in  1850  23  miles  southwest  of  Parkersburg, 
W.  Va.;  in  1860  20  miles  south  of  Chillicothe, 


Ohio;  in  1870  48  miles  east  by  north  of  Civ.- 
cinnati,  Ohio;  in  1890  20  miles  east  of  Colum- 
bus, Indiana;  in  1900  6  miles  southeast  of 
Colunibus,  Indiana;  and  finally,  in  1910  in 
the  city  of  Bloomington,  Indiana.  During 
the  120  years  that  the  United  States  has 
existed  the  centre  has  moved  over  550 
miles  westward,  or  in  other  words,  froi.i 
west  latitude  76  degrees  11  minutes  12 
seconds  to  west  latitude  86  degrees  32  minutos 
20  seconds. 


PERCENTAGE    OF  INCREASE   BY   STATES    1900-1910. 


INCREASE  IN  POPULATION. 


CENSUS  YEAR. 

Population  o( 

continental 

United  States. 

mCBEASK  OVEB  PRECEDINO 
CENSUS. 

Adjusted 
percentages 
of  Increase. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

1910 

91, 972,  266 
75,994,575 
62, 947,  714 
50, 155, 783 
38,558,371 
31,443,321 
23, 191,  876 
17,069,453 
12, 866, 020 
9,  638, 453 
7, 239, 881 
5, 308, 483 
3, 929, 214 

15,977,691 
13, 046, 861 
12,  791, 931 
11,597,412 
7, 115, 050 
8,251,445 
6, 122, 423 
4, 203, 433 
3, 227, 567 
2,  398, 572 
1, 931,  398 
1,379,269 

21.0 
20.7 
25.5 
30.1 
22.6 
35.6 
35.9 
32.7 
33.5 
33.1 
36.4 
35.1 

21.0 
20.7 
24.9 
26.0 
26.6 
35.6 
35.9 
32.7 
33.5 
33.1 
36.4 
35.1 

1900 

1890 

1880 

1870 

IStk). 

1860 

1840 

1830 

1820 i 

1810 

1800 

1790 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REP'ERENCE  BOOK. 


11 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES 

OF    THB 

UNITED  STATES 

Census  of  1910 


Cities  of  over  100,000  population 


Albany.N.  Y.... 

100,253 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Atlanta,  Ga 

154,839 

Jersey  City,  N.J. 

Baltimore,  Md  . . 

558.485 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Birmingham,  Ala . 

132,685 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Louisville,  Ky... 

Boston,  Mass 

670,585 

Bridgeport,  Conn 

102,054 

Lowell,  Mass 

Buffalo,  N.Y...  . 

423.715 

Memphis,  Tenn. . 

Cambridge,  Mass 

104,839 

Milwaukee,  Wis. . 

Chicago,  111 

2.185.283 

Minneapolis, 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

364,463 

Minn 

Cleveland,  Ohio.. 

560,663 

Nashville,  Tenn.. 

Columbus,  Ohio.. 

181,548 

Newark,  N.  J. . .  . 

Dayton,  Ohio. ... 

116.577 

New  Haven,  Ct. . 

Denver.  Colo 

213.381 

New  Orleans,  La. 

Detroit.  Mich.  ... 

465,766 

New  York,  N.Y.  4 

Fall  River,  Mass, 

119,295 

Oakland.  Cal.... 

Grand  Rapids. 

Omaha,  Neb 

Mich 

112,571 

Paterson.N.  J... 

233,650 
267,779 
248,381 
319,198 
223,928 
106,294 
131,105 
373,857 

301,408 
110,364 
347,469 
133.605 
339,075 
766.883 
150,174 
124,096 
125,600 


Philadelphia.  Pa. 

1,549,008 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. . . 

533,905 

Portland,  Ore.... 

207,214 

Providence.  R.  I . 

224,326 

Richmond.  Va. . . 

127,628 

Rochester,  N.  Y.- 

218.149 

St.  Louis,  Mo... . 

687,029 

St.  Paxil,  Mum... 

214.744 

San  Francisco, 

Cal 

416912 

Scranton,  Pa. .  . . 

129,867 

Seattle,  Wash 

237.194 

Spokane,  Wash  . 

104,402 

Syracuse,  N.  Y... 

137,249 

Toledo,  Ohio 

168,497 

Washington,D,C. 

331.069 

Worcester,  Mass . 

145,986 

Cities  of  from  25,000  to  100,000  populatioin 


Akron,  Ohio 69,067 

AUentown,  Pa 51.913 

Altoona.  Pa 52,127 

Amsterdam.  N.  Y. . .  31.267 
Atlantic  City.  N.  J. .  46,150 

Auburn,  N.Y 34,668 

Augusta,  Ga 41,040 

Aurora,  lU 29,807 

Austin.  Tex 29,860 

Battle  Creek.  Mich. .  25  267 

Bay  City.  Mich 45.166 

Bayonne,  N.  J »5.545 

Berkeley,  Cal 40,434 

Binghamton.  N.  Y.  .  48,443 
Blooraington,  111. . .  .  25,768 

Brockton,  Mass 56,878 

BrookUne,  Mass.  .  .  .  27,792 

Butte,  Mont 39,165 

Camden,  N.  J 94,538 

Canton,  Ohio 50,217 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa.  32,811 

Charleston,  S   C 58,833 

Charlotte,  N.  C 34,014 

Chattanooga,  Tenn.  44,604 

Chelsea.  Mass 32.452 

Chester.  Pa 38,537 

Chicopee,  Mass 25,401 

CUnton.  Iowa 25,577 

Colorado  Springs 

Colo 29,078 

Columbia.  S.  C 26,319 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa.  29,292 

Covington,  Ky 53,270 

Dallas.  Tex 92,104 

Danville.  Ill 27.871 

Davenport,  Iowa 43.028 


Decatur,  111 31,140 

Des  Moines,  Iowa. .  .  86,368 

Dubuque.  Iowa 38,494 

Duluth,  Minn 78,466 

Easton,  Pa 28.523 

East  Orange,  N.  J. . .  34,371 
East  St.  Louis,  111.  .  .  58,547 

El  Paso,  Tex 39,279 

Elgin,  111 25,976 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 73,409 

Elmira,  N.  Y 37,176 

Erie,  Pa 66,525 

Evansville,  Ind 69,647 

Everett,  Mass 33,484 

Fitchburg.  Mass 37,826 

Flint,  Mich 38,550 

Port  Wayne,  Ind 63.933 

Fort  Worth.  Tex. . . .  73,312 

Galveston,  Tex 36,981 

Green  Bay,  Wis 25,236 

Hamilton,  Ohio 35,279 

Harrisburg,  Pa 64,186 

Hartford,  Conn 98,915 

HaverhiU,  Mass 44,115 

Hazleton.  Pa 25.452 

Hoboken.  N.  J 70,324 

Holyoke,  Mass 57.730 

Houston.  Tex 78.800 

Huntington,  W.  Va..  31.161 

Jackson,  Mich 31,433 

Jacksonville.  Fla 57,699 

Jamestown,  -N.  Y. . . .  31,297 

Johnstown,  Pa 55,482 

JoUet.  Ill 34,670 

Joplin.  Mo 32,073 

Kalamazoo,  Mich . . .  39,437 


Kansas  City.  Kans. .  82,331 

Kingston,  N.  Y 25,908 

Knoxville,  Tenn 36.346 

La  Crosse.  Wis 30,417 

Lancaster,  Pa 47.227 

Lansing,  Mich 31,229 

Lawrence.  Mass 85,892 

Lewiston,  Me 26,247 

Lexington,  Ky 35.099 

Lima.  Ohio 30.508 

Lincoln,  Nebr 43.973 

Little  Rock,  Ark 45.941 

Lorain,  Ohio 28,883 

Lynchburg,  Va 29,494 

Lynn.  Mass 89.336 

Macon.  Ga 40,665 

McKeesport,  Pa.  .  .  .  42,694 

Madison,  Wis 25,531 

Maiden,  Mass 44,404 

Manchester,  N.  H. . .  70,063 

Meriden,  Conn 27,265 

Mobile,  Ala 51,521 

Montgomery,  Ala. ..  38,136 
Moimt  Vernon,  N.  Y  30,919 

Muskogee,  Okla 25,278 

Nashua,  N.  H 26,005 

Newark,  Ohio 25,404 

New  Bedford,  Mass.  96.652 
New  Britain,  Conn. .  43,916 
Newburgh,  N.  Y. . . .  27.805 

Newcastle,  Pa 36,280 

Newport,  Ky 30,309 

Newport,  R.  1 27,149 

New  Rochelle.  N.  Y.  28,867 
Newton,  Mass  .  .  .  39.806 
Niagara  Falls.  N.  Y..  30.445 


12 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Norfolk,  Va 67.452 

Norristown,  Pa 27,875 

Ogden,  Utah 25,580 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla  64.205 

Orange.  N.J 29,630 

Oshkosh,  Wis 33,062 

Pasadena,  Cal 30,291 

Passaic,  N.J 54.773 

Pawtucket,  R.  1 51.622 

Peoria,  111 66,950 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J. .  32,121 

Pittsfleld,  Mass 32,121 

Portland.  Me 58.571 

Portsmouth.  Va 33,190 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  27,936 

Pueblo  Colo 44,395 

Quincy,  111 36,587 

Quincy,  Mass 32.642 

Racine,  Wis 38.002 

Reading,  Pa 96.071 

Roanoke,  Va 34.874 

Rockford.Ill 45.401 

Sacramento,  Cal 44.696 

Saginaw,  Mich 50,510 


St.  Joseph,  Mo 77,403 

Salem,  Mass 43.697 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  92.777 
San  Antonio,  Tex .  .  .  96.614 

San  Diego,  Cal 39,578 

San  Jose,  Cal 28,946 

Savannah.  Ga 65,064 

Schenectady.  N.  Y. .  72,826 

Sheboygan,  Wis 26,398 

Shenandoah,  Pa 25,774 

Shreveport,  La 28,015 

Sioux  City.  Iowa 47.828 

Somerville,  Mass 77,236 

South  Bend.  Ind. . .  .  53,684 
South  Omaha,  Nebr.  26,259 

Springfield,  111 51,678 

Springfield,  Mass. . . .  88,926 
Springfield,  Mo. . .  .  35,201 
Springfield,  Ohio.    .  .  46,921 

Stamford,  Conn 25.138 

Superior,  Wis 40.384 

Tacoma,  Wash 83,743 

Tampa,  Fla 37,782 

Taunton,  Mass 34,259 


Terre  Haute,  Ind. . . .  58,157 

Topeka,  Kans 43,684 

Trenton,  N.J 96  815 

Troy,  N.  Y 76.813 

Utica,  N.  Y 74,419 

Waco,  Tex 26,425 

Waltham,  Mass 27,834 

Warwick,  R.  1 26,629 

Waterbury,  Conn. .  .  73,141 

Waterloo,  Iowa 20,693 

Watertown,  N.  Y.  .  .  26,730 
West  Hoboken,  N.  J.  35,403 

WheeUng,  W.  Va 41,641 

Wicliita,  Kans 52,450 

Wilkes-Barre,  Pa. .  . .  67,105 

WiUiamsport,  Pa 31,860 

Wilmington,  Del 87,411 

Wilmington,  N.  C. .  .  25,748 
Woonsocket,  R.  I.  .  .  38,125 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 79,803 

York,  Pa 44,750 

Yoxmgstown,  Ohio.  .  79,066 
Zanesville,  Ohio 28,026 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


13 


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14 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


\         I    DECREASE 

INCREASE 
V^/^A    LttH  THANIOPCR  OINT 

IZ^  10  TO  20  KBB  OBNT 

B8883  iO  TO  30  PER  CENT 

|i%^  30  TO  EO  PER  CENT 

fiOl  EO  PER  CENT  AND  OVe» 


PERCENTAGE  OF  INCREASE  IN  URBAN  POPULATION: 
1900-1910. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  INCREASE  IN  RURAL  POPULATION: 
1900-1910. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


15 


PERCENTAGE  OF  URBAN  IN  TOTAL  POPULATION  IN  1910. 


COLOR,  NATIVITY  AND  PARENTAGE  OF  POPULATION, 
PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


FOR 


There  are  in  all  229  cities  which  had  in  1910 
more  than  25,000  inhabitants,  with  an  aggre- 
gate population  of  28,543,816.  Of  the  com- 
bined population  of  these  cities,  native  whites 
of  native  parentage  number  10,149,145,  or 
35.6  per  cent.;  native  whites  of  foreign  or 
mixed  parentage,  9,218,999,  or  32.3  per  cent.; 
foreign-bom  whites,  7,478,990,  or  26.2  per 
cent.;  negroes,  1,625,601,  or  5,7  per  cent.;  all 
other,  71,081,  or  0.2  per  cent.  For  continental 
United  States,  as  a  whole,  the  equivalent  num- 
bers and  percentages  are:  Native  whites  of 
native  parentage,  49,488,575,  or  53.8  per  cent; 
native  whites  of  foreign  or  mixed  parentage 
18.897.837,  or  20.5  per  cent.;  foreign-bom 
whites,  13,345.545,  or  14.5  per  cent.;  negroes, 
9,827,763,  or  10.7  per  cent. 

The  combined  population  (28,543,816)  of 
the  229  cities  taken  together  constitutes  31 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  (91,972,266) 
of  continental  United  States  in  1910.  In  the 
case,  however,  of  native  whites  of  native  par- 
entage, the  number  in  these  cities  constitutes 
only  20.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  in  the 
Umted  States,  while  for  native  whites  of  for- 
eign or  mixed  parentage  the  percentage  is 
48.8  and  for  foreign-bom  whites,  56.  For 
negroes  the  percentage  in  the  principal  cities 
is  16.5. 


The  foreign-bom  white  element  is  mainly 
concentrated  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
states,  and  in  many  of  the  cities  in  these  states 
the  proportion  of  foreign-bom  whites  in  the 
total  population  is  very  large.  Passaic,  N.  J., 
has  28,467  foreign-born  whites,  representing 
52  per  cent,  of  its  total  population  (54,773). 
This  is  the  largest  proportion  of  foreign-bom 
whites  in  any  of  the  principal  cities,  and  Law- 
rence, Mass.,  with  41,319  foreign-bom  whites 
in  a  total  population  of  85,892,  has  the  next 
largest  proportion,  48.1  per  cent.  There  are 
11  other  cities  in  each  of  which  the  foreign- 
bom  whites  constitute  more  than  40  per  cent, 
of  the  total  population,  namely,  Perth  Am- 
boy,  N.  J.,  44.5;  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  44.1; 
Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  43.4;  Fall  River,  Mass., 
42.6;  Chelsea,  Mass.,  42.4;  Manchester,  N.  H., 
42.4;  New  Britain,  Conn.,  41;  Lowell,  Mass., 
40.9;  Shenandoah,  Pa.,  40.6;  New  York,  N.  Y., 
40.4;  Holyoke,  Mass.,  40.3. 

Negroes  constitute  one-fourth  or  more  of 
the  total  population  in  each  of  27  principal 
cities,  and  in  4  of  them  the  proportion  is  more 
than  half,  namely,  Charleston,  S.  C,  31,056 
negroes,  or  52.8  per  cent.;  Savannah,  Ga., 
33,246,  or  51.1  per  cent.;  Jacksonville,  Fla., 
29,293  or  50.8  per  cent.;  Montgomery,  Ala., 
19,322,  or  50.7  per  cent. 


16 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AREA  OF  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

(Based  upon  careful  joint  calculations  made  in  the  General  Land  Office,  the  Geological  Survey,  and  the 

Bureau  of  the  Census.) 


States  or  Territories. 

Land  surface. 

Water  surface. 

Total  areas. 

Alabama 

Sq.  m. 

51,279 

113,810 

62,525 

155,652 

103,658 

4,820 

1,965 

60 

54,861 

68,725 

83,354 

56,043 

35,815 

65,586 

81,774 

40,181 

45,409 

29,895 

9,941 

8,039 

57,480 

80,858 

46,3ti2 

68,727 

146,201 

76,808 

109,821 

9,031 

7,514 

122,503 

47,654 

48.740 

70,183 

40,740 

69,414 

95,607 

44,832 

1,067 

30,495 

76,868 

41,687 

263,398 

82,184 

9,124 

40,262 

66,836 

24,022 

66,256 

97,694 

Acres. 

32,818,560 
72,838,400 
33,616,000 
99,617,280 
66,341,120 
3,084,800 
1,257,600 
38,400 
35,111,040 
37,584,000 
53,346,560 
35,867,520 
23,068,800 
35,575,040 
52,335,360 
25,715,840 
29,061,760 
19,132,800 
6,362,240 
6,144,960 
36,787,200 
51,749,120 
29,671,680 
43,985,280 
93,568,640 
49,157,120 
70,285,440 
5,779,840 
4,808,9()0 
78,401,920 
30,498,560 
31,193,600 
44,917.120 
26,073,600 
44,424,960 
61,188.480 
28,692,480 
682.880 
19,516,800 
49,195,520 
26,679,680 
167,934,720 
62,597,760 
6,839,360 
25,767,680 
42,775,040 
15,374,080 
36,363,840 
62,460,160 

Sq.m. 
719 

146 
810 

2,645 
290 
145 
405 
10 

3,806 
540 
634 
622 
309 
561 
384 
417 

3,097 

IjM 

227 

500 

3,824 

503 

693 

796 

712 

869 

310 

710 

131 

1,550 

3,686 

654 

300 

643 

1,092 

294 

181 

494 

747 

335 

3,498 

2,806 

440 

2,365 

2,291 

148 

810 

320 

Acres. 

460,160 

93,440 

518,400 

1,692,800 

185,600 

92,800 

259,200 

6,400 

2,435,200 

345,600 

341,760 

398,080 

197,760 

359,040 

245,760 

266,880 

1,982,080 

2,012,800 

1,527,040 

145,280 

320,000 

2,447,360 

321 ,920 

443,520 

509,440 

455,680 

556,160 

198,400 

454,400 

83,840 

992,000 

2,359,040 

418,560 

192.000 

411.520 

698,880 

188,160 

116,840 

316,160 

478,080 

214,400 

2,238,720 

1,795,840 

•      281,600 

1,613,600 

1,466,240 

94,720 

618,400 

204,800 

Sq.m. 
51,998 

113,956 
63,335 

158,297 

103,948 
4,965 
2,370 
70 
58,666 
59,265 
83,888 
56,665 
36,354 
56,147 
82,158 
40,598 
48,506 
33,040 
12,327 
8,266 
57,980 
84,682 
46,865 
69,420 

146,997 
77,520 

110,690 
9,341 
8,224 

122,634 
49,204 
52,426 
70,837 
41,040 
70,067 
96,69» 
45,126 
1,248 
'30,989 
77,615 
42,022 

265,896 
84,990 
9,564 
42,627 
69,127 
24,170 
66,066 
97,914 

Acres. 
33,278,720 

Arizona                  . 

72,931,840 

34,134,400 

California           '.- 

101,310,080 

66,526,720 

3,177,600 

Delaware 

1,516,800 

44,800 

Florida                

37,546,240 

37,929,600 

Idaho           

53,688,320 

Illinois 

36,265,600 

23,266,560 

Iowa                           . .  • 

35,934,080 

52,581,120 

Kentucky        .     .......... 

25,982,720 

31,043,840 

Maine            

21,145,600 

Maryland 

7,889,280 

Massachusetts 

5,290,240 

Michigan 

37,107,200 
54,196,480 
29,993,600 
44,428,800 
94,078,080 
49,612,800 
70,841 ,600 
5,978,240 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana  .                   .... 

Nebraska 

Nevada    

New  Jersey 

5,263,360 
78,486,760 
31,490,560 

New  Mexico          .  . 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

33,562.640 

North  Dakota 

45,336,680 
26,265,600 
44,836,480 
61,887,360 
28,880,640 
798,720 
19,832,960 
49,673,600 
26,894,080 
170,173,440 
64,393,600 
6,120,960 
27,281,280 
44,241,280 
15,468.800 
35,882.240 
62,664,960 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Rhode"  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

T<>nTipsspp.       ... 

Utah 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsiu 

Alaska 

2,973,890 

1,903,289,600 

52.899 

33,855,360 

3,026,789 

690,884 

210 

6,449 

474 

115,026 

3,435 

77 

1,937,144,960 

378,165,760 

134,400 

4,127,360 

303,360 

73,616,640 

2,198,400 

49,280 

Guam 

Hawaii 

Panama  Canal  strip 

Philippine  Islands 

Porto  Rico 

Tutuila  Group,  Samoa 

. 

Total 

3,743,344 

2,396,740,160 

Owmg  to  their  location  adjoining  the  Great  Lakes,  the  States  enumerated  below  contain  approximately 
an  additional  number  of  square  miles  as  follows:  Illinois,  1,674  square  miles  of  Lake  Michigan;  Indiana, 
230  square  miles  of  Lake  Michigan:  Michigan,  16,653  square  miles  of  Lake  Superior,  12,922  square  miles 
of  Lake  Michigan,  9,925  square  miles  of  Lake  Huron,  and  460  square  miles  of  lakes  St.  Clair  and  Erie; 
Minnesota.  2,514  square  miles  of  Lake  Superior,  New  York,  3,140  square  miles  of  lakes  Ontario  and  Erie; 
Ohio,  3,443  square  miles  of  Lake  Erie;  Pennsylvania,  891  square  miles  of  Lake  Erie;  Wisconsin,  2,378 
square  miles  of  Lake  Superior  and  7,500  square  miles  of  Lake  Michigan. 

In  addition  to  the  water  areas  noted  above,  California  claims  jurisdiction  over  all  Pacific  waters  lying 
withm  3  English  miles  of  her  coast;  Oregon  claims  jurisdiction  over  a  similar  strip  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
1  marme  league  in  width  between  latitude  42"  north  and  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River;  and  Texas 
claims  jurisdiction  over  a  strip  of  Gulf  water  3  leagues  in  width,  adjacent  to  her  coast  and  between  the 
Rio  Grande  and  the  Sabine  River. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


17 


AREA  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  SIZE  OF  STATES. 


Rank 

in 
gross 
area. 

AREA  IN  SQUARE   MILES. 

Gross. 

Land. 

Water.! 

Continental  United  States 

3,026,789 

265,896 
158, 297 
146,997 
122.  634 
113,956 

110.690 
103,948 
97, 914 
96,699 
84, 990 

84,682 
83,888 
82, 158 
77,615 
77,520 

70,837 
70,057 
69, 420 
69, 127 
59,265 

58, 666 
57,980 
56,665 
56, 147 
56,066 

53,335 
52, 426 
51,998 
49, 204 
48,506 

46,865 
45, 126 
42,627 
42,022 
.41,040 

40,598 
36,354 
33,040 
30,989 
24, 170 

12,327 
9.564 
9.341 
8.266 
8,224 

4,965 

2,370 

1,248 

70 

2,973,890 

262, 398 
155, 652 
146. 201 
122,503 
113,810 

109, 821 
103, 658 
97,594 
95,607 
82, 184 

80,858 
83,354 
81, 774 
76,868 
76,808 

70,183 
69,414 
68, 727 
66, 836 
58,725 

54, 861 
57,480 
56, 043 
55,586 
55,256 

52,525 
48,740 
51.279 
47,654 
45,409 

■46,362 
44,832 
40, 262 
41,687 
40,  740 

40, 181 
36,045 
29, 895 
30,  495 
24, 022 

9,941 
9, 124 
9,031 
8,039 
7,514 

4,820 

1,965 

1,067 

60 

52,899 

3,498 

2,645 

796 

Texas 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

46 
47 
48 
49 

California 

Montana 

131 

Arizona 

146 

869 

Colorado 

290 

320 

Oregon .               

1,092 

Utah 

2,806 

3,824 
534 

Minnesota .  . 

Idaho 

Kansas.              

384 

South  Dakota 

747 

Nebraska 

712 

North  Dakota 

654 

Oklahoma..        

643 

Missouri 

693 

Washington.        

2,291 
540 

Georgia 

Florida...     .                      ... 

3,805 

Michigan 

500 

Illinois 

622 

Iowa ; 

561 

Wisconsin 

810 

Arkansas 

810 

North  Carolina. . 

3,686 

Alabama 

719 

New  York 

1.550 

Louisiana 

3,097 

Mississippi 

503 

Pennsylvania . 

294 

Virginia 

2,365 

Tennessee 

335 

Ohio 

300 

Kentucky 

417 

Indiana 

309 

Maine 

3,145 

South  Carolina 

494 

West  Virginia 

148 

Maryland 

2,386 

Vermont 

440 

New  Hampshire 

310 

Massachusetts 

227 

New  Jersey 

710 

Connecticut 

145 

Delaware 

405 

Rhode  Island. . 

181 

District  of  Columbia 

10 

1  Does  not  include  the  water  surface  of  the  oceans,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  the 
Great  Lakes,  lying  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States. 


A  census  just  completed  by  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  shows  that  in  1911  there 
were  154,255  persons  in  the  Canal  Zone. 
The   City  of  Panama   has    a    population  of 


35,368,  of  which  18,237  are  Mestizos,  10,963 
negroes,  7,008  white,  and  1,180  Amanllos 
or    yellows.       Colon     has     17,748    inhabit- 


18 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


POPULATION  OF  CONTINENTAL  UNITED  STATES 
PER  SQUARE  MILE. 


CENSUS  YEAR. 

Population  of 

continental 

United  States. 

Land  area 

in  square 

miles. 

Popula- 
tion per 
square 
mile. 

1910  . 

91,972,260 
75,994,575 
62,947,714 
50,155,783 
38,558,371 
31,443,321 
23,191,876 
17,069,453 
12,866,020 
9,638,453 
7,239,881 
5,308,483 
3,929,214 

2,973,890 
2,974,159 
2,973,965 
2,973,965 
2,973,965 
2,973,965 
2,944,337 
1,753,588 
1,753,588 
1,753,688 
1,685,865 
867,980 
867,980 

30.9 

1900 

25.6 

1890 

21.2 

1880..                                                 .   . 

16.9 

1870 

13.0 

I860                          .   .              

10.6 

1850 

7.9 

1840.                       

9.7 

1830 

7.  a 

1820 

6.5 

1810                                                   

4.3 

1800 

6.1 

1790 

4.5 

PRISON  POPULATION  IN  1910. 


The  prison  population  of  the  United  States 
on  January  1,  1910  was  111,609,  and  the  num- 
ber of  commitments  to  prisons  or  other  penal 
institutions,  during  the  year  1910,  was  479,890. 
These  figures  include  every  class  of  offense, 
from  vagrancy  to  murder  in  the  first  degree. 
They  also  include  cases  in  which  the  offender 
was  committed  to  jail  or  prison  for  the  non- 
payment of  a  fine.  The  ratio  of  prisoners  to 
population  on  January   1,   1910,  was  121   to 


100,000,  and  the  ratio  of  commitments  to 
population  during  the  year  1910  was  522  to 
100,000.  Thus  it  appears  that,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  1910,  one  person  out  of  every 
826  in  the  United  States  greeted  the  New 
Year  in  jail;  and  that,  during  1910,  for 
every  192  persons  in  the  total  population, 
there  was  one  commitment  to  prison  or  jail, 
for  a  period  ranging  from  one  day  to  a  life 
sentence. 


^RiZ. 


NUMBER  OF  INHABlTANTi 
PER  SQUARE  MILE 

nU.MTHAH* 

IS3  2     TO     e 
r^e     TO     IS 

tSSa  18      TO       48 
Bjgg  46     TO       80 

Efl  90  AND  ovin 


POPULATION  PER  SQUARE  MILE:  1910. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


19 


Mortality  from  Consumption  bi|  Age  and  Sex. 

Prudential  Industrial  Experience  ^<^  1897^1906. 


MALES,              ,^„,^ 

Other  Causes  a  Death.                          CommptJ,^  "^'^ 

Cottsa 

FEMALES, 

mpim                    OthrCaasesafDeatt. 

m 

a-w 

BfSl 

tts 

v-'f 

eas 

il^H 

mitm 

1 

m 

1 

^_ 

__ 

1 

J^0__ 

™ 

■--1 



P 



JO^ 

m 



1 

—— " 

-* 

40-44 

Ql 

*' 

nt 

JQ 

■ 

ar 

■«.- 

m 

SOU 
55-59 

Si? 

«w 

_m_ 





1 ' 



6569 

m 

Ea 

iS 

KT 

70-74 

til 

IE 

B 

«» 

313. 

~B 

B 

Mr 

Note:  The  umiorhanate  mortality  oTmi/es  and  fiw/es  hm  t^.m 
xhun  out  or  my  100  death]  fm  all  causes  anatig  male 
the  proportionate  mortality  from  consumption  is  higher 

mptiai 

sm 

among 

IS  s/ioim  to  rary  according  Si  age.  reaclnng  a  mxmum  at  25-S 
irefm  consumption  and  ameng  females  4Z6.  ^tapsl5-£4 
fynalesandatagesZSandorstitis  higlter  among  malaa 

Mortality  from  Consumption  -  General  Population. 

1887-1906. 


Mortality  of  Northern  Cities.  Mortality  of  Southern  Cities. 

a^-am  RATE  PER  10,000.,  RATE   PER  IQOOQ 


am 

.too 
noo 

ea» 

RATE  PER  IO.OOO., 

:= 

r: 

E 

E 

1 

p 

-1 

E 

= 

MOO 

3100 
3000 
lAOO 

uto 

s 

= 

5 

^ 

= 

S 

1 

Sfcl 

1 

i 

= 

^  = 

•a 

07  i 

b3 

» 

. 

J 

«« 

■»    w  « 

a 

?s 

Vti-oa 

Proportionate  Consumption  Mortality  ^^  MALES. 


Note  TEb  proportiorrate  consumption  mortHitg  is  deteimmtd  liy  calculating  tie peicanage  qfilei^sjiom  cooiumplion  m  the  mortality 
fmm  III  ausis  at  specified  periods  of  life  For  illustration,  at  ages  a -24.  out  ofemy  100  deaths  Jmm  ill  causes,  among  rrhite 
males  217  are  from  consumption;  amng  negro  males  278,  moni  male  Indians  JOO,  jndamng  male  Chinese  (m  the  US)372 


Age,  a,  Death    CHINESE. 

15^4  ^mUmmimmm 
as4 

JS-441 
4554} 

65Si\ 


INDIANS. 


Only  eleven  of  the  states  in  the  United 
States  have  large  Indian  populations,  namely: 
Oklahoma  with  117,444;  Anzona  with  40,754; 
New  Mexico  with  21,374;  South  Dakota  with 
20,333;  CaUfornia  with  17,517;  Minnesota 
with  11,116;  Wisconsin  with  9,816;  North 
Dakota  with  8,389;  and  Michigan  with  7,519. 


The  other  states  of  the  Union  have  a  total 
Indian  population  of  63,121  and  rank  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  Indian  inhabitants 
as  follows:  Oregon,  New  York,  Nevada, 
Nebraska,  Wyoming,  Kansas,  Utah  and  other 
states.  The  total  Indian  population  of  the 
United  States  is  (1912)  319,216. 


20 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Mortality  from  Consumption  in  Dusty  Irades. 

Prudential  Industrial  Experience  ^  1897-1906. 


MetalUcDast       (^ 

Ages 
25-34 

a, 

C5 

© 

^1 

© 

MineralDust       (^ 

o 

(3 

(? 

© 

© 

Vegetable  Fiber  Dust  (    Q 

^ 

(3 

(3 

© 

© 

ty^"--  a 

o 

^ 

(5 

© 

© 

t'^*^  (5 

a 

G 

(5 

© 

© 

^:^-»    ^    3    O    O 

Note  TheJegrtt  of  comumptiofi  frequency  is  shoim  to  /ary  wdely  according  to  (he  kind  qf  dust  exposure 
The  proportionate  consumption  mortality  in  insurance  exoerience  uras  greatest  in  trades  ex- 
posing to  the  continuous  inhalation  (/  considerable  amounts  </  metallic  and  mineral  dusts 

© 

Mortality  from  Consumption -/A/;05Z£r(P  toMeMicDust, 

Prudential  Industrial  Experience  ^  189?- 1906. 


PRINTERS. 


COMPOSITORS. 


hindtid  CmaesrfDmh.  „JirCfnt  o(Peaas/i^ 

LosSDinXjOB 


jMiglits  IJisedss 
HtaitDixiaes 
Acddmt 

PerCaa  t^GusamftioaMoitelitgaSfefjfieiAgehdedx. 
Ages  ctDealk. Consumption  Mer  Causes. 


15-74 

BSSHHHI 





5(5 

1      1 

25-34 

jQnHH  H| 

4S7 

1 

35-44 

W^B//k  ^H 

■■ 

5,5 

1 

BXriH 

«/ 

1 

55-64 

bul 

^-3 

M« 

»     < 

»     > 

'     • 

k 

Riadpal  Gases  (fBtmh^^PaQnt  afdeaAsJitm  a 

Loiiuntption 


BngUiDtxase 


Jidade 


m 


Per  Cent  of  Comumptian  Uonality  at  Specified  Age  Pttwds. 

Ages  alDeatb.     Caa/mptior  Qfier  Causes 


li-Z-t 

\n.    1 

wa^m  ^^^ 

^5-1/ 

313 

1 

I'i-H 

WOWtM  ^■■H' 

«.5- 

\                \ 

45-54 

■«■»   '    .1        1 

«£_ 

/W Out<f690(lu6ittinittr3Slla3^<mtJmCaminban.  "& miatioKilt mr- 
talitiitmtkdm*mtimmitiliigtt,ktimtstat!5-Hfilaiii^emsllJ0 
ikAi^itaxXiSimfmCmKkim.iV'HtiamlineiailfKfcrtiai^Sll 


.  /tttt  (kjKdikaAiiteanmbia  SicrSHm  fnmi  Cmanfitm  Tk nKfOtioHitt  mrlai/y 
timtliisibmsimaxtmattligttuii<lerX,lutmist«(it^-34.iiiKiiait(feiayB0 
K667mit/kmCoampCjai.cgaiiatiimiolatecielpiaportioit  gr-SfJ 


Recent  statistics  show  that  at  the  end  of 
May,  1910,  there  were  431  state  and  local 
anti-tuberculosis  associations,  286  special 
dispensaries,  393  special  sanatoria  and 
hospitals,   and   22,720  beds  for  tuberculosis 


cases.  It  was  estimated  that  there  were 
300,000  indigent  consumptives  in  the  United 
States,  in  May,  1910,  and  that  it  would  cost 
$50,000,000  yearly  to  take  care  of  them  in 
institutions. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


21 


SUICIDES  IN  ONE  HUNDRED  AMERICAN  CITIES,  1891 

-1912. 

Years. 

Population. 

Suicides. 

Rate  per 

100,000 

Population. 

1891  

12,818,957 
13,335,186 
13,686,566 
14,038,525 
14,539,050 
15,027,676 
15,416,634 
15,892,764 
16,269,285 
16,753,366 
17,248,177 
17,743,001 
18,237,846 
18,732,699 
19,254,249 
19,837,798 
20,421,363 
21,004,936 
21,588,516 
22,172,095 

68.418,284 

79,359,725 

.91,215,972 

105,024,708 

1,727 
1,713 
2,097 
2,139 
2,218 
2,360 
2,583 
2,630 
2,594 
2,728 
2,855 
3,139 
3,513 
3,766 
3,650 
3,537 
3,975 
4,582 
4,537 
4.377 

9,894 
12,895 
16,923 
21,008 

13.5 

1892         

12.8 

1893 

15.3 

1894     

15.2 

1895 

15.3 

1896    

15.7 

1897 

16.8 

1898 

16.5 

1899 

15.9 

1900 

16.3 

1901                          

16.6 

1902 

17.7 

1903          ..             

19.3 

1904 

20.1 

1905      , 

19.0 

1906 

17.8 

1907 

19.5 

1908 

21.8 

1909 

1910                           

21.0 
19  7 

1891-1895 

14.5 

1896-1900 • 

16.2 

1901-1905 

190&-1910 

18.6 
20.0 

Courtesy  of  The  Spectator. — F.  L.  Hoffman,  Compiler. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were  4,460  suicides  out  of  a  population  of 
22,758,471,  or  equivalent  to  19.6  per  100,000  of  population.  During  1912  there 
were  4,397  suicides  out  of  a  population  of  23,336,602  or  18.8  per  100,000  population. 

COMPARISON  OF  SUICIDES  AND  BUSINESS  FAILURES  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,   1891-1912. 


Yeap. 

Suicides 

per  100,000  of 

Population  in  100 

American  Cities. 

Business  Failures  in 

the  United  States 

per  1,000  Existing 

Business  Concerns.  * 

1891  .                             ... 

13.5 
12.8 
15.3 
15.2 
15.3 
15.7 
16.8 
16.5 
15.9 
16.3 
16.6 
17.7 
19.3 
20.1 
19.0 
17.8 
19.5 
21  8 
21.0 
19.7 

10  7 

1892 

8.8 

1893                                

12  8 

1894 

12.5 

1895                 

10  9 

1896 

13.1 

1897 

12.6 

1898 

11.0 

1899 

8.1 

IflOO 

9.2 

1901 

9.0 

1902 

9  3 

1903 

9.4 

1904 

1905 

9.2 

8.5 

1906..    .                      

7  7 

1907 

8.2 

1908..    .               

10  8 

1909 

8  0 

1910 

8  0 

*  Furnished  by  R.   G.  Dun  &  Co. 
In  1911  there  were  8.1  and  in  1912,  9.8  failures  per  1,000  existing  business  concerns. 


22 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DEATHS  IN  REGISTRATION  AREA. 


During  the  year  1911  the  total  number  of 
deaths  in  the  Registration  Area  of  the  United 
States  was  839,284;  this  comprises  only  58.3 
per  cent,  of  the  population  of  the  country,  so 
that  if  the  same  proportion  of  deaths  were 
found  in  the  districts  where  there  is  no 
registration,  the  total  number  of  deaths 
in  the  United  States  would  be  nearly  double 
the  figure  given  above.  Of  this  number, 
779,770,  or  929.1  for  every  thousand  deaths, 
were  white.  Of  the  deaths  among  the  whites, 
569,425  were  native  born,  of  which  number 
306,192  had  both  parents  native  born  and 
193,628  had  parents  either  one  or  both  of 
which  were  foreign  born.  Other  deaths  among 
the  white  population  were  199,346  foreign 
born,  and  10,999  unknown.  The  deaths 
among  the  colored  population  totaling  59,519, 
or  70.9  for  every  thousand  deaths,  were  di- 
vided as  follows:  Negro,  56,431;  Indian, 
1,539;  and  Chinese  and  Japanese,  1,724. 

Of  the  total  number  of  deaths,  457,308 
were  males  and  381,976  were  females.  The 
total  number  of  deaths  among  children  less 
than  one  year  of  age  was  149,322;  of  those 
from  one  to  five  years  of  age,  60,160;  from 
five  to  twenty-five,  83,909;  from  twenty-five 
to  fifty,  184,214;  from  fifty  to  seventy-five, 
247,008;  over  seventy-five,  113,375;  and  of 
unknown  age,  1,296. 

Out  of  every  thousand  deaths,  177.9  occur 
before  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  life;  71.7 
between  the  ages  of  one  and  five;  100.0  be- 
tween  five   and   twenty-five;   219.5  between 


twenty-five  and  fifty;  324.4  between  fifty  and 
seventy-five;  135.0  above  seventy-five;  and 
1.5  at  an  unknown  age.  Out  of  every  one 
thousand  deaths  544.9  are  males  and  455.1 
females. 

Dividing  the  deaths  in  the  Registration 
Area  of  the  United  States  for  the  year  1911 
according  to  diseases,  we  find  that  12,451  died 
of  typhoid  fever;  1,802  of  malaria;  smallpox, 
130;  measles,  5,922;  scarlet  fever,  5,243; 
whooping  cough,  6,682;  diphtheria  and  croup, 
11,174;  influenza,  9,244;  other  epidemic  dis- 
eases, 6,133;  tuberculosis,  94,205;  cancer  and 
other  malignant  tumors,  44,024;  diabetes, 
8,805;  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  and  of 
the  organs  of  special  sense,  81,428;  diseases 
of  the  circulatory  system,  109,830;  diseases  of 
the  respiratory  system,  99,650;  diseases  of  the 
digestive  system,  98,600;  non-venereal  dis- 
eases of  the  genito-urinary  system  and  annexa, 
67,348;  from  external  causes,  suicide,  9,622; 
accidental  or  undefined,  50,121;  homicide, 
3,907;  and  all  other  causes,  112,913. 

The  rate  of  death  per  hundred  thousand 
population  of  the  more  important  of  these 
diseases  is  as  follows:  Typhoid  fever,  21.0; 
tuberculosis,  158.8;  cancer  and  other  malig- 
nant tumors,  74.3;  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system  and  of  the  organs  of  special  sense, 
137.4;  diseases  of  the"  circulatory  system, 
185.3;  diseases  of  the  respiratory  system, 
168.1;  diseases  of  the  digestive  system,  166.3; 
non-venereal  diseases  of  the  genito-urinary 
system,  and  annexa,  113.6.  "^^ 


DEGENIRA  TlVEWSEASES-aS. 

Increase  in  Deaf h-Rate  per  lo.ooo 

K 


Zb.7 


-l\ 


^(HEARTi  BLOOD  VESSELS,^ 
KIDNEYS.  ETC) 

24.3 


31. A 


9.0 


(EEE) 


4FFP) 


llgpIO 


THE  PENALTY  OF  NEGLECT 

The  heavy  increase  in  life  waste  from  diseases  of  the  heart,  blood  vessels,  kidneys — apoplexy, 
etc.,  demands  the  attention  of  the  American  people.  .  They  are  over-taxing  and  neglecting  the 
hardest  worked  organs  of  the  body,  and  the  penalty  is  needless  disease  and  premature  death 
'for  tens  of  thousands  annually.  This  can  only  be  checked  by  the  adoption  of^  more  healthfiilj 
habits  of  living  and  by  improvement  in  hygiene  and  sanitation. 

SUICIDE  RECORD  OF  1912. 


The  suiwde  record  of  100  American  cities 
for  the  year  ending  1912  shows  a  suicide 
mortality  of  4,397  out  of  a  total  population  for 
these  cities  of  23,336,602,  or  equivalent  to 
20.2  per  100,000  of  jjopulatiou.  With  only 
two  exceptions  this  is  the  lowest  rate  at- 
tained during  any  year  since  1901,  when  the 
rate  was  only  16.6.  The  average  suicide  rate 
by  quinquennial  periods  for  the  last  two 
decades     eliminating   fluctuations   by    single 


years,  has  shown  a  continuous  upward 
tendency,  being  15.7  for  the  first  five  years, 
16.6  during  the  next  five  years,  and  increasing 
to  19.1  and  20.2  in  the  succeeding  periods. 
The  highest  recorded  rate  for  the  100  cities 
was  for  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  in  which  the  rate 
was  44.0  per  100,000  of  population,  against 
the  general  average  for  all  the  cities  of  20.2. 
Abstract  from  article  by  F.  L.  HoflFman  in 
"The  Spectator,"  October  2,  1913. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


23 


MASBIAOES  AND  DIVORCES:  Number   and  Increase,    Specifying 
Divorces  Granted  to  Husband  or  Wife,  1887  to  1906. 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


. 

Marriages. 

Divorces. 

Calendar  year. 

Ntunber. 

1 

Increase 
over  pre- 
ceding 
year. 

Total 
number. 

Increase 
over  pre- 
ceding 
year. 

Granted  to 
husband. 

Granted  to 
wife. 

Number. 

Per 

cent. 

Number. 

Per 
cent. 

1887 

483,069 
504,530 
531,457 
542,537 
562, 412 
577,870 
578,673 
566, 161 
598,855 
613, 873 
622, 350 
625,655 
650,610 
685,284 
716,621 
746,733 
786, 132 
781,145 
804, 787 
853,290 

27,919 
28,669 
31,735 
33,461 
35,540 
36,579 
37,468 
37,568 
40, 387 
42,937 
44,699 
47,849 
51,437 
55,751 
60,984 
61,480 
64,925 
66, 199 
67,976 
72,062 

2,384 
750 
3,066 
1,726 
2,079 
1,039 
889 
100 
2,819 
2,550 
1,762 
3,150 
3,588 
4,314 
5,233 
496 
3,445 
1,274 
1,777 
4,086 

9,729 
10,022 
11,126 
11,625 
12,478 
12,577 
12,590 
12,551 
13,456 
14, 448 
14,765 
15,988 
16,925 
18,620 
20;  008 
20,056 
21,321 
22, 189 
22,220 
23,455 

34.8 
35.0 
35.1 
34.7 
35.1 
34:4 
33.6 
33.4 
33.3 
33.6 
33.0 
33.4 
32.9 
33.4 
32.8 
32.6 
32.8 
33.5 
32.7 
32.5 

18,190 
18,647 
20,609 
21,836 
23,062 
24,002 
24,878 
25,017 
26,931 
28,489 
29, 934 
31,861 
34,512 
37, 131 
40, 976 
41,424 
43,604 
44,010 
45,756 
48,607 

65.2 

1888. 

2i,46i 

26,927 

11,080 

19,875 

15,458 

803 

112,512 

32,694 

15,018 

8,477 

3,305 

24,955 

34, 674 

31,337 

30, 112 

39, 399 

»4,9S7 

23,642 

48,503 

1889        ..     • 

64.9 
65.3 
^4  9 

1890.;... 

1891 . 

1892 

65.6 
66.4 
66.6 
66.7 
66.4 
67.0 
66.6 
67  1 

1803 

1894. 

1805..   .  

1890 

1897 

,1898 

'is9o::::;:::::::::::::;   :" 

IWO 

1901 

1902 

66.6 
67.2 
67.4 
67.2 
66.5 
67.3 
67.5 

1903 

1904 

1005                        .   . 

1900  ...     . 

ANNUAL  NUMBER  OF  DIVORCES 
1867-1906. 


During  the  himting  season  of  1911  there 
were  101  deaths  recorded  a.s  against  113  for 
1910,  87  in  1909,  57  in  1908,  82  in  1907  and 
74  in  1906.  The  greatest  number  of  deaths 
occurred  in  the  State  of  Michigan  where  16 
persons  were  Jcilled,  followed  by  Illinois  with 
14  and  Wisconsin  with  13. 


Foreign-Born  White  Population  of 
THE  U.  S.  BY  Country  of  Birth. 


Total  foreign- 
bora  white 

Austria-Hungary... 

Austria 

Hungary 

Germany 

Great  Britain 

England 

Scotland 

W.ales 

Ireland 

Italy 

Russia  and  Finland 

Russia 

Finland 

Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark.. 

Norway 

Sweden 

Denmark 

Other  Europe 

France 

Greece 

Holland 

Switzerland 

Another 

Canada  and  New- 
foundland  

Mexico 

All  other  countries. 


13,342,500 


1910 


10,213,817 


1,658,700 
1,190,200 

468,500 
2,499,200 
1,221,400 

875,400 

203,400 
82,60D 
1,351,400 
1,341,800 
1,706,900 
1,577,300 

129,600 

1,250,500 
403.500 
665,500 
181,500 
749,300 
117,100 
101,100 
120,000 
124,800 
280,300 

1,198,000 
218,800 
146,500 


1900 


3,128,683 


636, 968 

491,259 

145,709 

2,813,413 

1,166,863 

839,830 

233,473 

93,560 

1,615,232 

483,963 

640,710 

678,072 

62,638 

1,062,124 
336,379 
571,986 
153,759 
450,036 
104,031 
8,513 
104,922 
115,581 
116,989 

1,172,745 

101,908 
69,855 


In- 
crease. 


,021,732 

698,941 

322,791 

-314,213 

54,537 

35,570 

29,927 

-10,960 

-263,832 

857,837 

,066,190 

999,228 

66,962 

188,376 
67,121 
93,514 
27,741 

299,264 

13,069 

92,587 

15,078 

9,219 

109,311 

25,255 
116,892 
76,645 


24 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DIVORCES :  Number  and  Causes,  Specifying  those  Granted  to  Hus- 
band OR  Wife,  by  Quinquennial  Periods,  1887  to  1906. 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Cause.. 

1887-1891 

1892-1896 

1897-1901 

1902-1906 

Inbrease 

1902-1906  as 

compared 

with 
1887-1891 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

GRANTED  TO  HUSBAND. 

Adultery 

17, 139 

4,047 

27, 150 

592 

31.2 
7.4 

49.4 
1.1 

19,956 

6,068 

31, 805 

765 

2 

3,190 
3,836 

30.4 
9.2 

48.5 
1.2 
0) 

4.9 
5.8 

24,269 

9,385 

43, 186 

986 

1 

3,681 
4,798 

28.1 

10.9 

50.0 

1.1 

(•) 

4.3 
5.6 

29,526 

13,678 

54,142 

1,093 

3 

4,805 
5,994 

27.0 

12.5 

49.6 

1.0 

(1) 

4.4 
5.5 

12,387 

9,631 

26,992 

501 

3 

2,151 
2,596 

72.3 

Cruelty 

238.0 

Desertion 

99.4 

Drunkenness .  - 

84  6 

Neglect  to  provide 

81  0 

Combinations    of    preceding 
causes,  etc.... 

2,654 
3,398 

54,980 

4.8 
6.2 

All  other  causes ^ ... 

76  4 

Total 

100.0 

65,622 

100.0 

86,306 

100.0 

109,241 

100.0 

54,261 

98.7 

GRANTED  TO  WIFE. 

Adultery. 

10,880 
25, 200 
35,666 
5,397 
4,605 

13,770 

6,826 

10.6 
24.6 
34.8 
5.3 
4.5 

13.5 
6.7 

13, 714 
34,509 
43, 153 
6,913 
6,857 

15,757 
8,414 

10.6 
26.7 
33.4 
5.3 
5.3 

12.2 
6.5 

16,915 

48,797 

58,382 

8,828 

10,423 

19,979 
11,090 

9.7 
28.0 
33.6 
5.1 
6.0 

11.5 

6.4 

21,360 
64, 641 
74,018 
11,942 
12, 779 

25,013 

13, 748 

9.6 
28.9 
33.1 
6.3 
5.7 

11.2 
6.2 

10,480 
39,341 
38,352 
6,645 
8,174 

11,243 
6,922 

96  3 

Cruelty 

156  1 

107  5 

Drunkenness.. 

121  3 

Neglect  to  provide 

177  5 

Combinations    of    preceding 
causes,  etc.  . 

81.6 
101  4 

All  other  causes  * ... 

Total 

102, 344 

100.0 

129,317 

100.0 

174,414 

100.0 

223,401 

100.0 

121, 057 

118  3 

Less  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent. 


2  Includes  causes  unknown. 


APPROXIMATE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PURSUITS. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


25 


DIVORCES:  Total  Number  Granted,  Specifying  those  Granted  to, 
Husband  or  Wife,  by  Number  of  Years  Married,  1887  to  1906.^ 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Number  of  years  married. 


Granted  to 
husband. 


Number.  Percent 


Granted  to  wife. 


Number.  Percent, 


Total. 


Number.  Percent, 


Less  than  1  year. 

1  year 

2  years 

3  years 

4  years 

5  years 

6  years 

7  years 

8  years 

9  years 

10  years 

11  years 

12  years 

13  years... 

14  years 

15  years 

16  years 

17  years 

18  years. 

19  years 

20  years 

21  years 

22year3 

23  years 

24  years 

25  years  and  over 

Total 


6,684 
9,074 
19, 571 
24,033 
24,438 
22, 942 
31,142 
18, 947 
17,059 
14,659 
13,631 
12,081 
10,521 
9,230 
8,210 
7,376 
6,393 
5,742 
5,125 
4,446 
4,351 
8,805 
3,318 
2,913 
2,644 
19, 120 


2.2 
3.1 
6.6 
8.1 
8.2 
7.7 
7.1 
6.4 
5.7 
4.9 
4.6 
4.1 
3.5 
3.1 
2.8 
2.5 
2.1 
L9 
1.7 
L5 
L5 
L3 
LI 
LO 
.9 
6.4 


12,192 
18, 689 
41,910 
49,019 
49,475 
•45, 828 
41,524 
37, 470 
33,595 
29, 738 
27,099 
24,288 
21,450 
19, 030 
16,867 
15,603 
13,632 
12, 159 
10,893 
9,807 
9,513 
8,336 
7,171 
6,575 
5,952 
35,314 


2.0 
3.1 
6.9 
8.1 
8.2 
7.6 
6.9 
6.2 
6.6 
4.9 
4.5 
4.0 
3.6 
3.2 
2.8 
2.6 
2.3 
2.0 
L8 
L6 
1.6 
1.4 
1.2 
1.1 
LO 
5.9 


18,876 
27,763 
61,481 
73,052 
73,913 
68,770 
62, 666 
66,417 
50, 654 
44.397 
40, 730 
36, 369 
31,971 
28, 260 
25, 077 
22, 979 
20,025 
17,901 
16,018 
14,263 
13,864 
12,141 
10, 489 
9,488 
8,596 
64.434 


2.1 
3.1 
6.8 
8.1 
8.2 
7.6 
7.0 
6.3 
5.6 
4.9 
4.5 
4.0 
3.6 
3.1 
2.8 
2.6 
2.2 
2.0 
L8 
1.6 
L5 
1.3 
L2 
LI 
LO 
6.0 


297.455 


100.0 


603. 129 


100.0 


900,584 


100.0 


» Calendar  years. 


GRANTED  TO  HUSBAND. 


GRANTED  TO  WIFE. 


CAUSES  FOR  DIVORCES  1902-1906. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


27 


IMMIGRANT  ALIENS  ADMITTED,  YEARS  ENDED  JITNE  30,  1903  TO 
1912;  By  Race  or  People. 

(SouJ-cc:  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Race  or  people. 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


African  (black) 

Armenian 

Bohemian,  Moravian.'. 
Bulgarian,     Servian, 

Montenegiln 

Chinese 

Croatian,  Slovenian . . . 

Cuban 

Dalmatian,    Bosnian, 

Herzegovinlan 

Dutch,  Flemish 

East  Indian 

English 

Filipino 

Finnish 

French 

German 

Greek 

Hebrew 

Irish 

Italian  (north) 

Italian  (south) 

Japanese 

Korean ..^ 

Lithuanian...,..,,.!,.. 

Magyar. ^ 

Mexican.. u....r 

Pacific  Islander 

Polish! 

Portuguese... 

Roumanian 

Russian 

Ruthenlan  (Rvissniak) 

Scandinavian .. . . . 

Scotch.. 

Slovak J 

Spanish 

Spanish-American 

Syrian u, 

Turkish .*... 

Welshl... 

West  fiidian  (except 

Cuban).... 

All  other  peoples 

Total,.. 


2,174 
1,759 


6,479 
2, 192 
32,907 
2,944 

1,736 

6,496 

83 

28,451 

133 

18,864 

7,166 

71,782 

14,376 

76,203 

35,360 

37,429 

196, 117 

20,041 

■564 

14,432 

27,124 

486 

52 

82,343 

8,433 

4,740 

3.608 

9,843 

79,347 

6,219 

34,427 

3,297 

978 

5,551 

449 

1,278^ 

1,497 


2,386 
1,745 
11,911 

4,577 
4,327 
21,242 
4,811 

2,036 

7,832 

258 

41,479 

29 

10, 157 

11,557 

74,790 

12,625 

106,236 

37,076 

36,699 

159,329 

14,382 

1,907 

12,780 

23,883 

447 

12 

67,757 

6,338 

4,364 

3,961 

9,592 

61,029 

11,483 

27,940 

4, 

1, 

3,653 

1, 

1, 

1,942 


3,598 

1,878 

11,757 

5,823 

1,971 

.35,104 

7,259 

2,639 

8,498 

145 

50,865 

6 

17,012 

11,347 

82,360 

12, 144 

129,910 

54,266 

39,930 

186,390 

11,021 

4, 

18,604 

46,030 

227 

17 

102,437 

4,855 

7,818 

3,746 

14,473 

62,284 

16, 144 

52,368 

5,590 

1, 

4,822 

2,145 

2,531 

1,548 
351 


3,786 
1,895 
12,958 

11,548 

1, 
44,272 

5,591 

4,568 

9,735 

'  271 

45,079 


5,235 
2,644 
13,554 

27,174 

770 

47,826 

5,475 

7, 
12,467 

1,072 
51, 126 


4, 
3,299 
10,164 

18,246 
1,203 

20,472 
3,323 

3,747 

9,526 

1,710 

49,056 


4,307 
3,108 
6,850 

6,214 

1,841 

20,181 

3,380 

1,888 

8,114 

337 

39.021 


4,966 
5,508 
^,462 

15, 130 
1,770 

39,562 
3,331 

4,911 
13,012 

1,782 
53,498 


6,721 
3,092 
9,223 

10,222 
1,307 

18,982 
3,914 


6,759 
5,222 
8,439 

10,657 
J,608~ 

24,366 
8,155 


4,400  3,672 
13,862  10,935 

517 
57,258 


14, 136 

10,379 

86,813 

23,127 

153,748 

40,969 

46,286 

240,528 

14,243 

127 

14,257 

44,261 

141 

13 

95,835 

8,729 

11,425 

5,814 

16,257 

58,141 

16,463 

38,221 

5,332 

1,585 

5,824 

2,033 


1,476 
1,027 


14,860 

9,392 

92,936 

46,283 

149, 182 

38,706 

51,564 

242.497 

30,824 

39 

25,884 

60,071 

91 

3 

138,033 

9,648 

19,200 

16,807 

24,081 

53,425 

20,516 

42,041 

9,495 

1,060 

5,880 

1,902 

2,754 

1, 

2,058 


6,746 

12,881 

73,038 

28,808 

103,387 

36,427 

24,700 

110,547 

16,418 

26 

13,720 

24,378 

.  5,682 

2 

68,105 

6,809 

9,629 

17, 111 

12,361 

32,789 

17,014 

16,170 

6,636 

1,063 

5,520 

2,327 

2,504 

1,110 
1,530 


11,087 
19,423 
58,534 
20,202 
57,551 
31, 185 
25, 150 
165,248 

3,275 
11 
15,254 
28,704 
15,591 
7 
77,565 

4,606 

8,041 
10,038 
15,808 
34,996 
16,446 
22,586 

4, 

3,668 

1, 

1,024 
1,537 


.15,736 

21,107 

71,380 

39,135 

84,260 

38,382 

30,780 

192,673 

2,798 

19 

22,714 

:  .27, 302 

17,760 

61 

128,348 

.7,657 

14, 199 

^7,294 

27,907 

52,037 

24,612 

32,416 

5,837 

900 

6,317 

1,283 

2,244 

1, 150 
3,330 


1,141 
3,323 


857,046  812,8701,026,499 


1,100,735 


1,285,349 


782,870 


751,786 


1,041,670 


878,587 


6,641 

18,382 

65,343 

31,566 

80,595 

33,922 

26,443 

135,830 

6,172 

33 

14,078 

23,599 

22,001 

3 

85,163 

9,403 

8,329 

22,558 

21,965 

31,601 

20,293 

25,281 

9,070 

1,342 

5,525 

1,336. 

2,239 

1,132 
3,660 


838,172 


28 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TOTAL  NUMBiEB  0»  IMMIGRANTS  IN  SPECIFIED  YEARS,  1892  TO 
191^:  By  Sex  and  Age;  also  Immigrants  Debarred  and  Returned  Within 
One  Year  after  Arrival,  and  Illiterates  over  14  and  16  Years  of  Age. 

(Sources:  Records  of  Bureau  of  Statistics  prior  to  lf%;  for  subseqiient  years,  reports  of  the  CJommissioner 
General  of  Immigration,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Ye 

ed      'Tota^ 
fi*     immi- 

_      grants. 

Sex. 

Ages. 

De- 

barred 
from 
land- 
ing. 

Re- 
turned 
within 
1  year 
after 
land- 
ing. 

Re- 
turned 
within 
3  years 
after 
land 
ing. 

Abie  to 

read, 
but  not 
write.  1 

Un- 

end 
Ju 
30- 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Under 

14 
years. 

14  to  45 

years. 

45  years 
and 
over. 

able  to 
read  or 
write.  » 

1892 

L..     623, 084|  385,781 

237,303 

2  89,167 

« 491, 839 

M2,078 

2,164 

«7 

1893 

...     502,917 

315,845 

187,072 

2  57,392 

3  419,701 

<  25, 824 

1,053 

677 

69,582 

61,038 

1894 

...     314,407 

186,247 

128,220 

2  41,755 

3  258,162 

<  14, 550 

2,389 

417 

16,784 

41,614 

1895 

...     279,948 

159,024 

120,024 

2  33.289 

9  233,543 

*  13, 116 

2,394 

189 

2,612 

42,302 

1896 

...      343,-267!  212, 4GG 

130,801 

2  52,741 

3  254,519 

<  36, 007 

2,799 

238 

5,066 

78,130 

1897 

...      230,832 

135, 107 

95,725 

2.38,627 

8165,181 

<  27, 024 

1,617 

263 

1,672 

43,008 

1898 

...      229,299 

135,775 

93,524 

2  38,267 

3  164,905 

*  26, 127 

3,030 

199 

1,416 

43,057 

1899 

...     311,715 

195,277 

116,438 

43,983 

248, 187 

19,545 

3,798 

263 

1,022 

60,446 

1900 

...      448,572 

-304, 148 

144,424 

54,624 

370,382 

23,566 

4,246 

356 

2,097 

93,576 

1901 

...     487,918 

331,055 

156,863 

62,562 

396,516 

28,840 

3,516 

363 

8,058 

117,587 

1902 

...      648,743 

466,309 

182,374 

74,063 

539,254 

35,426 

4,974 

465 

2,917 

162,188 

1903 

..     857,046 

613, 14C 

243,900 

102,431 

714,053 

40,562 

8,769 

647 

8,341 

185,667 

1904 

.,     812,870 

549,100 

263,770 

109,150 

667, 155 

46,565 

7,994 

300 

479 

3,953 

168,903 

1905 

..-1,026,499 

724,914 

301,585 

114,668 

855,419 

56,412 

11,879 

,98 

747 

8,209 

230,882 

1906 

..  1,100,735 

764,463 

336,272 

136,273 

913,955 

60,507 

12,371 

61 

615 

4,755 

265,068 

1907 

..1,285,349 

929,970 

355,373 

138,344 

1,100,771 

46,234 

.13,064 

70 

925 

5,829 

337,573 

1908 

..     782,870 

606,912 

275,058 

112, 148 

630,671 

40,051 

10,902 

11^ 

1,955 

2,310 

172,293 

1909 

..     751,780 

519,069 

231,817 

88,393 

624,876 

38,617 

10,411 

6S 

2,066 

2,431 

191,049 

1910 

..  1,041,570 

736,038 

305,532 

120,509 

868,310 

62,751 

24,270 

23 

2,672 

4,571 

253,509 

1911' 

...     878,587 

570,057 

308,630 

117,837 

714,709 

46,041 

22,349 

9 

2,779 

2,930   182,273 

1912 

...     838,172 

529,931 

308,241 

113,700 

678,480 

45,992 

16,057 

IC 

2,440 

3,024   177,284 

1  For  the  years  prior  to  1895  the  figures  are  for  persons  over  16  years;  for  1895  to  1910  for  persons  14  years 
of  age  and  over.  — 

■»  under  15  years.  » 15  to  40  years.  « 40  years  and  over. 


SUMMARY  OF  BOILER  EXPLOSIONS. 


A  summary  of  the  iiumber  of  persons  killed 
or  injured,  per  explosions,  for  successive  ten- 
year  periods,  shows  that  the  boiler  explosions 
of  this  country  have  been  becoming  less  and 
less  serious.  In  1871  there  were  89  ex- 
plosions recorded,  resulting  in  the  death  of 
383  persons  and  injuries  to  225,  or  4.3  persons 
killed  and  2.53  injured  per  explosion.  In  1881 
with  159  explosions,  there  were  251  persons 
killed  and  313  injured,  or  1.57  killed  and  1.96 
injured  per  explosion.  In  1891,  257  ex- 
plosions resulted  in  the  death  of  263  persons 
and  injuries  to  371,  or  1.02  killed  and  1.44 
injured  per  explosion.  In  1901,  423  ex- 
plosions resulted  in  312  deaths  and  injuries 


to  646,  or  0.73  persons  killed  and  1.52  injured 
per  explosion.  In  1911,  there  were  499  ex- 
plosions resulting  in  the  death  of  222  persons 
and  injuries  to  416,  or  0.47  persons  killed 
and  0.83  injured  per  explosion.  This  decrease 
is  most  probably  due  to  the  improvement  that 
has  taken  place  in  the  design,  construction, 
and  operation  of  steam  boilers,  and  not  to  the 
increased  use  of  sectional  boilers,  for  ex- 
perience has  indicated  that  the  bursting  or 
rupture  of  such  boilers  is  frequently  at- 
tended with  serious  consequences  in  the  way 
of  killing  or  injuring  the  attendants. 

Courtesy  of  "  The  Locomotive,"  Jan.  1909. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


29 


Net  Increase  or  Decrease  op  Population  by  Arrival  and  Depar- 
ture OP  Aliens,  Fiscal  Year  Ended  June  30,  1912,  by  Races  or  Peoples. 


Race  or  people. 


African  (black) 

Armenian 

Bohemian  and  Moravian 
(Czech) 

Bulgarian,  Servian,  and  Mon- 
tenegrin  

Chinese 

Croatian  and  Slavonian 

Cuban , 

Palmatian,  Bosnian,  and 
Herzegovinian 

Dutch  and  Flemish 

East  Indian 

English 

Finnish 

French 

German 

Greek 

Hebrew , 

Irish , 

Italian  (north) , 

Italian  (south) ;., 


Korean. 

Lithuanian , 

Magyar 

Mexican , 

Pacific  Islander , 

Polish 

Portuguese 

Roumanian 

Russian 

Ruthenian  (Russniak) 

Scandinavian  (Norwegians, 

Danes,  and  Swedes) 

Scotch 

Slovak 

Spanish , 

Spanish- A  mer  lean , 

Syrian 

Turkish 

Welsh 

West  Indian  (except  Cuban) 

Other  peoples 

Not  specified » 


Total. 


Admitted  in  and  departed 
from  Philippine  Islands... 


Admitted. 


Immi- 
grant 
aliens. 


6,759 
6,222 

8,439 

10,657 
1,608 

24, 366 
3,155 

3,672 

10. 935 

165 

49, 689 

6,641 
18, 382 
65,343 
31,566 
80. 595 
33.922 
26  443 
135,830 

6,172 
33 
14,078 
23,599 
22,001 
3 
85,163 

9.403 

8,329 
22.. 558 
21,965 

31,601 
20, 293 
25, 281 
9,070 
1,342 
5,525 
1,336 
2,239 
1, 132 
3,660 


838, 172 


2,536 


Nonim- 
migrant 
aliens. 


648 

2,041 
3,883 
2,473 
3,076 

266 

3,205 

66 

36,360 

1,049 

5,786 

17,055 

2,086 

3,407 

10, 100 

7,800 

19,850 

2,574 

7 

499 

3,244 

3,701 

10 

6,056 

1,171 

1,101 

2,918 

4,714 

10,239 
8,335 
2,061 
4,905 
1,708 

580 
94 

858 
1,293 

487 


178,983 


6,932 


Total. 


9,857 
6,411 

9,087 

12, 698 
5,491 

26,839 
6,231 

3,938 

14,140 

221 

86;  049 

7,690 
24,168 
82, 398 
33,652 
84,002 
44,022 
34,243 
155,852 

8,574 
40 
14,577 
26,843 
25,702 
13 
91,219 
10,574 

9,430 
25, 476 
26,679 

41,840 
28,628 
27,342 
13,975 
3,050 
6,105 
1,430 
3,097 
2,425 
4,147 


1,017,155 


Departed. 


Emi- 
grant 
aliens. 


718 

1,149 

7,349 
2,549 
13,963 
1,963 

927 

1,816 

164 

10,341 

4,148 

4,189 

15,026 

13,323 

7,418 

4,086 

13,006 

96, 881 

1,501 

55 

4,141 

17, 575 

325 

4 

37,764 

1,747 

5,824 

9,744 

5,521 

10,380 

3,456 

12,526 

2,569 

343 

972 

1,366 

301 

530 

1,113 

15,201 


333,262 


729 


Nonemi- 
grant 
aliens. 


2,389 


1,010 

3,205 
3,904 
4,291 
6,659 

454 

4,721 

148 

54,116 

3,040 

7,288 

22,549 

6,700 

6,027 

13,888 

12,851 

42,540 

6,529 

18 

1,549 

8,315 

1,820 

13 

11,977 

1,716 

2,256 

5,488 

4,986 

15,711 
10,8i6 
4,361 
4,661 
1,935 
1,339 
710 


1,257 


282,030 


8,776 


Total. 


3,677 
1,079 

2,159 

10,554 
6,453 

18,254 
8,622 

1,381 

6,.537 

312 

64,457 

7,188 
11,477 
37,575 
19,023 
12,445 
17,974 
25, 857 
139,421 

8,030 
73 

5,690 
25,890 

2,145 

17 

49,741 

3,463 

8,080 
15,232 
10,507 


14,302 
16,887 
7,230 
2,278 
2,311 
2,076 
1,134 
2,099 
2,370 
15,201 


615,292 


9,505 


1  Departed  via  Canadian  border.    Reported  by  Canadian  Government  as  Canadians. 


Arrivals  of  Passengers  at  the 
Ports  of  the  United  States. 

The  total  number  of  passengers  that  arrived 
at  the  various  ports  of  the  United  States 
during  the  year  1900  was  594,478,  of  which 
number  120,477  were  United  States  citizens 
returning  from  foreign  countries;  25,429 
were  non-immigrant  aliens;  and  448,572 
were  immigrants.  In  1905  the  total  number 
of  passengers  arriving  at  the  ports  of  the 
United  States  was  1,234,615,  and  of  this 
number  167,227  were  United  States  citizens 


returning  to  the  States;  40,889  were  non- 
immigrant aUens;  and  1,026,499  inunigrants. 
For  the  year  1911  the  total  nimtiber  of 
passengers  arriving  at  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  was  1,299,428,  of  which  number 
269,128  were  United  States  citizens  returning 
home;  151,713  were  non-immigrant  aliens; 
and  878,587  were  immigrants.  In  1912,  the 
total  number  of  passengers  arriving  at  the 
ports  of  the  United  States  was  1,297,956,  of 
which  number  280,801  were  United  States 
citizens  returning  home;  178,983  were  non- 
immigrant aliens  and  838,172  were  immigrants. 


30 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Sex,  Age,  Literacy,  Financial  Condition,  etc.,  op  Immigrant 


Race  or  people. 


Arican  (black) 

Armenian 

Bohemian  and  Mora- 
vian (Czech) 

Bulgarian.  Servian 
and  Montenegrin — 

Chinese 

Croatian  and  Slove- 
nian  

Cuban 

Dalmatian,    Bosnian 
'     and'Herzegovinian . . 

Dutch  and  Flemish.... 

East  Indian 

English 

Finnish 

French 

German 

Greek 

Hebrew 

Irish 

Italian  (North) 

Italian  (South) 

Japanese 

Korean 

Lithuanian 

Magyar 

Mexican . .  .• 

Pacific  Islander 

Polish 

Portuguese 

Roumanian 

Russian 

Ruthenian  (Russniak) 

Scandinavian  (Norwe- 
■  gian  Danes  and 
Swedes) 

Scotch 

Slovak 

Spanish 

Spanish- American 

Syrian 

T\irkish 

Welsh 

West  Indian  (except 
Cuban) 

Other  peoples 

Total 

Admitted  in  Philip- 
pine Islands  


Num- 
ber 
ad- 
mitted 


6,759 
5,222 


10,657 

1,608 

24, 366 
3, 155 

3,072 

10,935 

165 

49,689 

6,641 
18,382 
65, 343 
31,560 
80, 595 
33,922 
26, 443 
135,g30 

6,172 
33 
14,078 
23, 599 
22,001 
3 
85, 163 

9,403 

8,329 
22, 558 
21,965 


31,601 
20,293 
25,281 
9,070 
1,342 
5,525 
1,336 
2,239 

1,132 
3,660 


Sex. 


Male. 


3,828 
4,476 

4,565 

9,026 
1,367 

17,383 
2,098 

3,162 

6,808 

153 

27,133 

3,354 
10, 327 
36,479 
28,521 
42, 751 
17,012 
18, 507 
94,460 

1,930 
*   14 

8,098 
13, 792 
15,367 

3«     2 

50. 028 
5,938 
6,  752 
19, 464 
13, 121 


19,073 
10,637 
15,639 
6,900 
930 
3,646 
1,256 
1,419 


3,335 


2,098 


Fe-, 
male. 


3,874 

1,031 
241 

6,983 
1,057 

520 

4,127 

12 

22, 556 
3,287 
8,055 

28,864 
3,045 

37,844 

16,910 
7,936 

41,370 
4,242 
19 
5,980 
9,807 
6,634 
1 

35, 135 
3,465 
1,577 
3,094 
8,844 


12,528 

9,656 

9,642 

2,170 

412 

1,879 

80 

820 

542 
325 

308,241 


438 


Age. 


Under 

14 
years. 


614 

290 

1,610 

4.53 
207 

2,063 
455 

130 

2,352 

2 

8,395 

713 

3,320 

11,464 

1,144 

20,091 

2,357 

3,033 

20,081 

328 

2 

1,186 

3,740 

4,188 


8,477 
1,803 


1,043 
1,255 


2,867 

3,593 

2,997 

1,294 

193 

761 

25 

344 

115 
151 


113,700 


547 


14  to  44 
years. 


5,844 
4,779 

6,339 

9,945 
1,327 

21,660 
2,389 

3,466 

7,758 

157 

35, 774 

5,769 

13,019 

49,340 

29,976 

54,927 

29, 671 

22, 334 

107,216 

5, 546 

30 

12,635 

18,697 

15,910 

3 

74,911 

6, 939 

7,304 

21,114 

20,314 


27, 270 
14,593 
21,519 
7,196 
1,029 
4,475 
1,283 
1,697 

902 
3,423 


678, 480 


1,912 


45 
years 
and 
over. 


3U1 
153 

490 

259 
74 

643 
311 

76 

825 

6 

5,520 

159 
2, 043 
4,519 

446 
5,577 
1,894 
1,076 
8, 533 

298 
1 

257 
1,162 
1,903 


1,464 

2, 107 

765 

580 

120 


28 


45,992 


Literacy,  14  years  and  over 


Can  read 

but  can 

not  write. 


Male 


19 
7 

22 

4 

6 

15 

1 

5 
2 

5 
1 

3 


■  "3" 

003 

8 

5 

45 

36 


1,376 


Fe- 
male, 


326 

7 

28 


1,648 


Can  neither 
read  nor  write. 


Male. 


1,000 


2,995 


4,545 
25 

1,247 


116 

28 

776 

1,272 

5,465 

5,637 

219 

884 

36,481 

232 

3 

3,104 

1,253 

7,035 


14, 563 
2,661 
2,302 
6,894 
5,'218 


32 

44 

2, 567 

1,052 

14 

1,161 

642 

2 

19 

1,498 


111,998 


151 


Illiteracy  in  the  United  States. 

The  statement  shows  that  in  1910  there 
were  71,580,270  persons  10  years  of  age  or 
over  in  the  United  States,  of  whom  5,516,163 
were  unable  to  read  or  write,  constituting  7.7 
per  cent,  of  the  population. 

The  native  whites,  who  constituted  nearly 


75.0  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population,  had 
the  smallest  number  of  illiterates,  1,534,272, 
or  3.0  per  cent. 

The  foreign  born  whites  had  1,650,361  illite- 
rates, or  12.7  per  cent,  of  their  number. 

The  colored  had  2,331,530  illiterates,  or  30.5 
per  cent. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


31 


Aliens  Admitted,  Fiscal  Year  Ended  June  30^  1912,  by  Races  or  Peoples. 


Money. 

By  whom  passage  was  paid. 

Going  to  join 

- 

Aliens  bringing— 

Total 
amount 
of  money 
shown. 

SeU. 

Relative. 

Other 

than 

self  or 

relative. 

Relative, 

Friend. 

Neither 
relative 

$50  or 

Less  than 

nor  friend. 

ever. 

$50. 

978 

4,572 

177,831 

4,984 

1,524 

251 

4,325 

896 

1,538 

437 

4,150 

150,961 

4,470 

731 

21 

4,275 

856 

91 

1,264 

4,497 

370,273 

4,866 

3,504 

69 

6,933 

1,290 

216 

615 

9,088 

298,092 

9,435 

1,191 

31 

4,918 

5,343 

396 

468 

997 

73,603 

448 

1,051 

109 

977 

351 

280 

1,334 

19.828 

607,850 

19,347 

4,886 

133 

17,531 

6,431 

404 

1,817 

636 

157, 726 

1,908 

1,212 

35 

1,014 

327 

1,814 

295 

2,878 

100,288 

3,231 

415 

26 

2,496 

1,023 

153 

2,985 

3,615 

578,  438 

5,993 

4,784 

158 

7,220 

2,784 

931 

138 

21 

25,294 

132 

26 

7 

50 

45 

70 

18,891 

14,518 

4,061,994 

29,822 

18,502 

1,365 

30,501 

9,159 

10,029 

1,129 

4.227 

271,830 

3,951 

2,381 

309 

4,108 

2,142 

391 

5,668 

5,911 

1.155,563 

10,695 

6,980 

707 

11,967 

2,338 

4,077 

17, 125 

26,001 

3,543,030 

37,871 

26,258 

1,214 

47,906 

12, 143 

6,294 

2,737 

25. 189 

1,052,329 

28,577 

2,971 

18 

23,052 

7,795 

719 

7,031 

33,323 

1,%9,268 

26,772 

54,539 

284 

76,063 

3,026 

1,506 

6,234 

21,260 

l,a33,038 

20.731 

12,764 

427 

28,248 

3,130 

2,644 

4,a38 

16, 755 

9a5, 218 

19,627 

6,533 

283 

20,249 

4,945 

1,249 

11, 108 

91.903 

3,419,053 

92,560 

42,826 

444 

128,412 

6,277 

1,141 

2,914 

2,441 

240,201 

907 

5,198 

67 

5,246 

324 

602 

12 

10 

1,092 

6 

26 

1 

23 

9 

1 

590 

10,552 

29(),534 

7,221 

6,784 

73 

13,230 

779 

69 

2,082 

15,334 

633,289 

14.819 

8,708 

72 

19,092 

3,696 

911 

1,160 

11,494 

301,079 

13,845 

7,895 

261 

8,686 

1,013 

12,302 

2 
3,205 

100 
1,930,269 

2 
55, 733 

1 
197 

1 
77,240 

6,730 

1 

66, 467 

29,233 

1,193 

814 

5,179 

201,850 

5,118 

3,148 

1,137 

6,666 

1,980 

757 

454 

6.641 

209,  722 

6,663 

1,643 

23 

6,261 

2,573 

495 

1,089 

18,879 

599,  741 

19, 237 

2,959 

312 

13,064 

8,621 

873 

431 

19, 424 

507, 4.33 

17,603 

4,299 

63 

17,947 

3,288 

730 

6,612 

20,266 

1,495,773 

22,390 

8,541 

670 

20,617 

8,018 

2,966 

6, 692 

7,485 

1,562,570 

12,948 

7,069 

276 

13,695 

3,842 

2,756 

1,176 

19,962 

577,071 

19,478 

5,764 

39 

22,752 

2,182 

347 

2,464 

3,387 

404,056 

5,391 

1,387 

2,292 

3,556 

1,529 

3,985 

895 

108 

163,312 

758 

481 

103 

357 

211 

774 

955 

2,925 

209,358 

3,480 

1,991 

54 

4,641 

623 

261 

130 

1,071 

47, 196 

1,238 

94 

4 

947 

308 

81 

930 

714 

148,421 

1,435 

737 

67 

1,439 

614 

286 

517 

410 

67,917 

8a3 

292 

37 

594 

173 

365 

305 

2,968 

112,058 

3,257 

330 

73 

2,208 

1,245 

207 

118,521 

504,986 

30,353,721 

536,802 

289,657 

11,713 

657,607 

117,860 

62,805 

1,225 

740 

16,352 

1,420 

1,07§ 

38 

1,130 

199 

1,207 

FATALITIES  OF  SPORT. 
During  the   year    1912,   433   persons   were    killed  in  the  various  branches  of   sport  and 
over  2,000  injured.     The  killed  and  injured  in  some  of  the  sports  follow: 

In- 


Killed,  jured. 

July  4  and  other  celebrations        41  947 

Baseball 24  57 

Football 17  184 

Bicycles  and  motor  cycles.  .  .      134  648 

Horse  racing 6 


Killed. 

Wrestling 2 

Didn't  know  it  was  loaded. .  .        48 

Prizefighting 7 

Polo 

Hunting 153 


In- 
jured. 


8 
162 


32 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,  1913,  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

If  the  real  capacity  of  power  propelled  machinery  is  to  be  gained  in  city  transportation, 
fast  and  vehicular  traffic  must  be  segregated.  Each  type  of  transport  will  then  be  free  to 
develop  itself  along  its  own  lines. 

THE  ELEVATED  SIDEWALK:   HOW  IT  WILL  SOLVE  CITY 
TRANSPORTATION  PROBLEMS. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


33 


INTENDED  FUTURE  PERMANENT  RESIDENCE  OF  ALIENS  ADMITTED 
AND  LAST  PERMANENT  RESIDENCE  OF  ALIENS  DEPARTED, 
FISCAL  YEAR  ENDED  JUNE  30,  1912. 


State  or  Territory, 


Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  ol  Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Hawaii 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana. ..: 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon ..,. 

Pennsylvania. 

Philippine  Islands... 

Porto  Kico 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 


Outside  United  States. 
Unknown  * 


Total. 


Admitted. 


Immi- 
grant 
aliens. 


838,172 


Nonim- 
migrant 
aliens. 


107 

68 

1,058 

41 

4,601 

410 

2,049 

110 

317 

2,806 

116 

951 

127 

5,919 

657 

589 

220 

94 

371 

235 

424 

8,142 

3,210 

1,298 

52 

872 

343 

353 

94 

258 

5,009 

141 

27, 437 

53 

262 

3,065 

72 

463 

10,216 

14 

6.50 

1,128 

33 

194 

111 

2,114 

221 

259 

166 

1,261 

507 

1,050 

140 

88,525 


178,983 


Departed. 


Emigrant 
aliens. 


95 
272 
114 

7,578 

1,725 

7,437 

317 

369 

3,048 

158 

907 

356 

28, 355 

4,718 

1,302 

767 

210 

538 

777 

1,422 

15, 406 

8,161 

4,987 

100 

4,030 

963 

928 

248 

1,451 

17,278 

211 

84,533 

45 

385 

18, 473 

261 

1,873 

60,528 

5 

423 

2,779 

54 

252 

121 

644 

1,095 

714 

426 

3. 580 

4,263 

4,726 

494 


33,080 


333,262 


34 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


OCCUPATION  OF  ALIENS. 


Admitted. 

Departed. 

Occupation. 

Immi- 
grant 
^iens. 

Nonim- 
migrant 
aliens. 

Emi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Non-- 

emigrant 

aliens. 

PROFESSIONAL. 

Actors                                                       ..••••••••••••••••••*' 

873 
288 

1,063 
136 
741 

1,563 
293 
425 

1,286 
382 
459 
587 

2,035 

1,554 

970 
256 

1,028 
185 
306 

2,118 
596 
457 
703 
780 
789 
304 

1,211 
896 

325 
86 
349 
44 
124 
443 
41 
80 
281 
134 
131 
167 
517 
334 

1,303 
404 

Clergy       

1,334 
265 

Editors                                                                     • 

Electricians                                           

367 

2,545 
840 

Lawyers                                                   .         .• 

440 

Musicians 

959 

Officials  (Government)                                   

1,015 

1,126 

544 

Teachers                                          

1,671 

1,365 

11,685 

10,599 

3,056 

14,178 

SKILLED. 

Bakers    

3,678 

3,100 

3,954 

396 

165 

3,143 

345 

11,034 

82 

720 

112 

12,701 

5,244 

1,331 

565 

1,391 

533 

1,366 

300 

1,883 

2,098 

4,124 

4,555 

1,342 

669 

588 

1,006 

5,889 

2,816 

71 

351 

319 

584 

953 

416 

7,636 

8,671 

1,169 

972 

18,836 

385 

1,051 

737 

66 

231 

572 

2,909 

262 

324 

5,371 

751 
554 
645 

42 

91 
573 

95 
2,557 

23 
1,109 

94 

5,381 

743 

1,063 

69 
622 

79 
417 
122 
162 
901 
2,251 
1,340 
493 
126 

79 

153 

1,468 

651 

43 
113 
234 
259 
244 

41 
387 
850 
431 
262 
1,486 

39 
239 
104 

77 

49 

70 
513 

32 

63 
2,081 

650 

676 

492 

19 

41 

464 

175 

2,081 

9 

1,157 

19 

1,850 

516 

272 

126 

256 

63 

497 

82 

47 

883 

625 

731 

4,139 

85 

38 

111 

10,911 

438 

25 

65 

135 

90 

102 

28 

257 

1,123 

729 

298 

2,650 

57 

756 

102 

14 

31 

49 

482 

17 

44 

1,391 

814 

Tln.rhpr<5  and  hairdrps^prs                                                                            

666 

Blacksmiths                                      

704 

65 

114 

B  utchers            . 

665 

282 

Carpenters  and  joiners           .           . 

3,888 
10 

Cigar  makers 

2,040 
30 

Cigar  packers     . 

6,384 
903 

Engineers  (locomotive,  marine,  and  stationary)  

1,048 
106 

Gardeners 

776 

Hat  and  cap  makers 

83 

743 

179 

Locksmiths 

73 

1,816 

1,774 

1,582 

681 

Mariners         .  .  .  .      .......  ... 

Masons 

Metal  workers  (other  than  iron,  steel,  and  tin) 

181 

Millers 

69 

Milliners 

164 

Miners  .                   

7,295 
883 

Painters  and  glaziers , 

65 

Photographers 

119 
268 

Plumbers 

362 

Printers 

305 

46 

Seamstresses 

336 

Shoemakers 

1,007 
553 

Stokers 

Stonecutters 

466 

Tailors 

1,797 
61 

851 

Turners 

135 

Tobacco  workers 

69 

Upholsterers 

89 

"Watch  and  clock  makers 

94 

Weavers  and  spinners 

775 

Wheelwrights 

42 

110 

2,549 

Totftl  pkiUe-d .  r 

127,016 

30,271 

35,898 

44, 117 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK 


35 


OCCUPATION  OF  ALIENS— Continued. 


Occupation. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Agents 

Bankers - 

Draymen,  hackmen,  and  teamsters 

Farm  laborers 

Farmers 

Fishetmen 

Hotel  keepers 

Laborers 

Manufacturers 

Merchants  and  dealers 

Servants *• 

Other  miscellaneous , 

Total  miscellaneous 

No  occupation  (including  women  and  children) . . 

Grand  total 


Admitted, 


Immi- 
grant 
aliens. 


1.081 

257 

822 

184, 154 

7,664 

755 

277 

135,726 

416 

10,240 

116,529 

10, 480 


468, 401 


231,070 


838, 172 


Nonim- 
migrant 
aliens. 


1,497 

759 

276 

27,091 

3,985 

286 

340 

21,673 

697 

10,958 

16,737 

6,351 


90,650 


178,983 


Departed. 


Emi- 
grant 
aliens. 


194 

99 

223 

3,978 

7,807 

202 

148 

209,279 

98 

5,654 

13,449 

3,696 


244,827 


49, 481 


333,262 


Non- 
emigrant 
aliens. 


1,865 

1,266 

442 

16,743 

7,940 

384 

479 

80,616 

1,175 

16,081 

21,239 

9,083 


156,313 


67,422 


282,030 


I 


SWEDES  6 

DUTCH  5"5 
FLEMINGS  4.: 

DANES  2.8     , 
NORWEOIANS  2.5 


GIPSIES  0-3 
IRANIANS  0'4 
BASQUES  0-6 
ALBANIANS   IS 
ARMENIANS  l'8 
CAUCASIANS  3 
RMAETOROMANS 
AND  FURLANS   0*5 
WALLOONS  1-3 


^10  /?ACE  113  W^- 


^'\ 


THE  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


36 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Summary  for  1912. 


Ministers.     Chiirches.       Communicants 


Adventists  (6  bodies) 

Baptists  (15  bodies) 

Brethren  (Dunkards,  4  bodies) 

Brethren  (Plymouth,  4  bodies) 

Brethren  (River,  3  bodies) 

Buddhists  (2  bodies) 

Catholic  ApostoUc  (2  bodies) 

CathoUc  (Eastern  Orthodox,  7  bodie ;) 

CathoUc  (Western,  3  bodies) 

Christadelphians 

Christians 

Christian  CathoUc  (Dowie) 

Christian  Scientists 

Christian  Union 

Church  of  God  (Winetarennarian) 

Church  of  the  Living  God  (Colored,  3  bodies) , 

Church  of  the  Natf  Jerusalem  (2  bodies) 

Communistic  Societies  (2  bodies) 

Congregationalists 

Disciples  of  Christ  (2  bodies) 

Evangelical  (2  bodies) 

Faith  Associations  (9  bodies) 

Free  Christian  Zion  Church 

Friends  (4  bodies) 

Friends  of  the  Temple 

German  Evangelical  Protestant 

German  Evangelical  Synod 

Jewish  Congregations 

Latter-Day  Saints  (2  bodies) 

Lutherans  (23  bodies) 

Scandinavian  Evangelical  (3  bodies) 

Mennonites  (12  bodies) 

Methodists  (16  bodies) 

Moravians  (2  bodies) 

Non-Sectarian  Bible  Faith  Churches 

Pentecostal  (2  bodies) 

Presbyterians  (12  bodies) 

Protestant  Episcopal  (2  bodies) 

Reformed  (4  bodies) 

Salvationists  (2  bodies) 

Schwenkf elders 

Social  Brethren 

Society  for  Ethical  Culture 

Spiritualists 

Theosophical  Society 

Unitarians 

United  Brethren  (2  bodies) 

Universalists 

Independent  Congregations 


Grand  Total  for  1912 . 
Grand  Total  for  191 1 . 


1,172 

41,419 

3,484 


224 

15 

33 

.  263 

17,645 


1,129 
35 

2,460 
295 
509 
101 
128 


6,125 

8,054 

1,523 

241 

20 

1,476 

3 

59 

1,038 

1,084 

3,360 

9,038 

611 

1,087 

42,849 

149 

50 

732 

13,576 

5,516 

2,113 

2.994 

6 

15 

7 


527 

2,262 

702 

267 


2,522 

56,918 

1,239 

403 

105 

74 

24 

274 

14,132 

70 

1,182 

17 

1,230 

237 

595 

68 

143 

22 

6,070 

12,467 

2,627 

146 

15 

1,167 

3 

66 

1,326 

1,769 

1,420 

14,566 

848 

635 

61,027 

143 

204 

510 

16,776 

7,804 

2,653 

872 

8 

17 

6 

2,000 

134 

476 

4,216 

709 

879 


95,608 

5,  894,232 

119,644 

10,566 

4,903 

3,165 

4,927 

434,000 

12,907,189 

1,412 

102,902 

5,865 

85.096 

13,905 

41,475 

4,286 

9,. 554 

2,272 

742,350 

1,497,545 

184,866 

9,. 572 

1,835 

124,216 

376 

34,704 

258,911 

143,000 

352,500 

2,353,702 

70,500 

57,219 

6,905,095 

19,970 

6,396 

22,416 

1,  981,949 

980,851 

4.59,106 

27,345 

941 

1,262 

2,450 

200,000 

3,368 

70,542 

320,960 

51,716 

48,673 


174,396 
171,905 


220,814 
220,160 


36,675,357 
36,095,685 


The  Religions  of  Mankind 

according  to  the  numbers  of  their  adherents. 


The  Religions  of  Europe 

according  to  the  numbers  of  their  adherents. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


37 


ORDER  OF  DENOMINATIONS. 


Denominations. 

Rank  in 
1912. 

Commimicants. 

Rank  in 
1890. 

Communicants. 

Roman  Catholic 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 

12,888,466 

3,293,526 

2,475,609 

1,919,873 

1,912,219 

1,368,150 

1,340,887 

1,175,923 

970,451 

807,693 

742,350 

620,234 

547,216 

473,295 

316,949 

301,448 

300,147 

296,000 

292,845 

258,911 

234,721 

200,000 

183,318 

175,000 

169,710 

139,617 

132,316 

118,564 

100,568 

1 

2 

4 

5 

3 

7 

8 

6 

9 

12 

10 

11 

13 

14 

20 

16 

15 

21 

18 

17 

24 

39 

22 

138 

26 

27 

33 

28 

31 

6,231,417 
2,240,354 
1,280,066 
1,209,976 
1.348,989 
788  244 

Methodist  Episcopal 

Regular  Baptist  (South)   

Methodist  Episcopal  (South) 

Regular  Baptist  (Colored) 

Presbyterian  (Northern) 

641,051 
800,450 
532,054 
357,153 
512,771 

Regular  Baptist  (North)         .    . 

Protestant  Episcopal 

Lutheran  Synodical  Conference. .  . 

African  Methodist  Episcopal. .... 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion. 
Lutheran  General  Council 

452,725 
349,788 
324,846 
164,640 
202,474 

United  Brethren 

204,018 
144,352 
179.721 

Latter-Day  Saints     

German  Evangelical  Synod 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal 

Spiritualists 

187,432 

129,383 

45  030 

Methodist  Protestant 

141,989 

Greek  Orthodox  (CathoUc) : 

United  Norwegian  Lutheran 

United  Presbyterian 

100 

119,972 

94,402 

Lutheran  Svnod  of  Ohio 

69  505 

Reformed  (Dutch) . 

92  970 

80,655 

ORDER  OF  DENOMINATIONAL  FAMILIES. 


Denominational  Families. 

Rank  in 
1912. 

Communicants. 

Rankin 
1890. 

Com  m  unicants. 

Catholic  (Roman,  etc.) 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

? 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

12,907,189 

6,905,095 

5,894,232 

2,353,702 

1,981,949 

980,851 

459,106 

352.500 

320,960 

124,216 

119,644 

95,808 

1 

2 

3 

5 

4 

6 

7 

9 

8 

11 

13 

14 

6,257,871 

Methodist 

4,589,284 

Baptist 

3,717,969 

Lutheran .    .    . 

1,231,072 

Presbyterian 

1,278,362 

Episcopal 

540,509 

Reformed 

309,458 

Latter-Day  Saints 

166,125 

United  Brethren 

Friends 

225,281 
107,208 

Brethren  (Dunkard) 

73,795 

Adventists 

60,491 

— Courtesy  of  the  Christian  Advocate. 


FOURTH  OF  JULY  FATALITIES. 


Fourth  of  July  fatalities  in  1913  were 
reduced  to  32  as  a  result  of  the  movement 
to  do  away  with  the  old  custom  of  causing 
dangerous  explosions  for  fun.  In  1912 
there  had  been  43  deaths.  The  number  of 
persons  injured  in  1913  was  1,131  as  against 
988  in  1912  and  1,546  in  1911.  The  loss 
sustained  by  Fourth  of  July  6res  caused 
by  gunpowder  throughout  the  country 
exceeded  half  a  million  dollars. 


38 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PENSION  ACT  APPROVED  MAY  11,  1912. 


That  any  person  who  served  ninety  days  or 
more  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
United  States  during  the  late  Civil  War,  who 
has  been  honorably  discharged  therefrom, 
and  who  has  reached  the  age  of  sixty-two  or 
over,  shall,  upon  making  proof  of  such  facts, 
according  to  such  rules  and  regulations  as  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  may  provide,  be 
placed  upon  the  pension  roll  and  be  entitled 
to  receive  a  pension  as  follows:  In  case  such 
person  has  reached  the  age  of  sixty-two  years 
and  served  ninety  days,  thirteen  dollars  per 
month;  six  months,  thirteen  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  per  month;  one  year,  fourteen 
dollars  per  month;  one  and  a  half  years, 
fourteen  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  month; 
two  years,  fifteen  dollars  per  month;  two  and 
a  half  years,  fifteen  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
month;  three  years  or  over,  sixteen  dollars 
per  month.  In  case  such  person  has  reached 
the  age  of  sixty-six  years  and  served  ninety 
days,  fifteen  dollars  per  month;  six  months, 
fifteen  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  month;  one 
year,  sixteen  dollars  per  month;  one  and  a 
half  years,  sixteen  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
month;  two  years,  seventeen  dollars  per 
month;  two  and  a  half  years,  eighteen  dollars 
per  month;  three  years  or  over,  nineteen 
dollars  per  month.  In  case  such  person  has 
reached  the  age  of  seventy  years  and  served 
ninety  days,  eighteen  dollars  per  month;  six 
months,  nineteen  dollars  per  month ;  one  year, 
twenty  dollars  per  month;  one  and  a  half 
years,  twenty-one  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
month;  two  years,  twenty-three  dollars  per 
month;  two  and  a  half  years,  twenty -four 
dollars  per  month;  three  years  or  over, 
twenty-five  dollars  per  month.  In  case  such 
person  has  reached  the  age  of  seventy-five 
years  and  served  ninety  days,  twenty-one 
dollars  per  month;  six  months,  twenty-two 
dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  month;  one  year, 
twenty-four  dollars  per  month;  one  and  a  half 
years,  twenty-seven  dollars  per  month;  two 
years  or  over,  thirty  dollars  per  month.  That 
any  person  who  served  in  the  military  or 
naval  service  of  the  United  States  during  the 
Civil  War  and  received  an  honorable  discharge 
and  who  was  wounded  in  battle  or  in  line  of 
duty  and  is  now  unfit  for  manual  labor  by 
reason  thereof,  or  who  from  disease  or  other 
causes  incurred  in  line  of  duty  resulting  in ' 
his  disability  is  now  unable  to  perform  manual 
labor,  shall  be  paid  the  maximum  pension 
under  this  Act,  to  wit,  thirty  dollars  per 
month,  without  regard  to  length  of  service  or 
age. 

That  any  person  who  has  served  sixty  days 
or  more  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
United  States  in  the  War  with  Mexico  and  has 
been  honorably  discharged  therefrom,  shall, 
upon  making  like  proof  of  such  service,  be 
entitled  to  receive  a  pension  of  thirty  dollars 
per  month. 


AH  of  the  aforesaid  pensions  shall  com- 
mence from  the  date  of  filing  of  the  applica- 
tions in  the  Bureau  of  Pensions  after  the 
passage  and  approval  of  this  Act:  Provided, 
That  pensioners  who  are  sixty-two  years  of 
age  or  over,  and  who  are  now  receiving 
pensions  under  existing  laws,  or  whose  claims 
are  pending  in  the  Bureau  of  Pensions,  may, 
by  application  to  the  Commissioner  of 
Pensions,  in  such  form  as  he  may  prescribe, 
receive  the  benefits  of  this  Act;  and  nothing 
herein  contained  shall  prevent  any  pensioner 
or  person  entitled  to  a  pension  from  prosecut- 
ing his  claim  and  receiving  a  pension  under 
any  other  general  or  special  Act:  Provided, 
That  no  person  shall  receive  a  pension  under 
any  other  law  at  the  same  time  or  for  the 
same  period  that  he  is  receiving  a  pension 
under  the  provisions  of  this  Act:  Provided 
further.  That  no  person  who  is  now  receiving 
or  shall  hereafter  receive  a  greater  pension, 
under  any  other  general  or  special  law,  than 
he  would  be  entitled  to  receive  under  the 
provisions  herein  shall  be  pensionable  under 
this  act. 

Sec.  2.  That  rank  in  the  service  shall  not 
be  considered  in  applications  filed  hereunder. 

Sec.  3.  That  no  pension  attorney,  claim 
agent,  or  other  person  shall  be  entitled  to 
receive  any  compensation  for  services  rendered 
in  presenting  any  claim  to  the  Bureau  of 
Pensions,  or  securing  any  pension,  under  this 
Act,  except  in  applications  for  original  pension 
by  persons  who  have  not  heretofore  received 
a  pension. 

Sec.  4.  That  the  benefits  of  this  Act  shall 
include  any  person  who  served  during  the  late 
Civil  War,  or  in  the  War  with  Mexico,  and 
who  is  now  or  may  hereafter  become  entitled 
to  pension  under  the  Acts  of  June  twenty- 
seventh,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety, 
February  fifteenth,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety-five,  and  the  joint  resolutions  of  July 
first,  nineteen  hundred  and  two,  and  June 
twenty-eighth,  nineteen  hundred  and  six, 
or  the  Acts  of  January  twenty-ninth,  eighteen 
hundred  and  eighty-seven,  March  third, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-one,  and 
February  seventeenth,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety-seven. 

Sec.  5.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Pensions,  as  each  application 
for  pension  under  this  Act  is  adjudicated, 
to  cause  to  be  kept  a  record  showing  the  name 
and  length  of  service  of  each  claimant,  the 
monthly  rate  of  payment  granted  to  or  re- 
ceived by  him,  and  the  county  and  state  of  his 
residence;  and  shall  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal 
year  nineteen  hundred  and  fourteen  tabulate 
the  record  so  obtained  by  States  and  counties, 
and  shall  furnish  certified  copies  thereof  upon 
demand  and  the  payment  of  such  fee  therefor 
as  is  provided  by  law  for  certified  copies  of 
records  in  the  executive  departments. 


PENSIONS. 


On  June  30,  1912,  the  pensioners  on  the 
roll  of  the  United  States  Government  were 
as  follows:  War  of  1812,  widows,  238;  Indian 
wars,  survivors,  1,210,  widows,  2,439;  War 
with  Mexico,  survivors,  1,313,  widows,  5,533; 
Civil  War,  by  Act  of  May  11,  1912,  survivors, 
13.246;  by  Act  of   Feb.   b,    1907,   survivors 


333,579;  by  the  general  law,  invalids,  103,237 
widows  04,135,  minor  children  351,  mothers 
1,413,  fathers  202,  brothers,  sisters,  sons  and 
daughters  331,  helpless  children  515;  by  the 
Act  of  April  27,  1890,  invalids  47,201,  minor 
children  4,063,  helpless  children  416;  by  the 
Act  of  April  19,  1908,  widows  232,947,  army 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


39 


nurses  362.  War  with  Spain,  invalids  23,841, 
widows  1,238,  minor  children  304,  mothers 
2,951,  fathers  508,  brothers,  sisters,  sons  and 
daughters  6,  helpless  children  2.  By  regular 
establishment,  invalids  14,373,  widows  2,869, 
minor  children  171,  mothers  1,129,  fathers 
159,  brothers,  sisters,  sons  and  daughters  4, 
helpless  children  8.  Thus  the  total  number 
of  pensioners  on  June  30,  1912  was  860,294; 
the  number  of  soldiers  and  sailors  on  the 
pension  roll  at  the  close  of  the  year  was 
538,000,  the  number  of  dependents  and  widows 
was  321,932,  and  the  number  of  army  nurses 
was  362. 

The  total  amount  available  for  pensions  for 
the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1912  was 
$153,004,727.89,  and  of  this  amount  $152,- 
986,433.72  was  disbursed,  ler.ving  an  unex- 
pended balance  of  $18,294.17.  The  amount 
expended  for  Navy  pensions  was  $5,319,822.08. 

With  the  total  number  of  pensioners  860,- 
294,  and  the  total  annual  value  of  the  pensions 
$151,558,141.40,  the  average  value  of  each 
pension  for  all  classes  amounts  to  $176.17; 
by  regular  establishment  each  pension  has  an 
annual  average  value  of  $174.33;  by  Act  of 
May  11,  1913,  $260.09;  by  Act  of  Feb.  6, 
1907,  $176.41;  by  the  general  law,  Civil  War, 
$221.71;  by  Act  of  June  27,  1890,  $144.79; 
by  Act  of  April  19,  1908,  $144.76;  by  the 
war  with  Spain,  $128.82;  for  survivors  of  the 
Civil  War,  $197.09. 

Beginning  with  the  year  1866  the  number 
of  pensioners  for  certain  years  was  as  follows: 
1866,126,722;  1870,198,686;  1875,234,821; 
1880,250,802;  1885,345,125;  1890,537,944; 
1895,970,524;  1900,993,529;  1905,998,441; 
1910,921,083;    1911,892,098;    1912,860,294. 


PENSIONS  OF  THE   SEVERAL  WARS   AND  OF  THE 
PEACE    ESTABLISHMENT. 

The  amounts  that  have  been  paid  for 
pensions  to  soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines, 
their  widows,  minor  children,  and  dependent 
relatives  on  account  of  military  and  naval 
service  in  the  several  wars  and  in  the  regular 
service  since  the  foundation  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  June  30,  1912,  are  as  follows: 
War     of     the      Revolution 

(estimate) $70,000,000.00 

War  of  1812  (service  pension)         45,890,843.39 
Indian         wars  (service 

pension) .         11,713,609.51 

War    with    Mexico    (service 

pension) 46,447,872.44 

Civil  War 4,129,699,071.99 

War  with  Spain  and  insur- 
rection in  Philippine  Isls...        38,114,062.42 

Regular  establishment 25,014,227.64 

Unclassified 16,488,476.49 


Total    disbursements    for 

pensions $4,383,368,163.88 

HISTORICAL 

There  are  now  no  pensioners  on  account  of 
the  Revolutionary  War  on  the  roll,  the  last 
pensioner  of  that  war  having  died  during  the 
year  1906.  The  last  survivor  of  the  Revolu- 
tion was  Daniel  F.  Bakeman,  who  died  at 
Freedom,  Cattaraugas  County,  N.  Y.,  on 
April  5,  1869,  aged  100  years  6  months  and 
8  days. 

The  last  surviving  pensioned  soldier  of  the 
War  of  1812  was  Hiram  Cronk,  of  Ava,  N.  Y., 
who  died  May  13,  1905,  aged  105  years  and 
16  days. 


POPULATION  OF  CANADA. 


The  population  of  Canada  by  first  census 
of  1665  was  3,251;  in  1763,  70,000;  in  1871, 
3,485,761;  in  1881,  4,324,810;  in  1891, 
4,833,239;  in  1901,  5,371,315.  Canada 
began  the  20th  century  with  the  same  popula- 
tion as  the  United  States  began  the  19th. 
Revised  returns  of  the  census  in  1911  give 
the  population  at  7,204,838,  an  increase  of 
1,833,523,  or  32  per  cent,  in  ten  years. 

The  population  of  Canada  by  provinces, 
as  shown  by  the  census  of  1901  and  1911,  is  as 
follows: 


Alberta 

British  Columbia 

Manitoba. 

New  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 

Ontario 2 

Prince  Edward  Island .  .  . 

Quebec 2 

Saskatchewan 

Northwest  Territories. . . . 
Yukon 


1911 
374,663 
392,480 
455,614 
351,889 
492,338 
,523,274 

93,728 
,002,712 
492.432 

17,196 
8,512 


1901 

73,022 

178,657 

255,211 

331,120 

459,574 

2,182,947 

103,259 

1,648,898 

91,279 

20,129 

27,129 


7,204,838  5,371,315 


RHODES  SCHOLARSHIPS. 


Under  the  will  of  Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes  a  number 
of  Colonial ,  American  and  G  erman  scholarships 
were  established,  in  order  to  instill  into  the 
minds  of  colonists  the  advantage  to  the 
Colonies  as  well  as  to  the  United  Kingdom  of 
the  retention  of  the  unity  of  the  Empire; 
to  encourage  in  the  students  from  the  United 
States  of  America  an  attachment  to  the 
country  from  which  they  have  sprung;  and 
to  further  a  good  understanding  between 
England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States. 

There  are  in  all  seventy-eight  colonial 
scholarships  for  male  students  of  $1,500  each 
a  year  for  three  years  at  the  University  of 
Oxford,  these  colonial  scholarships  being 
spread  over  most  of  the  colonies,  twenty-four 
being  allotted  to  Canada,  eighteen  to  Australia, 
twelve  to  Cape  Colony,  nine  to  Rhodesia,  and 
three  each  to  Natal,  New  Zealand,  Newfound- 
land, Bermuda  and  Jamaica , 


Two  Oxford  scholarships  are  to  be  allotted 
to  each  State  and  Territory  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  tenable  for  three  years, 
each  of  $1,500;  also,  five  German  scholar- 
ships, each  of  $1,250,  tenable  at  Oxford  for 
three  years,  the  holders  to  be  nominated  by 
the  German  Emperor. 

So  that  the  students  who  shall  be  elected 
to  the  scholarships  shall  not  be  merely  book- 
worms, regard  is  to  be  had,  not  only  to  their 
"literary  and  scholastic  attainments,"  but 
also  to  their  "  fondness  of  and  success  in  manly 
outdoor  sports,  qualities  of  manhood,  truth, 
courage,  devotion  to  duty,  sympathy  for  and 
protection  of  the  weak,  kindliness,  unselfish- 
ness, and  fellowship,"  moral  force  of  char- 
acter and  instinct  of  leadership.  "No 
student  shall  be  qualified  or  disqualified  for 
election  to  a  scholarship  on  account  of  his 
race  or  religious  opinion." 


40 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


EDUCATION. 


School  Attendance  in  the  United 
States. 

The  statistics  relative  to  school  attendance 
in  the  United  States  has  just  become  available. 
The  total  number  of  persons  of  school  age, 
that  is  to  say,  from  6  to  20  years,  inclusive, 
in  continental  United  States  in  1910  was 
27,750,599,  of  whom  17,300,202,  or  62.3  per 
cent,  attended  school. 

Persons  from  6  to  9  years  of  age  numbered 
7,725,234,  of  whom  5,678,320,  or  73.5  per  cent, 
attended  school,  while  those  from  10  to  14 
years  of  age  numbered  9,107,140,  of  whom 
8,028,660,  or  88.2  per  cent,  attended  school. 

Of  the  whole  number  of  persons  from  15  to 

17  years  of  age,  namely,  5,372,177,  those  at- 
tending school  numbered  2,748,387,  or  51.2 
per  cent.,  while  of  the  5,546,048  persons  from 

18  to  20  years  of  age,  there  were  844,835,  or 
15.2  pel' cent,  who  attended  school. 

For  the  combined  group,  6  to  14  years,  in- 
clusive— the  most  common  years  of  school  at- 
tendance— there  was  a  total  of  16,832,374  per- 
sons reported  in  1910  and  of  this  number 
13,706,980,  or  81.4  per  cent.,  attended  school. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  period  of  maximum 
school  attendance  is  in  the  ages  10  to  14  years. 
For  these  years  a  comparison  can  be  made 
with  the  census  of  1900.  In  1900,  79.8  per 
cent,  of  the  children  attended  school,  as  com- 
pared with  88.2  per  cent,  in  1910.  The  fdlow- 
ing  summary  gives  the  percentage  of  children 
10  to  14  years  of  age  attending  school  in  each 
of  the  years  1910  and  1900  by  geographic 
divisions:  1910         1900 

United  States 88.2         79.8 

New  England 94.1         90.0 

Middle  Atlantic 92.9         85.7 

East  North  Central 93.8         88.1 

West  North  Central 93 .6         88.3 

1910         1900 

South  Atlantic 78.7  65.6 

East  South  Central 79.0  65.8 

West  South  Central 80.5  68.3 

Mountain 90.2  85.2 

Pacific 94.1  91.8 

In  the  Northern  and  Western  divisions  over 
nine-tenths  of  the  children  in  these  ages  are 
enrolled  in  schools.  In  the  three  Southern 
divisions,  the  proportion  approximates  eight- 
tenths.  A  comparison  of  the  two  years  shows 
an  advance  in  all  sections,  but  it  is  most 
marked  in  the  Southern  states,  reflecting  the 
great  progress  of  popular  education  in  those 
states  in  recent  years. 

The  age  of  compulsory  school  attendance 
where  it  exists  differs  under  the  laws  for  dif- 
ferent states.  .  It  generally  begins  when  a  child 
reaches  8  years  of  age  and  ceases  when  he 
reaches  14  years  of  age.  The  percentage  of 
children  in  the  ages  8  to  13  years,  both  inclu- 
sive, who  attend  school  is  undoubtedly  higher 
than  for  the  children  6  to  14  years,  given  in 
the  table.  The  latter  group  comprises  some 
children  who  have  not  begun  and  some  who 
have  finished  their  schooling. 

Public  High  Schools  and  Private 
High  Schools  and  Academies. 

In  the  school  year  1912  there  were  11,224 
public  high  schools  and  2,044  private  high 


schools.  In  the  public  high  schools  there 
were  22,923  male  secondary  teachers  and 
28,930  female  secondary  teachers;  489,048 
male  secondary  students  and  616,312  female 
secondary  students. 

In  the  private  high  schools  there  were  5,307 
male    teachers    and    7,076    female    teachers 
there   were  66,742   male  secondary  studen 
and  74,725  female  secondary  students. 

Public  and  Private  Normal 
Schools. 

In  the  school  year  1912  there  were  222 
public  normal  schools  having  1,487  male 
teachers  and  2,577  female  teachers.  There 
were  17,725  male  students  and  65,749  female 
students.  There  were  55  private  normal 
schools,  having  144  male  teachers  and  257 
female  teachers,  and  2,135  male  students 
and  4,375  female   students. 

Universities,  Colleges  and    Tech- 
nological Schools. 

In  the  school  year  there  were  594  institu- 
tions of  this  class,  having  24,476  male  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  and  5,494  female  pro- 
fessors and  instructors.  In  the  preparatory 
schools  there  were  40,154  male  and  23,197 
female  students.  In  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment there  were  117,856  male  and  68,779 
female  students.  The  total  receipts,  exclu- 
sive of  additions  to  endowment  funds,  was 
$89,527,484. 

Undergraduate   Students  in  Uni- 
versities, Colleges  and  Schools 
OP  Technology. 

Out  of  594  institutions  included  under  the 
above  head,  there  were  144  colleges  for  men, 
having  37,633  undergraduate  students.  There 
were  109  colleges  forewomen,  having  21,423 
undergraduate  students.  There  were  341  co- 
educational institutions  having  80,215  male 
and  47,353  female  undergraduate  students, 
making  a  total  of  127,568. 

Professional  Schools. 

In  the  school  year  1912  the  number  of 
schools  and  students  was  as  follows: 

182  schools  of  theology  served  11,242 
students;  118  law  schools  had  20,760  students 
enrolled;  115  medical  colleges  had  18,451  stu- 
dents enrolled;  52  dental  colleges  had  7,190 
students;  76  schools  of  pharmacy  had  6,158 
students;  21  schools  of  veterinary  medicine 
had  2,282  students. 

Schools  for  the  Blind,  Deaf  and 
Feeble -Minded. 

In  the  school  year  1912  there  were  60 
State  schools  for  the  blind  in  the  United 
States,  having  4,992  pupils.  There  were  64 
State  schools  for  the  deaf,  having  11,244 
pupils.  In  addition  there  were  58  public  day 
schools  for  the  deaf,  having  1,928  pupils  and 
19  private  schools,  having  518  pupils.  There 
were  also  33  State  institutions  for  the  feeble- 
minded caring  for  21,357  inmates,  while  20 
private  institutions  cared  for  749  inmates. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


41 


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42 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NORTH  AMtmC* 


South  amekc 


"'•'/ji-  OF  rne  tiNirct 


Copyright,  1913,  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc 

THE  INTRACTABLE  MISSOURI-MISSISSIPPI  SYSTEM. 


Training  Schools  for  Nurses,  Com- 
mercial Schools,  Manual  and 
Industrial  Training 
Schools. 

In  the  school  year  1912  there  were  1,054 
training  schools  for  nurses,  having  32,346 
students.  There  were  also  519  commercial 
schools,  having  137,790  students;  295  manual 
training  schools  with  61,543  students;  117 
reform  schools  took  care  of  51,967  of  the 
wayward. 

Insane  in  Institutions. 

The  number  of  insane  persons  in  insti- 
tutions in  the  United  States  in  1910  was  187,- 
791  of  which  number  60,769  were  committed 


during  the  year.  Those  discharged  numbered 
29,304;  18,924  died  during  the  year.  The 
number  of  persons  committed  to  hospitals 
for  the  insane  per  100,000  of  population  for 
the  year  1910  was  66.1  and  the  total  number 
of  insane  persons  in  institutions  per  100,000 
population  was  204.2. 

According  to  the  latest  figures  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  is  the  largest  university  in 
the  world  with  17,512  students,  after  which 
follows  Berlin  with  14,543;  Moscow  with 
10,399;  Cairo.  10,000;  St.  Petersburg,  9,886; 
Vienna,  8,457;  Munich,  7,596;  Budapest," 
7.548;  Naples,  6,600;  Leipzig,  5,804;  Madrid, 
5,675.  Asiatic  universities  are  not  con- 
sidered. Columbia,  the  largest  university  in 
theJUnited  States,  has  9,002;  California,  6,457, 
and  Chicago,  6,351. 


CHAPTER   II. 


FARMS,  FOODS  AND  FORESTS. 


FARMS,  FARM  LAND,  AND  FARM  PROPERTY  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 


Population. 

Urban  population  ' 

Rural  population  ' 

Number  of  all  farms ; 

Land  area  of  the  country acres. 

Land  in  farm.s acres. 

Improved  land  in  farms acres. 

Average  acreage  per  farm » 

Average  improved  acreage  per  farm 

Per  cent  of  total  land  area  in  farms 

Per  cent  of  land  in  farms  improved 

Per  cent  of  total  land  area  improved 


Value  of  farm  property,  total. 

Land 

Buildings 

Implements  and  machinery 

Domestic  animals,  poultry,  and  bees. 


Average  value  of  all  property  per  farm 

Average  value  of  all  property  per  acre  of  land  in  farms. 
Average  value  of  land  per  acre 


91, 972, 266 
42, 023, 383 
49,348,883 

6,361,502 

1, 903, 289, 600 

878,  798, 325 

478,451,750 

138.1 
75.2 
46.2 
54.4 
25.1 

$40, 991, 449, 090 

28,475,674,169 
6,325,451,528 
1,  205, 149, 783 
4, 925, 173, 610 

$6, 444 
46.64 
32.40 


75, 994, 575 
31, 609, 645 
44, 384,  930 

6, 737, 372 

1, 903, 461,  700 

838,591,774 

414, 498, 487 

146.2 
72.2 
44.1 
49  4 
21.8 

$20, 439, 901, 164 

13,058,007,995 

3,550,639,496 

749,  775, 970 

3,075,477,703 

$3, 563 
24.37 
15.  57 


15, 977,  691 
11,013,738 
4,  963,  953 

624, 130 

-172,160 

40, 206, 551 

03, 953, 263 

-8.1 
3.0 


$20,  661,  647, 926 

15,417,006,174 

2,768,812,032 

515,373,813 

1,849,095,907 

$2, 881 
22.27 
10.83 


21.0 
34.8 
U.2 


4.8 
15.4 


-5.5 
4.2 


100.6 

118.1 
77.8 
08.7 
60.1 

80.9 
91.4 
108.1 


'  A  minus  sign  (- )  denotes  decrease. 
»  Population  of  incorporated  placrs  having,  In  1910, 2,50 
■census  but  is  the  population  in  that  year  of  Ihe  territory  c 
•  Total,  exclusive  of  urban. 


Inhabitants.    The  figure  for  1900  does  not  represent  the  urban  population  according  to  that 


NUMBER    AND    ACREAGE    OF    FARMS    AND    NUMBER    OF   ACRES 
IMPROVED  AND  UNIMPROVED. 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Census  year. 

Number  of 
farms. 

Number  of  acres  in  farms. 

Per  cent  of  farm 
land- 

Improved. 

Unimproved^ 

Total. 

Average 
number 
of  acres 
to  a  farm. 

Im- 
proved. 

Unim- 
proved. 

1850  . 

1,449,073 
2,044,077 
2,659,985 
4,008,907 
4,584,641 
5,737,372 
6,361,502 

113,032,614 
163,110,720 
188,921,099 
284,771,042 
357,616,755 
414,498,487 
478,461,750 

180,528,000 
244,101,818 
218,813,942 
251,310,793 
265,601,864 
424,093,287 
400,346,575 

293,560,614 
407,212,538 
407,735,041 
536,081,836 
623,218,619 
838,591,774 
878,798,325 

202.6 
199.2 
153.3 
133.7 
136.5 
146.2 
138.1 

38.5 
40.1 
46.3 
53.1 
57.4 
49.4 
54.4 

61.5 
69.9 
63.7 
4^.9 
42.6 
60.6 
45.6 

1860 

1870  > 

18801    

1890«  

19002 

19103 

» Not  including  farms  of  less  than  3  acres  which  reported  the  sale  of  less  than  $500  worth  of  prod, 
ucts  in  the  census  year. 
'  Exclusive  of  Alaska  and  Hawaii. 
>  Exclusive  of  Alaska,  Hawaii,  and  iPorto  Rico. 

43 


44 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


45 


WEALTH  PRODUCTION  ON  FARMS: 
[Source:  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Calendar  year. 

Wealth  pro- 
duction. 

Calendar  year. 

Wealth  pro- 
duction. 

1899 

Dollars. 
4,717,000,000 
5,017,000,000 
6,317,000,000 
6,617,000,000 
6,887,000,000 
6,122,000,000 
6,274,000,000 

1906 ;    

Dollars. 
6,764,000,000 
7,488,000,000 
7,891,000,000 
8,498,000,000 
9,037,000,000 
8.819,000,000 
9,299,000,000 

1900    -. 

1907           ..... 

1901.. , 

1908.-. 

1902        .          ...             

1900 

1903 ,•. 

1910 

1911 

1904..., 

1905 

1912,.., ,  J 

¥ 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF 
WHITE  AND  YOLK  OF  EGG. 


'CARBONATE 
'0FLm(6GHMs) 


ACTUAL  COMPOSITION  OF  EGG. 
WEIGHT  50  GMS. 


I 


%  400,000  acres. 

9  300,000  to  400,000  acrea. 

a  200,000  to  300,000  acres. 

O  100.000  to  200,000  acres. 

O  Less  than  100,000  acriss. 


CORN:  ACREAGE  BY  STATES.  1909. 


46 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CEREAL  CROPS:  ESTIMATED  PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE. 


Total. 

Average. 

Commodity 

Farm  Value 

Yield 

Farm  Value 

Area. 

Production. 

Farm  Value 

per  bushel 

per 

of  yield 

Dec.  1. 

Dec.  1. 

acre. 

per  acre. 

Acres. 

Bushels. 

Dollars. 

Cents. 

Bshls. 

Dollars. 

Corn: 

I866-751 . . 

32,715,700 

969,947,600 

454,534,800 

47.8 

26.1 

12.48 

1912 

107,083,000 

3.124,746,000 

1.520.454.000 

48.7 

29.2 

14.20 

Wheat: 

1866-75' . . 

20,470,300 

244,672,300 

257.586,80C 

108.6 

11.9 

12.92 

1912 

45,814,000 

730,267,000 

555.280.00C 

76.0 

15.9 

12.12 

Oats: 

I866-751.. 

9,746,000 

272.992,800 

102.422.700 

37.8 

28.1 

10.62 

1912 

37,917,000 

1,418.337,000 

452.469.00C 

31.9 

37.4 

11.93 

Rye: 

I866-751.. 

1,346,800 

18.266.600 

14.559.00C 

78.1 

13.6 

10.62 

1912 

Barley: 
I866-751.. 

2,117,000 

35,664.000 

23.636.000 

66.3 

16.8 

11.16 

1,196,500 

26.992.300 

21.382.200 

79.0 

22.9 

18.09 

1912 

7,530.000 

223.824.000 

112.957.00c 

50.5 

29.7 

15.00 

Buckwheat: 

1866-75» . . 

729.900 

13,368.800 

9.735,20c 

72.5 

18.3 

13.27 

1912 

841,000 

19.249,000 

12.720,000 

66.1 

22.9 

15.12 

1  Average  per  year  for  the  period. 

Statistical  Abstract  of  the  U.  S. — Report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 


WHEAT:  ACREAGE  BY  STATES,  1909. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


47 


Copyright,    Munn 


THE    ENORMOUS    CROPS    OF    1909. 


If  piled  up  in  Madison  Square  the  crops  of  this  year  would  completely  swamp  the  Metro- 
politan tower. 

OVER  HALF  THE  CEREAL  ACREAGE  IN  CORN. 


In  the  United  States  as  a  whole  a  little 
more  than  one-half  of  the  acreage  devoted  to 
cereals  is  in  com,  a  little  less  than  one-fourth 
in  wheat,  and  slightly  less  than  one-sixth  in 
oats.  In  each  of  the  nine  divisions,  except  the 
Pacific,  the  threo  leading  cereals — com,  wheat, 
and  oats — occupy,  as  in  the  United  States  at 
large,  much  more  than  three-fourths  of  the 


total  cereal  acreage.  In  the  Pacific  states  the 
acreage  of  com  is  insignificant,  and  that  of 
barley  exceeds  that  of  oats.  Corn  occupies 
the  leading  place  in  the  important  cereal-pro- 
ducing regions,  but  in  the  New  England  and 
Middle  Atlantic  divisions  the  first  place  is  held 
bv  oats,  and  in  the  Pacific  aad  Mountain 
divisions  by  wheat. 


48 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


HAY  CROP .  ESTIMATED  ACREAGE,  PRODUCTION,  AND  VALUE,  1912. 

For  the  year  1912  the  production  of  hay  in  The  average  price  of  hay  per  short  ton  on 

the  United  States  was  72,691,000  short  tons,  December  1,  1912  was  $11.79,  and  the  average 

and   the   total   acreage  of  land  in  hay    was  yield  per  acre  for  the  year  was  1 .47  short  tons. 

49,530,000.  The  total  farm  value  of  the  United  The  average  farm  value  of  yield  per  acre  on 

States  on  December  1,  1912,  was  $856,695,000.  J    December  1,  1912  was  S17.30. 


HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS,  1909. 


INITIATIVE  AND  REFERENDUM. 


The  "initiative"  is  a  political  device  by 
which  the  people  are  enabled  to  pass  laws  or 
ordinances  without  change  or  modification 
by  the  ordinary  legislative  bodies.  It  has 
been  called  the  positive  or  constructive  side 
of  direct  legislation,  just  as  the  referendum, 
which  enables  the  people  to  reject  proposed 
laws,  is  the  negative  side.  By  this  method 
a  minority  ranging  in  number  from  5  to  25 
per  cent,  may  file  a  petition  for  a  law,  or, 
when  a  city, 'an  ordinance.  The  measure  must 
then,  without  change  or  revision,  go  before 
the  people  for  their  judgment,  and,  if  it  is 
approved  by  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast,  it 
becomes  law  without  further  process.  Laws 
and  ordinances  so  passed  are  not  subject  to 
veto. 


The  "referendum"  may  be  defined  as  the 
submission  of  a  proposed  law,  or  ordinance, 
which  has  been  passed  by  the  people's 
representative  in  a  legislature  or  council,  to 
a  vote  of  the  people  for  ratification  or  re- 
jection. It  has  been  in  use  in  a  restricted 
form,  in  the  United  States  for  many  years, 
especially  in  passing  upon  constitutions  and 
constitutional  amendments.  It  is  only  since 
1898,  however,  that  the  referendum,  in  con- 
nection with  the  initiative,  has  been  used  as 
an  instrument  of  direct  legislation  both  by 
states  and  cities.  The  states  which  have 
adopted  the  initiative  and  referendum  are 
Arkansas,  California,  Colorado,  Illinois, 
Maine,  Missouri,  Montana,  Oklahoma,  Oregon, 
South  Dakota  and  Utah.  Nevada  has 
adopted  the  referendum  only. 


THE  RECALL. 


The  "recall"  is  a  method  of  procedure  by 
which  the  people  are  enabled  to  remove  from 
his  position  any  public  elective  official  at  will. 
This  requires  a  petition  signed  by  a  certain 
specified  percentage  or  number  of  voters. 
The  usual  percentage  in  such  cases  is  25.  In 
most  cities  under  the  commission  form  of 
government    the    recall    of    elective    public 


officers  is  provided  for  through  the  filing  of 
petitions  signed  by  from  15  to  75  per  cent,  of  . 
the  voters.  In  South  Dakota  cities  the  per- 
centage is  only  15,  while  in  Illinois  it  is  55, 
and  33  in  Louisiana.  In  Oregon  all  state 
officials,  including  judges  and  members  of  the 
legislature,  are  subject  to  the  recaU.— Chicago 
Daily  News  Almanac,  1912. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


49 


TOBACCO  CROP  IN  CONTINENTAL  UNITED  STATES:  1912. 


For  the  year  1912  there  were  1,225,800 
acres  of  land  planted  in  tobacco,  and  the  total 
product  derived  therefrom  amounted  to  962,- 
855,000  pounds.  The  value  of  this  product 
was  estimated  at  $104,603,000.  Kentucky 
ranked  first  in  the  tobacco  producing  states 


UMITtD  KlfiQDOM 
1.98 


A  YEAR  S  CONSUMPTION  OF  TOBACCO 
(in  pounds  per  head) 


of  the  Union,  Virginia  second,  then  followed, 
in  their  respective  order.  North  Carolina, 
Ohio,  Tennessee,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin, 
Connecticut,  South  Carolina,  Maryland,  In- 
diana, West  Virginia,  Massachusetts,  Mis- 
souri, New  York,  and  lUinois. 


UNITED  5TATE5 


INDIA 
5.000.000 


IRUSSIA 
i,AA7,00Q 


^       ^ 


DUTCH  E.INOlEi 
\,00\,000 


6^5,000 


O         ^ 


CUBA 
367,000 

A  year's  CROP  OP  TOBACCO 
(per  cwt.,  112  pounds) 


AU^T-HUliqARY 
801,000/' 


qERMAfir 

577,000 


OATS:  ACREAGE  BY  STATES,  1909. 


50 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,    Munn   &   Co. 


WHAT  OUR  WHEAT  CROP  MEANS. 

The  735,260,970-bushel  wheat  crop  of  1906  converted  into  a  1,214-foot  barrel  of  flour,  and 
baked  into  an  immense  loaf,  2,158  feet  high. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


51 


WOOL  PRODUCTION:  1912. 


On  April  1,  1912  the  total  number  of  sheep 
of  shearing  age  was  38,481,000  and  the  average 
weight  of  a  fleece  for  the  year  was  6.82  pounds. 
The  per  cent,  of  shrinkage  for  the  same  year 
was  59.3.  There  were  304,043,400  pounds  of 
wool  washed  and  unwashed,  and  136,866,652 


pounds  of  scoured  wool.  The  average  value 
per  pound  of  scoured  wool  for  the  year  1912 
was  47.7  cents,  and  the  total  value  of  all  the 
scoured  wool  to  October  1,  1912  (Boston 
Market)  was  $75,819,251. 


POTATO  CROP:   1912 


For  the  year  1912  the  total  3,711,000  acres 
planted  to  potatoes  in  the  United  States 
produced   a   total   of   428,647,000   bushels   of 

Eotatoes.     Their  total  farm  value  on  Decem- 
er   1,    1912    was   $212,550,000,    making   the 


average  value  per  bushel  50.5  cents.  The 
average  yield  per  acre  for  the  whole  United 
States  was  113.4  bushels  and  the  average 
farm  value  of  yield  per  acre  on  December  1 

was  $57.28. 


SUGAR  BEETS:  1911. 


During  the  year  1911  there  were  66  sugar 
beet   factories   in   operation.      For   the   same 

Eeriod  there  were  473,877  acres  of  sugar  beets 
arvested,  and  the  average  yield  per  acre  was 
10.68  short  tons.    iThe  factories  of  the  United 


States  worked  5,062,333  short  tons  of  beets 
and  produced  1,199,000,000  pounds,  or  599,- 
500  short  tons  of  sugar.  For  the  same  period 
there  were  723.840,000  pounds  of  cane  sugar 
produced  and  34,120,000  gallons  of  molasses. 


FOOD  SOURCES  OF  THE  WORLD. 


WATER 


CARBOHYDRATE- 
CELLULOSE 


MIN.  MAT. 

extract- 
Loss  of  Constituents  on  Boiling. 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  CABBAGE  AND  BREAD. 


52 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


COTTON  PRODUCTION  AND  STATISTICS:  1912. 


According  to  the  revised  estimates  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  area  planted 
in  cotton  in  1912  was  34,766,000  acres,  of 
which  483,000  acres,  or  1.4  per  cent,  were 
abandoned,  leaving  34,283,000  acres  as  the 
area  from  which  the  crop  was  harvested. 
This  is  a  reduction  of  1,762,000  acres  as  com- 
pared with  1911.  This  total  of  34,283,000 
acres  was  divided  among  the  several  states  as 
follows:  Texas,  11,3-38,000  acres;  Georgia, 
5,335,000;  Alabama,  3,730,000;  Mississippi, 
2,889,000;  South  CaroUna,  2,695,000;  Okla- 
homa, 2,665,000;  Arkansas,  1,901,000;  North 
Carolina,  1,545,000;  Louisiana,  929,000;  Ten- 
nessee, 783,000;  Florida,  224,000;  Missouri, 
103,000;  Virginia,  47,000  and  California, 
9,000  acres. 

The  average  production  of  lint  per  acre  in 
1912  was  191  pounds,  as  compared  with  208 
pounds  in  1911  and  171  pounds  in  1910. 
The  average  yield  per  acre  in  North  Carolina 
was  267  pounds;  Missouri  260,  Virginia  250, 
South  Carolina  209,  and  in  Texas  206  pounds. 
No  other  state  had  an  average  as  high  as 
200  pounds. 

The  production  of  cotton  in  the  most  im- 
portant states  during  1912  was  as  follows: 
Texas.  4,888,623  bales  (round  bales  counted 
as  half  bales);  Georgia,  1,888,963;  Alabama, 
1,367,136;  South  Carolina,   1,259,762;  Okla- 


homa, 1,057,125;  Mississippi,  1,049,604;  all 
other  states,  2,579,650  bales,  or  a  total  for  the 
United  States  of  14,090,863  bales.  The  aggre- 
gate value  of  this  cotton  crop  for  1912  was 
$920,630,000. 

The  total  number  of  ginneries  in  1912  was 
28,358,  of  which  number  25,279  were  active 
and  3,079  were  idle.  The  average  number  of 
running  bales  ginned  per  establishment  was 
535. 

The  World's  production  of  cotton  for  mill 
consumption,  by  countries  for  the  year  1912 
was  as  follows:  United  States,  13,696,000 
bales,  or  62.8  per  cent  of  the  world's  produc- 
tion; India,  3,518,000  bales;  Egypt,  1,523,000 
bales;  China,  1,074,000  bales;  Russia,  950,000 
bales;  Brazil,  320,000  bales;  all  other  countries 
736,000  bales,  making  the  total  for  the  year 
21,817,000  bales. 

On  March  1,  1913  there  were  in  the  United 
States  30,575,028  active  cotton  spindles, 
11,853,142  of  which  were  in  cotton  producing 
states  and  the  remainder  in  other  states. 
The  number  of  spindles  in  the  principal  coun- 
tries of  the  world  on  March  1,  1913  was  as 
follows:  Great  Britain,  55,576,108;  Germany, 
10,920,426;  Russia,  8,950,000;.  France,  7,400,- 
000;  Austria,  4,864,453;  Italy,  4,580,000; 
Spain,  2,200,000;  Switzerland,  1,398,062; 
India,  6,400,000;  Japan,  2,250,000. 


The  imports  of  cotton,  for  the  seven 
months,  Sept.  1912  to  March  1913,  amounted 
to  167,749  bales;  of  this  amount  143,710  bales 
were  imported  from  Egypt  and  11,989  bales 
from  China.    The  exports  for  the  same  period 


amounted  to  7,175,601  bales;  of  this  amount 
2,979,601  were  exported  to  the  United  King- 
dom; 1,970,519  bales  to  Germany,  911,100 
bales  to  France;  351,487  bales  to  Italy  and 
963,363  bales  to  all  other  countries. 


COTTON:  ACREAGE  BY  STATES,  1909. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


53 


DAIRY  COWS  ON  FARMS:     NUMBER  BY  STATES,  1910. 


MILK,  BUTTER  AND  CHEESE. 


The  total  quantity  of  milk  reported  as  pro- 
duced on  farms  in  1909  was  5,813,699,474 
gallons.  During  the  same  year,  there  were 
994,650,610  pounds  of  butter,  having  a  value 
of  $222,861,440,  made  on  farms  and  624,764,- 
653  pounds,  having  a  value  of  $170,510,619, 
made  in  factories;  thus  the  total  quantity  of 
butter  made  during  the  year  was  1,619,415,- 
263  pounds,  valued  at  $402,372,059.  The 
cheese  made  on  farms  amounted  to  9,405,864 
pounds,  valued  at  $1,148,708  and  that  made 
in  factories  amounted  to  311,126,317,  valued 
at  $43,239,924;  thus  the  total  production  for 
the  year  was  320,532,181  pounds,  having  a 
value  of  $44,388,632. 

The  total  reported  value  of  dairy  products 
sold  on  farms  in  1909  was  $437,769,412  and 
was  made  up  as  follows:  Milk  sold,  1,937,255,- 
864  gallons,  valued    at    $252,436,757;    cream, 


WATEfi 


PRQTEm 
FAT 
'ARBOHYDKATE 


ZELLULOSE 
PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION 


54,933,583  gallons,  value  $37,655,047;  butter 
fat,  305,662,587  pounds,  value  $82,311,511; 
butter,  415,080,489  pounds,  value  100,378,123 
cheese,  8,136,901  pounds,  value  $987,974. 
The  quantity  of  milk  sold  as  such  was  re- 
ported as  1,937,255,864  gallons,  or  about  one- 
third  of  the  total  production.  However,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind'  that  a  great  deal  of 
milk  sold  or  delivered  to  creameries  for  butter 
making  is  paid-  for  on  the  basis  of  the  cream 
or  butter  fat  content,  in  which  case  the  quan- 
tity of  such  cream  or  butter  fat  is  reported, 
and  not  the  quantity  of  milk.  The  greater 
part  of  milk  reported  as  sold  was  doubtless 
consumed  as  such  in  the  cities  and  villages. 
The  average  value  of  butter  sold  by  farmers 
in  the  United  States  was  24.2  cents  per  pound 
in  1909,  as  compared  with  16.7  cents  in  1899, 
an  increase  of  44.9  per  cent.  The  average 
value  was  highest  in  New  England,  28.9  cents. 
The  average  value  of  cheese  sold  increased 
from  9.1  cents  per  pound  in  1899  to  12.1  cents 
in  1909,  or  33  per  cent. 


OF  APPLE  AND  CUCUMBER. 


54 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CopyrigM,  1913,  by  Munu  &  Co.,  luc. 

FATHER  KNICKERBOCKER'S  DAILY  FARE. 


Oleomargaeine. 

During  the  year  1912  a  total  quantity  of 
126,251,147  pounds  of  oleomargarine  was  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States.  The  internal 
revenue  tax  paid  for  this  total  production 
was  $623,427.49;  3,259,483  pounds  were  taxed 
at  the  rate  of  ten  cents  a  pound  and  122,- 
991,664  pounds  at  one-fourth  of  a  cent  per 
pound. 

Cottonseed  Products:  Production 
AND  Manufacture,  1911. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were  6,997,000 
short  tons  of  cottonseed  produced  in  the 
United  States  and  of  this  amount  4,921,073 
short  tons  were  manufactured.  The  average 
value  per  ton  of  cottonseed  used  for  manu- 
facturing purposes  was  $18.30  per  short  ton. 
The  cottonseed  products  having  a  value  of 
$131,340,000  were  as  follows:  Oil,  201,650,000 
gallons  with  a  value  of  $66,580,000;  cake  and 
meal,  2,151,000  short  tons  with  a  value  of 
$49,720,000;  hulls,  1,642,000  short  tons  with 
a  value  of  $9,890,000;  Hnters,  533,098  bales 
of  500  pounds  net,  value  $5,150,000. 


Flaxseed  Crop:  1912. 

In  1912,  the  2,851,000  acres  planted  to 
flaxseed  produced  a  crop  of  28,073,000  bushels. 
The  total  farm  value  on  December  1  was 
$32,202,000,  thus  making  the  average  price 
paid  per  bushel  $1,147.  The  average  yield 
per  acre  amounted  to  9.8  bushels.  The  average 
farm  value  of  yield  per  acre  was  $11.29. 

Bees. 

According  to  the  Census  report  for  1910 
there  were  in  the  United  States  3,445,006  col- 
onies of  bees,  with  a  value  of  $10,373,615,  or 
an  average  of  $3.01  per  colony.  Nine  and 
two-tenths  per  cent.,  or  585,955  farms  in  the 
United  States,  reported  bee  colonie.s. 

Florist  and  Nursery  Products. 

In  1909  there  were  10,614  florist  estab- 
lishments reporting  products  valued  at 
$34,872,000. 

The  total  value  of  nursery  products  re- 
ported from  5,582  establishments  in  1909  was 
$21,051,000. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


55 


ROTEIN-I.B  '/' 

rAT- 0.2  % 

,  CARBO- 
'hrDHAT£3-3.3  * 
ASH" ---0.7% 


'ATER-9*.7% 
OTEIN--  t.Z  % 

^  ■  ^*^«'»^^/^r- 0.4-% 

HARBO- 
HrD/tAT£S-S.3% 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSI- 
TION OF  BANANA,  CAR- 
ROT, ASPARAGUS,  LET- 
TUCE AND  TOMATO. 


56 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


4,209,769 

$525,391,863 

$124.80 

1,869,005 

29.4 

.3,264,615 

1,480,652 
25.8 

833,113 
5,588.195 
$105.06 
692,814 
73.8 

267,020 
513,217 
$49.08 
530,628 
79.0 

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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


57 


'oZ 


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,  O  60,000  to  100,000  cattle. 

O  Less  than  60,000  cattle. 


— L/" 


\  /-X  •  •  •  • 

\ 

\ 
\ 


ALL  CATTLE  ON  FARMS:     NUMBER  BY  STATES,  1910. 


200,000  horses,  etc.         """ — --1-/ 
150,000  to  200,000  horses,  etc. 
100,000  to  150,000  horses,  etc. 
68,000  to  100,000  horses,  etc. 
Less  than  50,000  horses,  etc. 


I 


ALL  HORSES,  MULES  AND  ASSES  AND  BURROS  ON  FARMS: 
NUMBER  BY  STATES,  1910. 


58 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ALL  SWINE  ON  FARMS:    NUMBER  BY  STATES,  1910. 


ALL  SHEEP  ON  FARMS:    NUMBER  BY  STATES,  1910. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


59 


NUMBER  AND  VALUE  OF  POULTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1910. 


1910  (Apr.  15). 

1900  (June  1). 

Kiin>. 

Farms  reporting. 

Number  of 
fowls. 

Value. 

Number. 

Per  cent 
of  all 
farms. 

Number  of 
fowls. 

Total 

5,585,012 

88.1 

295,876,176 

8153,394,142 

250,623,354 

5,577,218 
852,679 
503,673 
661,189 
339,922 
99,409 
2,005 

88.0 
13.4 
7.9 
10.4 
5.4 
1.6 
(») 

280,340,643 
3,688,688 
2,904,359 
4,431,623 
1,765,033 
2,730,996 
14,834 

140,192,912 

6,605,640 

1,566,176 

3,192,86; 

613,282 

762,372 

460,899 

233,566,021 
6,594,695 
4,785,850 
5.676,788 

i 

Ducks     

Geese              

All  others 

1 

1  Included  with  chickens. 


» Not  reported. 


3  Less  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent. 


•  1,000,000  fowls.  "^ 

9  750,000  to  1,000,000  fowls. 

O  600,000  to  750,000  fowls. 

O  250,000  to  500,000  fowls. 

O  Less  tban  250,000  fowls. 


ALL  FOWLS  ON  FARMS:  NUMBER  BY  STATES,  1910. 


Rice  Crop,  1912. 

For  the  year  1912  the  total  722,800  acres 
planted  to  rice  in  the  United  States  produced 
a  total  of  25,054,000  bushels  of  rice.  The 
total  farm  value  on  December  1,  1912  was 
$23,423,000  making  the  average  price  per 
bushel  93.5  cents.  The  average  yield  per 
acre  was  34.7  for  whole  of  the  United  States. 


Hops:  1911. 

The  total  production  of  hops  in  the  United 
States  in  1911  amounted  to  40,000,000  lbs., 
as  against  44,000,000  lbs.  in  1910,  or  27.2 
per  cent,  of  the  world's  production.  During 
1910,  the  exports  amounted  to  12,748,617  lbs. 
and  the  imports  to  5,823,520, 


«0 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Egg  Statistics. 

According  to  a  recent  report  of  the  Census 
Bureau,  the  production  of  eggs  on  farms  of  the 
United  States  in  1909  was  1,591  million  dozen, 
valued  at  $306,689,000,  eauivalent  to  19.3 
cents  per  dozen.  This  production  is  equiva- 
lent to  207  eggs  per  capita  of  population.  As 
less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  produced  are 
exported  and  almost  none  imported,  produc- 
tion may  be  regarded  as  equivalent  to  domes- 
tic consumption.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1910,  the  exports  of  eggs  were 
5,326,000  dozen  and  imports  818,000  dozen. 
A  small  proportion  of  the  production  is  used 
for  manufacturing  purposes.  The  census  re- 
port does  not  include  the  production  of  eggs 
in  cities,  towns,  or  villages.  According  to  an 
estimate  given  in  the  census  report  of  1900, 
the  production  of  eggs  off  farms  was  equal  to 
about  5  per  cent,  of  the  production  on  farms ; 
on  this  basis,  about  80  million  dozen  eggs 
would  have  been  produced  off  farms  in  1909. 

According  to  the  census  figures  the  produc- 
tion of  eggs  increased  23  per  cent,  from  1899 
to  1909;  but  the  commercial  movement  shows 
a  much  greater  increase.  Seven  cities  com- 
bined (New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
Cincinnati,  Milwaukee,  and  San  Francisco) 
received  about  369  million  dozen  eggs  in  1909, 
an  increase  of  70  per  cent,  over  their  receipts 
in  1899.  Population  had  increased  between 
1900  and  1910  about  21  per  cent,  in  the  United 
States,  but  31  per  cent,  in  the  seven  cities 
named  above.  The  receipts  at  these  seven 
cities  in  1909  were  equivalent  to  about  23  per 
cent,  of  the  production  as  reported  by  the 
census,  as  compared  with  16  per  cent,  in  1899. 

In  January,  1910,  and  again  in  June,  1910, 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  made  an  in- 
vestigation through  its  agents,  in  63  cities 
throughout  the  United  States,  concerning  the 
price  which  retail  dealers  were  paying  for  eggs 
and  the  price  which  consumers  were  paying 
for  fresh  eggs;  at  the  same  time  inquiries  were 


made  through  correspondence  with  crop  re- 
porters of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  adjacent 
to  these  cities  concerning  the  prices  received 
by  producers.  From  the  reports  received  it 
appears  that  in  June,  1910,  consumers  paid 
an  average  of  24  cents  per  dozen;  retail  dealers 
paid  19.8  cents,  and  near-by  producers  re- 
ceived 18.7  cents;  in  January,  1910,  consumers 
paid  38.1  cents,  retailers  paid  32  cents,  and 
near-by  producers  received  30.4,  The  average 
price  to  producers  for  the  entire  United  States 
in  the  middle  of  June,  1910,  was  about  18.3 
cents,  and  in  the  last  week  of  January,  1910, 
about  29  cents. 


LOS^. 
0.58  6(rm9., 


i0.d4Girms. 
COMPOSITION  OF  MILK, 


It  has  been  estimated  that  the  average  man 
must  be  supplied  daily  with  an  amount  of 
energy  in  the  form  of  food  which  is  the  equiva- 
lent of  from  3,000  to  3,500  calories.  In  order 
to  obtain  this  ener^  one  would  have  to  con- 
sume about  eight  pmts  of  milk  daily,  or  about 
a  tumblerful  every  hour  of  the  working  day. 


ORCHARD  AND  VINEYARD  PRODUCTS. 


Products. 

Trees  of  Bearing 
Age:  1910. 

Products   of    1909. 

Trees 

Reported 

June  1, 

1900. 

Products 

of 

1899, 

Farms 
reporting. 

Number. 

Bushels. 

Value. 

Bushels. 

Fruits: 
(orchard) 

Apples 

Cherries 

Peaches 

Pears 

Plums,  etc. . . 

Fruits: 

(vineyard) 
Grapes 

Fruits: 

(sub-tropi- 
cal) 
Oranges 

2,980,398 
1,248,667 
1,843,610 
1,276.366 
1,120,130 

923,396 

151,323,000 
11,822,044 
94,507,000 
15,172.000 
23,445.009 

224,098,000 

9,367,047 
938,870 

147,522,000 

4,126,099 

35,470,000 

8,841,000 

15,480,170 

2.570,996.000 

119,289.391 
2,728,341 

$83,231,000 

7,231,160 

28,781,000 

7,911,000 

10.299,495 

22,025,000 

17,257,278 
2.939.512 

201,794,000 
11.943.287 
99,919,000 
17,716,000 
30,780,892 

182,228.000 

175,397,000 

2,873,499 

15,434,000 

6.625,000 

8,764,032 

1,300,751,000 

Lemons 

»Boxes. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


61 


Copyright  1911,  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

JAW  LEVERAGE  REQUIRED  FOR  VARIOUS  MEATS. 


CUTS    OF    MEAT. 


The  method  of  dividing  up  the  car- 
casse^s  of  slaughtered  animals  varies 
considerably  in  different  localities.  In 
order  that  there  may  be  no  confusion 


on  this  account  the  character  of  the 
cuts  of  beef,  veal,  pork  and  mutton 
is  shown  in  the  diagrams  given  on 
page  62. 


THE  FUNCTIONS  AND  USES  OF  FOODS. 

BY    C.    F.    LANGWORTHY,     PH.    D. 

Oifice  of  Experiment  Stations.  ' 


In  this  article  a  number  of  the 
terms  used  in  discussing  food  are  de- 
fined and  some  of  the  principles 
of  nutrition  are  briefly  stated. 
The  average  composition  of  a 
number  of  the  more  common 
American  foods  is  quoted  as  well  as 
the  commonly  accepted  dietary  stand- 
ards. With  the  aid  of  such  data,  the 
nutritive  value  of  any  given  diet  may 
be  computed  and  its  comparative  value 
ascertained. 

Ordinary  food  materials,  such  as 
meat,  fish,  eggs,  potatoes,  wheat,  etc., 
consist  of : 

Refuse. — As  the  bones  of  meat  and 
fish,  shells  of  shellfish,  skins  of  pota- 
toes, bran  of  wheat,  etc. 

Edible    Portion. — As    the    flesh    of 


meat  and  fish,  the  white  and  yolk  of 
eggs,  wheat  flour,  etc.  The  edible  por- 
tion consists  of  water  and  nutritive 
ingredients,  or  nutrients.  The  nutri- 
tive ingredients  are  protein,  fats,  car- 
bohydrates and  mineral  matters. 

The  water,  refuse,  and  salt  of  salt- 
ed meat  and  fish  are  called  non-nutri- 
ents. In  comparing  the  values  of  dif- 
ferent food  materials  for  nourishment 
they  are  left  out  of  account. 

USE    OF    NUTRIENTS. 

Food  is  used  in  the  body  to  build 
and  repair  tissue  and  to  furnish  en- 
ergy. The  manner  in  which  the  valu- 
able constituents  are  utilized  in  the 
body  may  be  expressed  in  tabular  form 
as  follows : 


m    ^"^ 

T(i%^    TURKFY 

^f-fF 

m 

fe^ 

rt^ 

- 

i      RACE       1 

- 



IHcw 

3H0UR4 

H  HOURS 

Copyright,    Muna   &.   Co. 

THE  RACE  OF  FOODS  FOR  FIRST  PLACE  IN  THE  DIGESTION  RACE. 


62 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Protein 

White  (albumen)  of  eggs,  curd  (casein) 

of  milk,  lean  meat,  gluten  of  wheat,  etc. 

Fats 

Fat  of  meat,  butter,  olive  oil,  oils  of 
corn  and  wheat,  etc. 
Carbohydrates .• 

Sugar,  starch,  etc. 
Mineral  matters  (ash) 

Phosphates  of  lime,  potash,  soda,  etc. 


Forms  tissue  (muscles, 
tendon,  and  probably 
fat). 

Form  fatty  tissue. 


Transformed  into  fat. 

Aid     in  _  forming     bone, 
assist  in  digestion,  etc. 


All  serve  as  fuel  and 
yield  energy  in  form 
of  heat  and  muscular 
strength. 


The  Fuel  Value  of  Food. — Heat  and 
muscular  power  are  forms  of  force  or 
energy.  The  energy  is  developed  as 
the  food  is  consumed  in  the  body.  The 
unit  commonly  used  in  this  measure- 
ment is  the  calorie,  the  amount  of  heat 
which  would  raise  the  temperature  of 
a  pound  of  water  4  deg.  Fahrenheit. 

Instead  of  this  unit  some  unit  of 
mechanical  energy  might  be  used — for 


DIAGRAM  OF  CUTS  OF  MUTTON. 

instance,  the  foot-ton,  which  repre- 
sents the  iorce  required  to  raise  one 
ton  one  foot.  One  calorie  is  equal  to 
very  nearly  1.53  foot-tons. 

The  following  general  estimate  has 
been  made  for  the  average  amount  of 
potential  energy  in  1  pound  of  each  of 
the  classes  of  nutrients : 

,  Calories. 

In  1  pound  of  protem 1,860 

In  1  pound  of  fats 4,220 

In  1  pound  of  carbohydrates..   1,860 
In    other    words,    when    we    com- 
pare    the     nutrients     in     respect     to 
their  fuel  values,  their  capacities  for 
yielding  heat  and  mechanical  power, 


DIAGRAM    OF   CUTS   OF   VEAL. 

a  pound  of  protein  of  lean  meat  or  al- 
bumen of  egg  is  just  about  equivalent 
to  a  pound  of  sugar  or  starch,  and  a 
little  over  two  pounds  of  either  would 


DIAGRAM   OF  CUTS  OF  PORK. 

be  required  to  equal  a  pound  of  the  fat 
of  meat  or  butter  or  the  body  fat. 

Within  recent  years  analyses  of  a 
large  number  of  samples  of  foods  have 
been  made  in  this  country.  In  the 
tables  on  pages  63—65  the  results  of 
a  number  of  these  analyses  are  given: 


DIAGRAM  OF  CUTS  OF  BEEF, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


63 


AVERAGE     COMPOSITION 

OF   amp:rican   food 

PRODUCTS. 

Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use, 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
Value 

Animai,  Food. 
Beef,  fresh: 

Chuck,  including  shoulder                      .  . 

Per  Ct. 
17.3 
,19.1 
5.5 
13.3 
12.7 
12.8 
31.2 
20.1 

Per  Ct. 
54.0 
53.8 
56.1 
52.9 
52.4 
54.0 
45.3 
45.3 
64.8 
62.5 
46.9 
43.2 
57.0 
49.5 
52.0 

49.2 
5S.9 
53.7 
51  8 
51.8 

52.5 
63.4 
6S.3 
54.2 
56.2 

39.0 
51.9 
46.8 
41.6 
43  3 

45.5 
50.3 

48.5 
45.1 
40.8 
44.9 
66.5 

35.8 

30.7 

7.9 

18.4 

55.2 
22.2 
57.2 

88.6 
92.9 
84.5 
90.0 

43.7 
47.1 
38.5 
42.4 

58.5 
61.9 
40.4 
50.7 
35.2 
71.2 
40.2 

Per  Ct. 
15.8 
15.3 
18.6 
16.4 
19.1 
16.5 
14.2 
14.4 
19.4 
19.2 
15.2 
13.2. 
16.5 
14.4 
16.1 

14.3 

11.9 
26.4 
25.5 
26.3 

15.7 
18.3 
20.1 
15.1 
16.2 

13.8 
15.4 
13.7 
12.3 
13.0 

15.4 
16.0 

15.1 
14.3 
13.2 
12.0 
18.9 

14.5 

12.6 

1.9 

9.5 

18.2 
27.9 
19.6 

\\' 

4.6 
1.8 

12.8 
13.7 
13.4 
16.1 

11.1 
15.3 
10.2 
12.8 
9.4 
20.9 
19.0 

PerCt. 
12.5 
11.1 
19.9 
16.9 
17.9 
16.1 

9.2 
20.0 
15.5 

9.2 
18.6 

5  2 

8.4 
15.1 
15.4 

23.8 
19.2 
6.9 
22.5 
18.7 

8.2 
5.8 
7.5 
6.0 
6.6 

36.9 
14.5 
17.1 
24.5 
24.0 

19!l 
19.7 

18.6 
29.7 
26.0 
29.8 
13.0 

33.2 
33.0 
86.2 
59.4 

19.7 
40.4 
18.6 

2.8 

.4 

4.3 

1.1 

1.4 
12.3 
29.8 
18.4 

.2 
4.4 
4.2 

.7 
4.8 
3.8 

.4 

Per  Ct. 

V 

'  i .'  i ' 

5.0 

1.1 

5.5 
5.6 

"2.'6* 

PerCt. 
0.7 

.8 
.8 
.9 
.8 
.9 
.7 
.7 
.9 
1.0 
.8 
.6 
.9 
.7 
.8 

4.6 
4.3 
8.9 
1.3 
4.0 

.8 
1.0 
1.0 

.7 
.8 

.6 
.8 

.7 
•     .7 

.7 

.8 
.9 

.7 
.8 
.8 
.7 
1.0 

4.2 
5.0 
3.9 
4.5 

3.8 
7.3 
3.4 

1.5 
1.2 
1.1 
1.5 

.7 
.7 

.7 
.8 

.8 

:? 

.9 

.7 

1.5 

18.5 

Calo- 
ries. 
820 

Chuck  ribs 

Flank 

755 
1,185 

Loin  .                                          .        ..... 

1,020 

1,110 

985 

Neck 

Ribs 

650 
1,110 

Rib  rolls.                       

1,015 

8.5 
19.0 
38.3 
17.4 
20.6 
16.3 

8.4 
6.0 

4.7 

745 

Rump 

Shank,  fore  . .                        

1,065 
465 

RhniilHpr  and  clod    .  .  . 

660 

905 

Mind  Quarter  .                       

950 

Beef,  corned,  canned,  pickled,  and  dried: 
Corned  beef 

1,271 

T'nniriip    nicklfd       .                       .... 

1,030 

Dried   salted   and  smoked     .                ■ 

780 

Canned  boiled  beef 

1*425 

P.nnnprl  pornpd  hepf 

23.3 
11.7 
3.4 
24.5 
20.7 

9.9 
17.7 
22.1 
21.2 
19.3 

19.1 
13.8 

18.0 
10.3 
19.3 
12.4 

1,280 

Veal: 

Breast 

635 

Leg 

585 

T.pcr  Pilt.lpts                         

690 

Fore  quarter 

Hind  quarter .    

Mutton: 

Flank                 

535 
580 

1,815 

Leg,  hind 

Shoulder          

900 
975 

Tt'nrA  miartpr                   

1,265 

Hind  quarter   without  tallowl  ... 

1,255 

Lamb: 

Breast 

1,090 

TjPC    hind 

1,130 

Pork,  fresh: 

Flank.              

1,065 

Ham 

1,520 

1,340 

Shoulder. .      

Tenderloin      .                  .    .    

1,480 
900 

Pork,  salted,  cured,  and  pickled: 

Hnm    «!mnkpd              

12.2 
18.9 

1,670 

1.625 

Salt  Dork                 

3,670 

Bacon,  smoked 

Sausage: 

8.7 

3.3 
3.9 

2,685 
1,170 

Farmer                

2,225 

Frankfort 

1,170 

Soups: 

r'olprv    crp.am  of.  • 

250 

Beef 

120 

Mpat.  stpw       .       

370 

185 

Poultry: 

r^Kiplfpn    Virnilpra 

41.6 
25.9 
17.6 
22.7 

29.9 
17.7 
44.7 
35.1 
50  1 

295 

Fowls               

775 

Goose 

1,505 

1.075 

Fish: 

215 

"HoliKiif    afp«ilr«  nr  Qpptions 

470 

Mar»lfPrpI     Tvhnlp                           

365 

265 

Shad,  whole.  .    

380 
600 

Fish,  salt:  Cod 

24.9 

315 

64 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AVERAGE    COMPOSITION     OF    AMERICAN    FOOD 

PRODUCTS- 

-Continued. 

Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein'. 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
Value 

Fish,  canned: 

Per  Ct. 
14.2 
»5.0 

PerCt. 
56.8 
53.6 

88.3 
80.8 
36.7 
30.7 
65.5 

11.0 
87.0 
90.5 
91.0 
26.9 
74.0 
27.4 
34.2 

11.4 
11.3 

12.0 
12.0 
78.4 
10.1 
13.6 
12.5 
7.3 
12.3 
11.4 

PerCt. 
19.5 
23.7 

6.0 
10.6 
7.9 
5.9 
11.9 

1.0 
3.3 
3.4 
3.0 

8.8 

2.5 

27.7 

25.9 

13.8 
13.3 

11.4 
14.0 

3.0 
11.1 

8.4 

9.2 
16.1 

8.0 
.4 

PerCt. 
7.5 
12.1 

1.3 

1.1 

.9 

.7 

9.3 

85.0 

4.0 

.3 

.5 

8.3 

18.5 

36.8 

33.7 

1.9 

2.2 

1.0 
1.9 
1.5 
1.7 
1.2 
1.9 
7.2 
.3 
.1 

Per  Ct. 

3.3 

5.2 

.6 

.2 

"5.6' 
5.1 
4.8 
54.1 
4.5 
4.1 
2.4 

71.9 
71.4 

75.1 

71.2 
15.8 
75.5 
77.9 
75.4 
67.5 
79.0 
88.0 
90.0 

53.1 
47.1 
52.1 
49.7 
53.2 
63.3 
69.7 
70.5 
73.1 

69.3 
96.0 

81.2 
100  0 
71.4 

59.6 

22.0 

6.9 

7.7 

4.8 

2.6 

19.7 

2.6 

2.5 

6.8 

8.9 

10.8 

62.0 

PerCt. 
2.0 
5.3 

1.1 
2.3 
1.5 

.8 
.9 

3.0 
.7 
.7 
.7 

1.9 
.5 

4.0 

3.8 

1.0 

1.8 

.5 

.9 

1.3 

1.6 

.9 

1.0 

1.9 

.4 

.1 

1.1 

2.1 
1.5 
1.3 
1.5 
1.5 
1.7 
2.9 
2.1 

3.2 

.2' 

3.5 

1.7 

.7 

.9 

.9 

.8 

.7 

.4 

.8 

1.2 

.5 

1.1 

2.9 

Calo- 
ries. 
680 
950 

Sardines 

Shellfish: 

Oysters,  ' 'solids" 

230 
340 

Clams 

Crabs 

52.4 
61.7 

211.2 

195 

140 

635 

3,605 
325 

Dairy  products,  etc. : 

Butter 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk ,. 

170 

Buttermilk 

165 

Condensed  milk 

1  520 

Cream 

910 

Cheese,  Cheddar 

2,145 
1  950 

Cheese,  full  cream 

Vegetable  Food.  , 
Flour,  meal,  etc. : 

Entire-wheat  flour 

1,675 
1,670 

1.650 
1,665 
415 
1,685 
1,620 
1,655 
1,860 
1,630 
1,650 
1,675 

Graham  flour 

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  process — 
High-grade  and  medium 

Macaroni . 

Crushed  wheat 

Buckwheat  flour 

Com  meal 

Oatmeal.  .  . 

Rice 



Tapioca 

Starch 

Bread,  pastry,  etc. : 
White  bread 

35.3 

43.6 

35.7 

38.4 

35.7 

19.9 

6.8 

4.8 

5.9 

25.1 

9.2 
5.4 
8.9 
9.7 
9.0 
6.3 
9.7 
11.3 
9.8 

2.4 

1.3 

1.8 

1.8 

.9 

.6 

9.0 

12.1 

10.5- 

9.1 

1,215 
1,050 
1,210 
1,140 
1,180 
1,675 
1,990 
1,965 
1,925 

1.290 
1,785 
1,520 
1,800 
1  330 

Brown  bread 

.    .    !    .    . 

Graham  bread 

Whole-wheat  bread.  . 

Rye  bread ». 

Cake 

Cream  crackers 

Oyster  crackers ! . 

Soda  crackers 

Sugars,  etc.: 

Molasses 

Candy 

Honey  ^ 

18.2 

.4 



Sugar,  granulated 

Maple  sirup. 

Vegetables:" 

Beans,  dried 

12.6 
68.5 
83.0 
70.0' 

77.7 
75.6 
75.4 
81.1 
80.5 
88.1 
78.9 
66.4 
9.5 

22.5 
7.1 
2.1 
1.3 
1.4 
.9 
3.1 
.7 
1.0 
3  5 
1.4 
1.3 

24.6 

1.8 
.7 
.3 
.1 
.2 
.1 

1.1 
.2 
.2 
.4 
.3 
.4 

1.0 

1,605 
570 

Beans,  Lima,  shelled 

Beans,  string.  ... 

7.0 
20.0 
15.0 
20.0 

i5.o' 

15.0 

io.o" 

20.0 

180 
170 
125 
70 
470 
70 
75 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Celery 

Corn,  green  (sweet),  edible  portion 

Cucumbers 

Lettuce 

Mushrooms 

Onions.  . . 

210 

205 

240 

1,655 

Parsnips 

Peas  (Pisum  sativum),  dried      

1  Refuse,  oil.         2  Refuse,  shell. 

3  Contained  on  an  average  cane  sugar  2.8  and  reducing  sugar  71.1  per  cent.  The  reducing 
sugar  was  composed  of  about  equal  amounts  of  glucose  (dextrose)  and  fruit  sugar  (levulose). 

*  Such  vegetables  as  potatoes,  squash,  beets,  etc.,  have  a  certain  amount  of  inedible 
material,  skm,  seeds,  etc.  The  amount  varies  with  the  method  of  preparing  the  vegetables,  and 
cannot  be  accurately  estimated.  The  figures  given  for  refuse  of  vegetables,  fruits,  etc.,  are 
assumed  to  represent  approximately  the  amount  of  refuse  in  these  foods  as  ordinarily  prepared. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


65 


AVERAGE    COMPOSITION     OF    AMERICAN    FOOD    FROBVCTS—CorUinued. 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 


Vegetables — ( Continued) : 

Peas  {Pisum  sativum),  shelled 

Cowpeas,  dried 

Potatoes 

Rhubarb 

Sweet  potatoes 

Spinach 

Squash 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Vegetables,  canned: 

Peas  {Pisum  sativum),  green 

Corn,  green 

Tomatoes 

Fruits,  berries,  etc.,  fresh c^ 

Apples 

Bananas 

Grapes 

Lemons 

Muskmelons 

Oranges 

Pears. 

Persimmons,  edible  portion 

Raspberries 

Strawberries 

Watermelons 

Fruits,  dried: 

Apples 

Apricots 

Dates 

Figs 

Nuts: 

Almonds 

Beechnuts 

Brazil  nuts 

Butternuts 

Chestnuts,  fresh 

Chestnuts,  dried 

Cocoanuts 

Cocoanut,  prepared , 

Filberts 

Hickory  nuts.  .  .      

Pecans,  polished 

Peanuts 

PiHon  (Pinus  edulis) 

Walnuts,  California,  black 

Walnuts,  California,  soft-shell 

Raisins , 

Miscellaneous: 

Chocolate 

Cocoa,  powdered 

Cereal  coffee,  infusion  (1  part  boiled  in 
20  parts  water)  3 


Ref- 
use. 


Per  Ct. 


20.0 
40.0 
20.0 


50.0 
30  .'6' 


10.0 


5.0 
59.4 


10.0 


45.0 
40.8 
49.6 
86.4 
16.0 
24.0 
2  48.8 


52.1 
62.2 
53.2 
24.5 
40.6 
74.1 
58.1 
10.0 


Water. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Per  Ct.  Per  Ct. 


74.6 
13.0 
62.6 
56.6 
55.2 
92.3 
44.2 
94.3 
62.7 

85.3 
76.1 
94.0 

63.3 
48.9 
58.0 
62.5 
44.8 
63.4 
76.0 
66.1 
85.8 
85.9 
37.5 


81.4 
13.8 
18.8 

2.7 
2.3 
2.6 
.6 
37.8 
4.5 
7.2 
3.5 


5.9 

4.6 


i.2 


3.6 
2.8 
1.2 


1.0 
.7 
.3 
.6 
.5 
.8 

1.0 
.9 
.2 


1.9 
4.3 

11.5 
13.0 
8.6 
3.8 
5.2 
8.1 
2.9 
6.3 
7.5 
5.8 


12.9 
21.6 


Car- 

Fat. 

bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

PerCt. 

PerCt. 

PerCt. 

0.5 

16.9 

1.0 

1.4 

60.8 

3.4 

.1 

14.7 

.8 

.4 

2.2 

.4 

.6 

21.9 

.9 

.3 

3.2 

2.1 

.2 

1:9^ 

.4 

.4 

.5 

.1 

5.7 

.0 

.2 

9.8 

1.1 

1.2 

19.0 

.9 

.2 

4.0 

.6 

.3 

10.8 

.3 

.4 

14.3 

.6 

1.2 

14.4 

.4 

.5 

5.9 

.4 

4.6 

.3 

.1 

8.5 

.4 

.4 

12.7 

.4 

.7 

31.5 

.9 

12.6 

.6 

.6 

7.0 

.6 

.1 

2.7 

.1 

2.2 

66.1 

2.0 

17.3 

.4 

2.5 

70.6 

1.2 

.3 

74.2 

2.4 

30.2 

9.5 

1.1 

34.0 

7.8 

2.1 

33.7 

3.5 

2.0 

8.3 

.5 

.4 

4.5 

35.4 

1.1 

5.3 

56.4 

1.7 

25.9 

14.3 

.9 

57.4 

31.5 

1.3 

31.3 

6.2 

1.1 

25.5 

4.3 

.8 

33.3 

6.2 

.7 

29.1 

18.5 

1.5 

36.8 

10.2 

1.7 

14.6 

3.0 

.5 

26.6 

6.8 

.6 

3.0 

68.5 

3.1 

48.7 

30.3 

2.2 

28.9 

37.7 

7.2 

1.4 

.2 

1  Fruits  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  inedible  materials,  as  skin,  seeds,  etc.,  which  are 
properly  classed  as  refuse.  In  some  fruits,  as  oranges  and  prunes,  the  amount  rejected  in 
eating  is  practically  the  same  as  refuse.  In  others,  as  apples  and  pears,  more  or  less  of  the 
edible  material  is  ordinarily  rejected  :with  the  skin  and  seeds  and  other  inedible  portions. 
The  edible  material  which  is  thus  thrown  away,  and  should  properly  be  classed  with  the  waste, 
is  here  classed  with  the  refuse.  The  figures  for  refuse  here  given  represent,  as  nearly  as  can 
be  ascertained,  the  quantities  ordinarily  rejected. 

2  Milk  and  shell. 

3  The  average  of  five  analyses  of  cereal  coffee  grain  is:  Water  6.2,  protein  13.3,  fat  3.4, 
carbohydrates  72;6,  and  ash  4.5  per  cent.  Only  a  portion  of  the  tiutrients,  however,  enter  into 
the  infusion.  The  average  in  the  table  represents  the  available  nutrients  in  the  beverage  In- 
fusions of  genuine  coffee  and  of  tea  like  the  above  contain  practically  no  nutrients. 


66 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  FISHERIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES:  1908. 


Species.  Pounds. 

Alewives 89,978,000 

Black  bass : 3,313,000 

Bluefish 7,647,000 

Bream  or  Sunfish 4,738,000 

Buffalo  fish 16,729,000 

Butterfish 6.855,000 

Carp,  German 42,763,000 

Catfish 17,817,000 

Cod 109,453,000 

Croaker 8,143,000 

Cusk 6,344,000 

Drum,  fresh-water 6,532,000 

Drum,  salt-water.  *. 4,576,000 

Eels 3,358,000 

Flounders 23,346,000 

Haddock 59,987,000 

Hake 34,340,000 

Halibut 34,441,000 

Herring 125,050,000 

Herring  (lake) * 41,118,000 

Mackerel 12,103,000 

Menhaden 394,776,000 

Mullet 33,703,000 

Perch,  white 2,412,000 

Perch,  yellow 7,898,000 

Pike  and  Pickerel 2,959,000 

Pike  perch 15,247,000 

PoUock 29,462,000 

Pompano 570,000 

Rockfish 2,454,000 

Salmon 90,417,000 

Scup 8,414,000 

Sea  bass 6,352,000 

Shad 27,641,000 

Smelt 4,340,000 

Snapper,  red 13,498,000 

Spanish  mackerel 3,806,000 

Squeteague 49,869,000 

Striped  bass 3,657,000 

Sturgeon 2,072,000 

Suckers : 8,555,000 

Swordfish 2,714,000 

Trout 12,024,000 

Whitefish 7,722,000 

Lobsters 15,279,000 

Shrimp 14,374,000 

Clams,  hard 7,805,000 

Clams,  soft 8,654,000 

Oysters 2.33,309,000 

Mus.sel  shells 81,869,000 

Pearls  and  slugs 

Terrapin 368,000 

Turtles 1,088,000 

Sponges 622,000 

AUigator  hides 372,000 

Mink  skins 22,000 

Muskrat  .skins 149,000 

Otter  skins 7,600 

Whalebone 63,000 

Scallops 2,414,000 

Oil,  sperm 3,391,000 

Oil,  whale 573,000 

Irish  moss 772,000 


Dollars. 

589.000 
255,000 
506,000 
120,000 
498,000 
237,000 

1,135,000 
785,000 

2,903,C00 
226,000 
105,000 
154,000 
164,000 
203,000 
588,000 

1,308,000 
464,000 

1,562,000 
796,000 
989,000 
848,000 
893,000 
908,000 
137,000 
258,000 
174,000 
580,000 
402,000 
71,000 
66,000 

3,347,000 
290,000 
284,000 

2,113,000 
174,000 
636,000 
194,000 

1,776,000 
314,000 
157,000 
215,000 
198,000 
800,000 
524,000 

1,931,000 
390,000 

1,317,000 

553,000 

15,713,000 

392,000 

300,000 

80,000 

40,000 


545,000 

61,000 

89,000 

136,000 

30,000 

215,000 

317,000 

252,000 

30,000 

26.000 


The  total  quantity  and  value  of  the  products  of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States  including 
the  items  mentioned  above  and  all  other  fish  products  was  1,893,454,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$54,031,000.  No  later  figures  are  available*  at  time  of  publication.  In  many  cases  there 
was  an  increase,  in  other  cases  a  decrease. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


67 


68 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ESTIMATED  AREA  OF  EXISTING  NATIONAL  FORESTS  JANUARY 

31,    1913. 


Alaska 

Arizona  . .  . 
Arkansas.  . 
California  . 
Colorado... 

Florida 

Idaho 

Kansas. . . . 
Michigan . . 
Minnesota . 
Montana.  . 
Nebraska. . 


Acres. 
26,748,850 
13,339,390 
2,225,890 
26,921,945 
14,648,890 

674,970 
19,550,827 

303,937 

163,771 

1,570,850 

18,977,580 

556,700 


Nevada 

New  Mexico... 
North  Dakota 
Oklahoma.  .  .  . 

Oregon 

Porto  Rico. . .  . 
South  Dakota. 

Utah 

Washington . .  . 
Wyoming 


Total  area. 


Area  embraced   in   additions   to  national   forests  from  June 

30,  1911 

Area  embraced  in  eliminations  from  national  forests  from  June 

30,  1911.......... 

Area  embraced  in  existing  national  forests  June  30,  1911 

Area  embraced  in  existing  national  forests  January  31,  1913.. . 

Area  decreased  during  the  period  June  30,  1911,  to  January 

31,  1913 


Acres. 

5,595,310 

10,173,890 

13,920 

61,640 

16,023,220 

65,950 

1,337,750 

7,735,639 

11,684,360 

8,633,463 

187,008,796 

Acres. 

484,204 

4,083,651 
190,608,243 
187,008,796 


3,599,447 


NATIONAL  MONUMENTS. 


states  and  names. 

Date  created. 

Area. 

States  and  names. 

Date  created. 

Area. 

Alaska:- 

Sitka 

Mar.  23.1910 

Jan.    11,1908 
Dec.     8, 1906 
Mar.  20,1909 
Dec.   19,1907 
Sept.  15,1908 
July  31,1911 

May     6,1907 

do 

Jan.     9,1908 
Jan.    16,1908 
July     6, 1911 

Dec.   17,1908 
May  24,1911 

June  23,1910 

May   16,1911 

Acres. 
157,00 

1806,400.00 

160.00 

3  600.00 

1640.00 

10.00 

<  25, 625. 60 

15,120.00 

11,280.00 

295.00 

12,080.00 

1800.00 

300.00 
13,883.06 

15.00 

U60.00 

New  Mexico: 

Chaco  Canyon .... 
El  Morro 

Mar.  11,1907 
Dec.     8, 1906 

Nov.  16,1907 
Nov.    1,1909 

July   12,1909 

Feb.     7, 1908 

July  31,1909 
Sept.  25, 1909 
May  30,1910 

Mar.     2, 1909 

Sept.  24, 1906 
Sept.  21, 1909 

Acres. 
20,629.40 
160.00 

Arizona: 

Grand  Canyon  2.. 
Montezuma  Castle 

Gila  Cliff  Dwell- 

160.00 

Navajo 

Gran  Quivira 

Oregon: 

Oregon  Caves  2... 
South  Dakota: 

Jewel  Cave- 

Utah: 

Mukimtuweap.... 

Natural  Bridges.. 

Rainbow  Bridge.. 
Washington: 

Mount  Olympus  2 
Wyoming: 

Devils  Tower 

Shoshone  Cavern . 

Total 

1160.00 

Tonto  2 

Tumacacori 

Petrified  Forest... 
California: 

Cinder  Cone  2 

Lassen  Peak  2 

Muir  Woods 

Pinnacles    . 

1480.00 

11,280.00 

1  15,840.00 

<  2, 740. 00 

160.00 

1608,640.00 

DevilPostpile2... 
Colorado: 

Wheeler  2      . . 

Colorado 

1,152.91 
210.00 

Montana: 
Big  Hole 

Lewis  and"  Clark 

11,509,027.97 

Cavern 

1  Estimated  area. 

2  Under  jurisdiction  of  Department  of  Agriculture". 

3  Based  on  15  known  ruins;  within  Indian  reservation. 
*  According  to  second  proclamation. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


69 


LUMBER  AND  TIMBER  PRODUCTS  STATISTICS. 


In  1909  there  were  in  the  United  States 
40,671  establishments;  784,989  persons  en- 
gaged in  the  industry,  of  which  number, 
48,825  were  proprietors  and  firm  members, 
19,840  were  salaried  officers,  superintendeaits 
and  managers;  18,088  were  male,  and  3,717 
female  clerks.  The  average  number  of  wage 
eaimers  was  695,019:  the  number  in  the 
maximum  month,  November,  was  739,160, 
and  in  the  minimum  month,  January, 
649,239.  The  total  number  of  wage  earners 
on  December  15,  1909,  or  the  nearest  re- 
presentative dav,  was  838,160,  of  which 
number,  826,978  were  males,  and  4,027 
females,  all  being  16  years  of  age  and  over; 


while  6,886  males,  and  269  females,  were 
under  16.  The  capital  invested  was  $1,176,- 
675,407.  The  total  expenses  were  $995,- 
622,839,  of  which  the  officials  received 
$22,448,332,  clerks  $17,979,364,  wage  earners 
$318,739,207,  fuel  and  rent  of  power  $3,- 
082,287,  other  materials  $503,035,292,  rent  of 
factory  or  works  $2,623,146,  taxes  including 
internal  revenue  $9,863,384,  contract  work 
$32,491,242,  and  other  miscellaneous  work 
$76,360,585.  The  primary  horse-power  was 
2,84(0,082.  The  value  of  products  $1,156,- 
128,747.  The  value  added  by  manufacture, 
which  is  the  difference  between  cost  of  materi- 
als and  value  of  products,  was  $648,011,168. 


LUMBER  AND  TIMBER  PRODUCTS, 

The  total  value  of  the  lumber  and  timber  products  of  the  United  States,  in  1909,  was 
$724,705,760.  The  total  quantity  of  lumber  made  was  44,509,761  M.  feet,  board  measure, 
valued  at  $684,479,859:  Of  this  amount  the  softwoods  comprised  33,896,959  M.  feet, 
board  measure,  valued  at  $477,345,046.     They  were  subdivided  as  follow;:.: 

16,277,185  M.  ft.  yellow  pine,  valued  at $206,505,297 

1,499,985    "      "   western    "           "        " 23,077,854 

3,900,034    "      "   white       "           "        " 70,830,131 

4,856,378    "     "    Douglas  fir         "        ^  .  .  . 60,435,793 

3,051,399    "     "   hemlock              "        " 42,580,800 

1,748,547    "      "   spruce                  "        " 29,561,315 

955,635    "      "   cypress                "        " 19,549,741 

521,630    "      "   redwood              "        " 7,720,124 

346,008    "     "    cedar                   "         " , 6,901,948 

740,158    "      "   all  other  kinds  "        " 10,182,043 

Of  the  total  quantity  of  lumber,  the  output  of  hardwoods  was  10,612,802  M.  feet,  board 
measure,  valued  at  $207,134,813.     They  were  divided  as  follows: 

4,414,457  M.  ft.  oak,  valued  at $90,512,069 

1,106,604    "      "   maple,  valued  at 17,447,814 

706,945    "      "    red  gum,  valued  at 9,334,268 

663,891    "      "    chestnut,        "         " 10,703,130 

452,370    "      "   birch,              "         " 7,666,186 

399,151    "      "   basswood,      "         " 7,781,563 

347,456    "      "   elm,                 "         " 6,088,098 

265,600    "     "    Cottonwood,  "         " 4,794,424 

291,209    "     "   ash,                 "         " 7,116,089 

333,929    "      "   hickory,          "         " 10,283,776 

46,108    "      "   walnut,           "         " 1,972,835 

56,511    "     "   sycamore,      "         " 834,612 

1,528,571    "     "   all  other  kinds,  valued  at 32,599,949 


'   Shingles,  1911. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were  12,113,867 
thousand  shingles  produced  in  the  United 
States.  They  were  cut  from  the  following 
woods  in  the  following  quantities:  Cedar 
9,592,179  thousand;  cypress  1,230,645;  yellow 
pine  650,332;  redwood  395,786;  white  pine 
83,679;  spruce  12,381;  chestnut  40,840;  hem- 
lock 26,171;  western  pine  15,882;  and  all 
other  woods  65,972  thousands.  Washington 
produced  63.9  per  cent,  of  all  the  shingles 
used  and  Alabama,  Arkansas,  California, 
Florida,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Michigan, 
North  Carolina,  Oregon  and  Wisconsin  pro- 
duced from  one  per  cent,  to  three  per  cent, 
pf  the  total  production. 


Poles  and  Ties,  1911. 

During  the  year  1911  there  Were  135,- 
053,000  ties  used  by  the  steam  and  electric 
railroads  of  the  United  States.  Of  this  num- 
ber 59,508,000  were  oak;  24,265,000  southern 
pines;  8,015,000  cedar;  7,542,000  chestnut; 
11,253,000  Douglas  fir;  4,138,000  tamarack; 
5,857,000  cypress;  3,686,000  hemlock;  2,696,- 
000  western  yellow  pine;  1,820,000  redwood; 
1,293,000  gum;  and  4,980,000  of  all  other 
kinds.  During  the  same  period  there  were 
3,418,020  poles  purchased  for  electric  wires 
of  all  kinds.  They  were  of  the  following 
woods:  Cedar  2,100,144;  chestnut  693,489; 
oak  199,590;  pine  161,690;  cypress  72,995;  and 
all  other  kinds  190,112. 


70 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATE 

WA8HINST0H 


TEXAS 


WISCONSIN 

ARKANSAS 

MICHIGAN 

PtNNSYLVANIA 

MINNESOTA 

OREGON 

NORTH  CAROLINA 

VIRGINIA 

WEST  VIRGINIA 

CALIFORNIA 

ALABAMA 

MAINE 

KENTUCKY 

TENNESSEE 

GEORGIA 

NEW  YORK 

FLORIDA 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

SOUTH  CAROLINA 

MISSOURI 

OHIO 

IDAHO 

INDIANA 

VERMONT 

MASSACHUSETTS 

MONTANA 

MARYLAND 

IOWA 

ILLINOIS 

OKLAHOMA 

CONNECTICUT 

COLORADO 

NEW  MEXICO 

ARIZONA 

DELAWARE 

NEW  JERSEY 

SOUTH   OAKOTi* 

RHODE  ISLAND 

WYOMING 

UTAH 


BILLIONS  BOARD  FEET 
0_  I  2  3 


LUMBER  CUTS  BY  STATER.  1907 


Production   of  Turpentine  and 

Resin:  Quantity  and  Value, 

1908-1910. 

During  the  year  1910  there  were  27,750,000 
gallons  of  turpentine  produced,  having  a  total 
value  of  $17,680,000,  against  36,589,000 
gallons  and  a  value  of  $14,112,400  in  1908. 
The  total  production  of  resin  in  1910  was 
3,404,000  barrels  of  280  pounds  and  was 
valued  at  $18,255,000.  For  the  year  1908 
there  were  4,288,283  barrels  produced  having 
a  total  value  of  $17,783,550. 


BiaiOKS  BOARD  FEET 


YELLOW    PINE 
OOUOLAS  FIR. 
WWrTE  HNE 
OAK 
HEMLOCK 


WESTERN  nNE 

MAPLE 

raPLAR 

CYPRESS 

RED  GUM 

CHESTNUT 


BASSWOOO 

COTTONWOOO 

ELM 

ASH 

CEOAR 

URCH 

HICKORY 

WHITE  FIR 

SUGAR  PINE 

TAMARACK 

TUPELO 

SYCAMORE 

WALNUT 

ALL   OTHERS 


>t»a«a»Ts»ioii 

^         III 

I 

ii 


RELATIVE  CUTS  FOR  1907. 


THE  CX)MING  OF  THE  OIL  DRIVEN  STEAMER  WILL  CONSERVE  BOTH 
FORESTS  AND  COAL  FIELDS 


I 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


71 


Pulp  Wood:  1911. 

The  total  consumption  of  pulp  wood  in  the 
United  States  in  1911  amounted  to  4,328,052 
cords,  with  268  active  mills.  The  kinds  of 
wood  consumed  follows:  Spruce,  domestic, 
1,612,355  cords;  spruce,  imported,  903,375 
cords;  hemlock,  616,663  cords;  poplar, 
domestic  and  imported,  368,224  cords; 
balsam  fir,  191,779  cords;  pine,  124,019  cords; 


beech,  44,320  cords;    slabwood,  etc.,  280,534 
cords;   all  other,  186,783  cords. 

The  production  of  air-dry  pulp  in  1911 
amounted  to  2,686,134  tons,  exceeding  the 
output  in  1910  by  152.158  tons,  or  6  per  cent. 
The  method  of  manufacture  was  distributed 
as  follows:  Mechanical,  1,229,719  tons; 
sulphite,  1,126,496  tons;  soda,  317,764  tons; 
sulphate,  12,155  tons. 


LCGCNO 

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and  Forest  Land 

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2*1 IBarrenXand 

100*  Total 


PROBABLE  FUTURE  LAND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


72 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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73 


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iiiiiiiif: 


CHAPTER  III. 


MINES   AND   QUARRIES, 


Copyright  1909,  by  Munn  &  Co. 

CLAY  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1907. 

A  pyramid  of  burned  clay  would  be  4,294  feet  high  and  represents  a  value  of  $158,942,369. 

75 


76 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUBDIVISIONS  OF  GEOLOGIC  TIME  AND  STRATA. 

(Prepared  Expressly  for  the  American  Almanac  by  Professor  WlUard  C.  Hayes,  of  the  Dnited  States  Geo- 

lottlcal  Survey.) 

The  rocks  forming  the  earth's  crest  arc  divided  into  three  classes:  (a)  Sedimentary,  Including  all  rocks 
formed  by  aqueous,  organic,  glacial  and  eoliaii  agencies;  (b)  Igneous,  including  all  rocks  that  have  been 
solidified  from  a  molten  condition,  both  volcanic  and  plutonlc;  (ct  Metamorphic,  including  altered  rocks  of 
either  sedimentary  or  igneous  origin,  in  which  the  acquired  are  more  prominent  than  the  original  character- 
istics, together  with  the  ancient  crystalline  schists  of  uncertain  origin. 

The  sedimentary  rocks  are  subdivided  Into  formations,  which  are  groups  of  strata  of  similar  composition 
or  containing  the  same  fossils.  The  formations  are  groui)ed  into  larger  aggregates  called  systems,  which 
correspond  to  divisions  of  the  time  scale  called  periods.  The  systems  and  their  corresponding  periods  are 
of  world-wide  occurrence,  and  standard  terms  are  employed  throughout  the  world.  Formations,  however, 
ure  locrtl,  and  cannot  generally  be  identified  in  more  than  a  single  geologic  province.  The  following  standard 
column  is  applicable  only  to  the  United  Slates.  It  represents  the  most  recent  usage  as  adopted  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey. 


Subdivisions  of  Geologic 

Tiri"^. 

Subdivisions   of   Rock 

Strata. 

Bras. 

Systems. 

Series. 

Groups  and  Formations. 

Recent     Pleistocene     . . 
("Pliocene 

South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal 
Plain. 

Columbia   loam    and  gravel. 

fLafayette  gravel. 
-^  Shell  Creek  limestone. 
LCaloosahatchee   limestone. 
Chesapeake  sands. 
fOak  Grove  beds. 
J  Chipola  group. 

Chattahoochee  beds. 
(.Vicksburg  limestone, 
f  Jackson  clays. 
1  Claiborn  limestone. 
1  Hatchetigbee  clays. 
I  Midway  limestone. 

Texas  Great  Plains  Region, 

fMontana  sandstone, 
-j  Colorado  shales. 
LDakota  sandstone. 

.TerUary 

fCretaeeous 

Miocene    

Age  of  mammals 

l-Eocene    

"Upper  Cretaceous 

Jurassic 

Triassic 

fWashita  group, 
tety'tt^s^  '^°"''- 
North  Atlantic  Coastal  Flaia. 

?  Patuxent  clays. 

jBrunswick  sandstone. 

■  Lackatong  shale. 
LStockton  sandstone  and  shale. 

Kew  York-Pennsylvania  Begion. 

Dunkard  sandstone. 

fMonongehelasandstone  and  shale. 
J  Conemaugh  sandstone  and  shale. 
\  Allegheny  sandstone  and  shale. 
-I  Pottsville — conglomerate. 

5  Manch  Chunk  shale. 
i  Pocono  sandstone. 
5  Chemung  sandstone. 
I  Portage  sandstone. 
(Hamilton  shale, 
I  Marcellus  limestone. 

fCorniferous  limestone. 
-  Schoharie   grits. 
LOreskony  sandstone. 

Lower  Heldenberg  limestcme. 
Salina  sandstone. 

■  Niagara   limestone. 
CUnton    sandstone. 

Mesozoic    

Lower    Potomac    

Newark 

Age  of  reptOes 

"Carboniferous    

Devonian    

Permian    . 

Age  of  acrogens 

Age    of    fishes 

■   Pennsylvanian     

Mississippian    

Neodevonian     

-  Mesodevonian     

^-Eodevonian     

OnUrian .-<... 

.Champlanian    

• 

fPotsdamian     

Palezoic    

Silurian 

■  Cambrian    

Age  of   invertebratM. . . 

(Medina  sandstone. 
/Hudson   slate. 

Utica  shale. 
•<  Trenton   limestone. 

Chozy  limestone. 
|_CaIciferou3  limestone. 

Potsdam   sandstone. 
Acadia    limestone. 
Georgia  slate. 

Lake  Superior  Refion. 

p  Georgian   .... 

.  Upper    Hurouian     ... 

.Lower  Huronian    .... 
Laurentlan     

S  Hanbury  slatfe. 

Asolc 

Archeon     

I  Vulcan  slate. 

Negaunee    formation. 
-  Randville  dolomite. 
tSturgeon  quartzite. 

SCIENTTPIO  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


77 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Product. 

1910. 

Quantity, 

Value. 

METALS. 

Pig  iron  (spot  value)  . 

long  tons 

27,303,567 

57,137,900 

4,657,018 

1,080,159,509 

372,227 

252,479 

20,601 

47,734,000 

14,069 

$425,115,235 
30,854,600 
96, 269, 100 
137,180,257 
32,755,976 

Silver,  commercial  value 

Gold,  coining  value 

Copper,  value  at  New  York  Citv 

Lead,  value  at  New  York  City ." 

...troy  ounces.. 

do.. 

pounds.. 

Zinc,  value  at  St.  Louis 

Quicksilver,  value  at  San  Francisco 

Aluminum .  . 

do.... 

flasks.. 

.  .  .    pounds . . 

27,267,732 

958, 153 

8,955,700 

Antimonial  lead 

short  tons 

1,338,090 

Tin 

pounds 

23,447 

Platinum,  value  at  New  York  City 

...troy  ounces.. 

773 

25,277 

760,743,467 

.  short  tons  . 

417; 111, 142 
75, 433, 246 

NONMETALS  (SPOT  VALUE). 

Bituminous  coal     

469,281,719 

Pennsylvania  anthracite 

Natural  gas 

long  tons.. 

160,275,302 

70,750,158 

127,896,328 

140,209 

209,556,048 

Peat .                     .                     

Clay  products    .                    » 

170,115,974 

77,785,141 
3,481,780 
66,949,347 

68,752,092 

Lime 

short  tons.. 

13,894,962 

Sand  (molding,  building,  etc.)  and  gravel 

Sand-lhne  brick    ... 

do.... 

19,520,919 
1,169,153 

Slate 

6,236,759 

76,520,584 

Corundum  and  emery 

Garnet  for  abrasive  purposes 

— short  tons.. 
do.... 

1,028 
3,814 

'  15;077 
113,574 

796,294 

130,006 

Millstones 

28,217 

Oilstones,  etc     .                   .           ..          

228,694 

Pumice 

short  tons 

23,271 

2,994,000 
42,357 
245,437 
69, 427 

2,379,057 

94,943 

Arsenious  oxide 

Borax  (crude)                                                     i 

pounds.. 

short  tons 

52,305 
1,201,842 

Bromine 

pounds  . 

41,684 

Fluorspar 

short  tons'.. 

do.... 

430, 196 
6,523,029 

do.... 

C) 

Phosphate  rock 

Pyrite           .     .                        ...                    

long  tons.. 

do.. 

2,654,988 

238, 154 

255,534 

30,305,656 

42,975 

85,685 

59,333 

3,693 

260,080 

148,932 

205 

81,102 

32,822 

10,917,000 
958,608 

do.... 

4,605,112 

Salt 

7,900,344 

121,746 

Mineral  paints        

do.. 

2,174,735 

Zinc  oxide                .        ... 

do 

5,325,636 

do.... 

68,357 

Asphalt 

do.... 

3,080,067 

Bauxite 

long  tons.. 

710,258 

Chromic  iron  ore 

Feldspar                                 .... 

do.... 

short  tons 

2,729 
602,452 

do.... 

293,709 

295,797 

1,461,089 

5,590,592 

35,945 

12,443 

2,258 

CI,  101 

2,476,190 

4,065 

62,030,125 

63,577 

79,006 

71,710 

99,301 

566 

1,821 

1,516,711 

Graphite  (crystalline) 

Graphite  (amorphous) 

Magnesite             ... 

pounds . . 

short  tons.. 

do 

295,733 
81,443 
74,658 

Manganese  ore 

Manganiferous  ore 

Mica  (sheet) • 

Mica  (scrap) .     . 

long  tons.. 

do 

pounds.. 

short  tons 

22,892 
186,765 
283,832 

53,265 

Mineral  waters 

Quartz  . 

...gallons  sold., 
short  tons 

6,357,590 
193,767 

Talc  and  soapstone 

Talc,  fibrous 

do.... 

do 

864,213 
728,180 

Thorium  minerals  (monazite)  and  zircon 

Titanium  ore  (rutile) 

Tungsten  ore 

pounds.. 

do.. 

— short  tons.. 
do.... 

12,006 
44,480 
807,307 

1  242,701,402 

Total  value  of  metals     

760,743,467 

Estimated  valuSof  mineral  products  unspecified/ 

300,000 

Grand  total 

2.003,744.869 

o  Included  under  unsnecifled. 


78 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


VALUE   OF   IMPORTS   FOR   CONSUMPTION   AND  OF    EXPORTS    OF 
MINERAL  PRODUCTS  IN  THE  CALENDAR  YEAR  1911. 


The  imports  of  mineral  products  into  the 
United  States  may  be  divided  into  metals  and 
non-metals,  the  imports  of  the  former  amount- 
ing in  1911  to  $105,629,981  and  of  the  latter 
to  $124,146,745,  a  total  of  $229,776,726  worth 
of  mineral  products  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  1911.  The  imports  of  metals  during 
the  year  were  as  follows:  Aluminum  salts, 
$56,833;  antimony  (metal,  regulus  and  ore) 
$531,011;  antimony  salts,  $54,426;  bauxite, 
$164,301;  bismuth,  $311,771;  cadmium, 
$3,870;  chromic  iron  ore,  $407,958;  chromium 
salts,  $3,508;  cobalt  (oxide,  ore,  and  zaffer) 
$48,104;  copper,  in  ore,  matte,  ingots,  bars, 
manufactures,  etc.,  $38,445,939;  iron  ore, 
$5,402,636;  lead,  in  ore,  base  bulUon,  pigs, 
sheets,  manufactures,  etc.,  $631,654;  man- 
ganese ore,  $1,186,791;  nickel,  in  ore,  matte, 
oxide,  etc.,  $4,050,030;  platinum,  $4,866,207; 
quicksilver,  $251,386;  tin,  $43,346,394;  tung- 
sten ore,  $85,887;  type  metal,  $310,658; 
uranium  salts  and  oxide,  $14,106;  zinc,  in  ore, 
sheeti,  dust,  manufactures,  etc.,  $408,273; 
iridium,  osmium,  palladium,  and  rhodium, 
$292,399.  The  imports  of  non-metals  for  the 
same  period  may  be  divided  in  similar  fashion 
into:  Alizarin,  $996,794;  aniline  salts,  $410,- 
193;  arsenic  sulphides,  etc.,  $247,323;  asbes- 
tos, $1,703,639;  asphalt,  $789,236;  barytes, 
$58,726;  barium  compounds,  $398,213;  borax, 
$23,628;  burrstones  and  millstones,  $36,028; 
cement,  hydraulic,  $242,722;  clay,  $235,254; 
clay  products,  brick  and  tile,  etc.,  $166,133; 
pottery,  etc.,  $10,638,616;  coal,  anthracite, 
$12,550  and  bituminous,  $3,604,797;  coal-tar 
products,  $8,235,891;  cobalt,  $48,104;  coke, 
$254,455;  corundum  and  emery,  $336,644; 
cryolite,  $47,093;  fertilizers,  crude  (guano, 
kainite,  manure  salts,  phosphates,  etc)., 
$10,387,588,  potassium  chloride,  $7,651,693, 
potassium  sulphate,  $2,240,631  and  sodium 
nitrate,  $16,814,268;  flint  and  flint  pebbles, 
$236,158;  fluorspar,  $80,592;  fuller's  earth, 
$143,594;  gems  and  precious  stones,  $40,820,- 
436;  granite,  $146,468;  graphite,  $1,495,729; 


grindstones,  $123,727;  gypsum,  $450,806; 
hones,  oilstones,  whetstones,  $54,379;  in- 
fusorial earth  and  rotten  stone,  $35,665; 
kaolin  or  china  clay  $1,461,068;  lead  paints- 
litharge,  orange  mineral,  red  lead,  white  lead, 
$118,395;  lime,  $55,255;  magnesite  and  mag- 
nesia, $1,224,987;  marble  and  stone,  $1,409,- 
930;  mica,  $502,163;  mineral  waters,  $1,037,- 
485;  monazite  and  thorium  oxide,  $60,542; 
ocher,  $110,932;  peat,  $39,372;  petroleum, 
$2,410,884;  ozokerite  and  paraffin,  $792,818; 
pumice,  $118,977;  pyrite,  $3,788,803;  shale, 
$375,030;  sand  and  gravel,  $147,268;  sienna 
and  umber,  $59,334;  slate,  $8,367;  sulphur, 
$552,836;  talc,  $88,050;  thorium  nitrate, 
$238,841;  Venetian  red,  $20,169;  zinc  oxide, 
$357,466. 

The  exports  of  mineral  products  from  the 
United  States  again  may  be  divided  into 
metals  and  non-metals,  the  exports  of  the 
former  amounting  to  $123,322,446  and  of  the 
latter  to  $190,807,641,  or  a  total  of  $314,130,- 
087  worth  of  mineral  products  exported  from 
the  United  States  during  the  year  1911.  The 
exports  of  metal^  for  the  year  were  as  follows: 
Aluminum  and  manufactures,  etc.,  $1,158,- 
603;  copper,  in  ore,  matte,  ingots,  bars  manu- 
factures, etc.,  $105,679,926;  iron  ore, 
$2,653,448;  pig  iron  (including  scrap)  $2,916,- 
601;  lead,  in  ore,  base  bullion,  pigs,  sheets, 
manufactures,  etc.,  $680,419;  nickel,  in  ore, 
matte,  oxide,  etc.,  $8,283,777;  quicksilver, 
$13,995;  zinc,  in  ore,  pigs,  sheets,  dust,  manu- 
factures, $1,935,677.  The  exports  of  non- 
metallic  products  were  as  follows:  Asphalt, 
$598,930;  cement,  hydraulic,  $4,632,215; 
clay  products,  brick  and  tile,  etc.,  $2,264,354, 
pottery,  etc.,  $1,401,366;  coal,  anthracite, 
$18,093,285,  bituminous,  $34,499,989;  coke, 
$3,215,990;  fertilizers,  phosphates,  crude, 
$9,235,388;  lime,  $153,212;  marble  and  stone, 
$1,810,182;  petroleum,  $105,922,848;  paraffin 
and  paraffin  wax,  $7,047,856;  salt,  $335,285; 
sulphur,  $545,420,  zinc  oxide,  $1,051,311. 


CALENDAR    OF    EVENTS    AND    DISCOVERIES    RELATIVE    TO    THE 
PRECIOUS  METALS. 


1530-1540. 
1547-1548. 

1577. 
1670. 
1680. 

1704-1728. 
1743. 

1848. 
1848. 


1851. 
1853. 


1853. 


1858. 


Pillage  of  Peru. 

Discovery  of  Guanajuato  silver 
mines  in  Mexico. 

Discovery  of  gold  in  Brazil. 

Discovery  of  placers  of  Garazua. 

Discovery  of  placers  of  Minas- 
Geraes. 

Silver  mines  opened  in  Russia. 

Discovery  of  gold  in  the  Ural. 

Discovery  of  Placers  in  California. 

Introduction  of  Plattner's  chlori- 
nation  process  at  Reichenstein 
in  Silesia. 

Discovery  of  placers  in  Australia. 

Introduction  of  hydraulic  mining 
in  California. 

Maximum  annual  production  of 
gold  in  California,  amounting 
to  $65,000,000  for  the  year. 

Introduction  of  chlorination  pro- 
cess at  Grass  Valley,  California. 


1866. 
1886. 


1889. 


1890. 
1897. 


Invention  of  dynamite. 

Opening  of  the  "banket"  reef  of 
the  Rand,  South  Africa. 

Development  of  Manke's  method 
of  bessemerizing  copper  mattes 
and  the  successful  refining  of 
this  impure  copper  by  electri- 
city. 

Introduction  of  the  cyanide  pro- 
cess in  the  Rand,  South  Africa. 

Discovery  of  placers  in  the 
Yukon. 


The  price  per  unit  of  the  production  (gold 
excepted,  which  is  fixed  by  law)  is  based 
upon  the  average  for  the  year  1910  of  daily 
New  York  prices  for  the  metals,  as  follows: 
Gold  per  fine  ounce,  $20.6718346255323; 
silver  per  fine  ounce,  $0.54;  copper  per  pound, 
$0,127;  lead  per  pound,  $0,044;  and  zinc  per 
pound,  $0,054. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


79 


MEXICO 
i3.80a,7l8 


RHODESIA 
•£2. 176,886 


INDIA 


o  o 


NEW  ZEALAND       CANADA        QOLD  C0A5T 
i.Z,02Z^90      il, 698,868  i|, 130, 975 


A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION  OF  GOLD 

(in  pounds  sterling) 


Gold  and  Silver. 

During  the  year  1880  there  were  1,741,500 
fine  ounces  of  gold  produced  with  a  value  of 
$36,000,000  and  30,318,700  fine  ounces  of 
silver,  having  a  value  of  $34,717,000.  In 
1890  the  1,588,877  ounces  of  gold  were  valued 
at  $32,845,000  and  the  54,516,300  fine  ounces 
of  silver  $57,242,000.  For  the  year  1900  the 
3,829,897  ounces  of  fine  gold  produced  had  a 
value  of  $79,171,000  and  the  57,647,000 
ounces  of  silver  a  value  of  $35,741,000. 
During  the  year  1911  there  were  4,687,053 
fine  ounces  of  gold  produced  with  a  total 
value  of  $96,890,000  and  60,399,400  fine 
ounces  of  silver  with  a  value  of  $32,615,700. 


Platinum. 

In  1911  the  production  of  crude  platinum 
was  628  troy  ounces,  valued  at  $18,137  as 
compared  with  390  troy  ounces  in  1910  valued 
at  $9,507.  This  entire  output  was  recovered 
from  placer  mines  in  CaUfornia  and  Oregon. 
The  total  quantity  of  refined  platinum  pro- 
duced in  domestic  refineries  in  1911  was 
about  29,140  fine  ounces,  of  which  only  about 
940  ounces,  valued  at  $40,890,  were  derived 
from  domestic  sources  of  various  kinds.  The 
total  imports  for  the  year  amounted  to 
$4,866,207.  The  total  world's  production  of 
platinum  in  1911  amounted  to  314,323  troy 
ounces. 


A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION  OF  SILVER 

(in  pounds  sterling) 


80 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Lead. 

The  production  of  lead  in  1911  was  406,148 
short  tons,  valued  at  $36,553,320,  as  com- 
pared with  372,227  tons  valued  at  $32,755,976 
in  1910.  The  imports  of  lead  were  valued  at 
$631,654  in  19U  against  $755,092  in  1910. 
The  exports  were  valued  at  680,419  in  1911 
against  $614,158  in  1910.  The  imports  of 
type  metal  were  valued  at  $310,65S  as  against 
$485,493  in  1910.  The  United  States  ranks 
first  in  the  production  of  lead  with  a  pro- 
duction of  406,148  short  tons;  Spain  ranks 
second  with  189,155  tons;  Germany  third 
with  177,801  tons;  Mexico  fourth  with  132,276 
tons  and  Australia  fifth  with  109,789  tons. 

Quicksilver. 

The  production  of  quicksilver  in  1912 
amounted  to  25,064  flasks  of  75  pounds  each, 
valued  at  $1,053,941.  California  reported 
20,524  flasks  for  the  year;  Nevada  and  Texas 
combined  reported  4,540  flasks.  The  imports 
were  valued  at  $39,920  in  1912  and  the  ex- 
ports at  $13,360. 

Iron,  Pig  Iron  and  Steel. 

The  quantity  of  iron  ore  mined  in  the 
United  States  in  1912  amounted  to  55,150,147 
long  tons,  as  compared  with  43,876,552  long 
tons  in  1911,  an  increase  of  11,273,595  long 
tons,  or  25.69  per  cent.  The  quantity  of  iron 
ore  marketed  in  1912  amounted  to  57,017,614 
long  tons,  valued  at  $107,050,153,  as  com- 
pared with  41,092,447  long  tons  in  1911, 
valued  at  $86,716,575.  This  total  production 
of  55,150,147  long  tons  consisted  of  the  follow- 
ing ores:  Hematite,  51,345,782  long  tons; 
Brown  ore,  1,614,486  long  tons;  Magnetite, 
2,179,533  long  tons;  carbonate,  10,346  long 
tons.  The  rank  of  the  principal  iron-ore 
producing  states  with  regard  to  both  quantity 
and  percentage  of  total  production  follows: 


Minnesota,  34,431,768  long  tons,  or  62.43%; 
Michigan,  11,191,430  long  tons,  20.29%; 
Alabama,  4,563,603  long  tons,  8.28%;  New 
York,  1,216,672  long  tons,  2.21%;  Wisconsin, 
860,600  long  tons,  1.56%;  all  other  states, 
2,887,074  long  tons,  or  5.23%.  The  principal 
iron-ore  producing  region  is  the  Lake  Superior 
region,  which  alone  in  1912  produced  46,368,- 
878  long  tons.  There  are  six  ranges  included 
in  the  lake  Superior  region,  their  production 
for  the  year  1912  being  as  follows:  Marquette 
range  (Mich.),  3,545,012  long  tons;  Menomi- 
nee (Mich,  and  Wis.),  4.465,46')  long  tons; 
Gogebic  (Mich,  and  Wis.),  3,926,632  long 
tons;  Vermillion  (Minn.),  1,457,273  long  tons; 
Mesabi  (Minn.),  32,604,756  long  tons; 
Cuyuna  (Minn.),  369,739  long  tons. 

The  apparent  consumption  of  iron-ore  in 
the  United  States  for  intervals  of  ten  years 
is  as  follows:  1890,  16.302,025  long  tons;  1900, 
26,722,583  long  tons;  1910,  56,161,091  long 
tons;  1912,  58,031,118  long  tons. 

The  imports  of  iron-ore  in  1912  were  valued 
at  $6,499,690,  as  compared  with  $5,412,636  in 

1911  and  $7,832,225  in  1910.      The  exports  in 

1912  were  valued  at  $3,537,289,  as  compared 
with  $2,653,448  in  191 1  and  $2,474,165  in  1910. 

The  production  of  pig  iron  in  the  United 
States  in  1912  amounted  to  29,726,937  long 
tons.  The  marketed  production  amounted 
to  30,180,969  long  tons,  valued  at  the  fur- 
naces at  $420,563,388,  as  compared  with 
23,257,288  long  tons  in  1911,  valued  at 
$327,334,624.  The  whole  number  of  furnaces 
in  blast  on  December  31,  1912  was  313, 
against  231  in  1911;  on  that  date  153  furnaces 
were  idle  or  being  rebuilt. 

The  production  of  all  kinds  of  steel  ingots 
and  castings  in  1912  amounted  to  31,251,303 
long  tons  and  was  made  by  the  following 
processes:  Bessemer,  10,327,901  long  tons; 
Open  hearth,  20,780,723;  crucible  and  all 
other,  142,679  long  tons. 


WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  ORE  BY  COUNTRIES. 


Country. 


North  America: 

Canada  <» 

Cubao 

Mexico 

Newfoundland.. . 

United  States.... 
Europe: 

Austria-Hungary . 


France 

German  Empire  and  Lu.xcmburg. 

Greece 

.Italy 

■Norway 

Portugal 


Spain , 

Sweden 

United  Kingdom 

Asia: 

China 

India 

Japan  / 

Chosen  (Korea) 

Philippine  Islands  ?. 
Africa: 

Algeria 

Madagascar 

JJatal 

Tunis 

Australia 


,503,768 
196,565 
,702,756 
,102,819 
468,126 
497, 141 
39,753 


1306,000 
&3, 456 


876,969 
C) 


231,623 
,462,498 


1,108,762 
57,014,906 

4,592,572 

121,024 

14,375,984 

28,257,579 

527,040 

542,578 

100,  &34 

3,307 

(") 

■ib) 

5,465,234 

15,226,015 

< 130, 472 
54,626 
C-) 

104,027 
148 

1,048,228 


187,807 

1,163,714 

C) 

(") 

43,876,552 

C) 
148,130 

(*) 
29,408,812 

C) 
367,900 

C) 

(») 

(6) 

C) 

{") 
15,519,424 

('') 
(6) 
(0) 


156,250 
1,397,797 
C) 
C) 
55,150,147 

(6) 
(») 
C) 
(») 
(<-) 
C) 
(») 
(0) 
(<-) 
(»} 

(.") 

C) 
C) 
(6) 
C) 


o  Shipments.  «  Russia  produced  2,581,121  long  tons  of  pig  iron  in  1909,  and  2,936,024  tons  in  1910. 

t  Statistics  not  yet  available.  .  <i  Output  of  Tayeh  mines.  i  Exports. 

/  Japan  produced  53,338  long  tons  of  pig  iron  in  1909,  and  66,131  tons  in  1910. 

»  Estimated  by  Bureau  of  Science  of  Philippine  Islands  for  1909  to  1911  from  castings  produced,  and  by 
v.  S.  Geological  Suri'oy  for  1912  on  same  basis. 
A  Nearly  8  tons  of  iron  (metal)  produced  in  1910- 


SCIENTTFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


81 


UNITED  STATeS 


UNITED    KlhODOM 
10.114,281 


RUSSIA 
2,768.190 


^  Sk 


BELfilUM 
».36a,  075 


AUSTRIA-HUNCARY 
993.892. 

IRON. 
A  year's  productiox 
(in  tons.) 


CANADA 
676, 03I 


SWCDETN 
615,778 


COPPER 


The  production  of  copper  in  1911  was 
1,097,232,749  pounds  fine,  valued  at 
$137,154,092  as  against  1,080,159,509  pounds, 
valued  at  $137,180,257,  in  1910.  The  in- 
crease by  decades  in  the  production  of  copper 
is  shown  as  follows:  1845,  224,000  pounds; 
1855,  6,720,000  pounds;  1865,  19,040,000 
pounds;  1875,  40,320,000  pounds;  1885, 
165,875,766;  1895,  380,613,404  pounds;  1905, 
888,784,267  pounds;  1911.  1,097.232,749 
pounds.  Considerable  copper  was  reported 
by  the  mines,  from  ores  mined  primarily  for 
other  metals,  and  in  all  263,647.58  fine  ounces 
of  gold  and  16,759,638  fine  ounces  of  silver 
were  obtained  from  ores  in  which  copper  was 
the  principal  constituent. 

Forms  in  which  copper  was  cast  in  1911  in- 
cluded wire  ba;rs.  731,029,349  pounds,  or 
50%;  ingots  and  ingot  bars,  409,786.682 
pounds,  or  29%;  cakes,  143,716,125  pounds, 
or  10%;  cathodes,  135,499,770  pounds,  or 
9%;  other  forms,  25,774,328  pounds,  or  2%. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  total,  1,445,806,254 
pounds  does  not  equal  the  refinery  output  of 
copper  for  1911. 

The  imports  in  1911  were  valued  at  $38.- 
445.939  as  against  $40,849,239  in  1910; 
$38,762,951,  in  1909  and  $29,664,129  in  1908. 
The  exports  in  1911  were  valued  at  $105,679,- 
926,  as  against  $96,554,432  in  1910;  $93,919,- 
956.  in  1908  and  $91,809,675  in  1908. 

The  smelter  production  of  copper  in  the 
world  was  1,958,201,285  pounds  in  1911.  as 
compared  with  1.903,297,003  pounds  in  1910. 
In  1911  the  smelter  output  of  the  United 
States  was  56  per  cent  of  the  world's  pro- 
duction, as  compared  with  56.76  per  cent  in 
1910,  58  per  cent  in  1909  and  56.5  per  cent 
in  1908.     The  following  shows  the  principal 


copper  producing  countries  of  the  world,  for 
the  year  1911.  United  States,  1,097.232.749 
pounds;  Mexico,  125,000,820  pounds;  Japan, 
123,237,140  pounds;  Spain  and  Portugal, 
116,843,800  pounds;  Australia.  93.695.500 
pounds;  Chile,  66,358,460  pounds;  Russia, 
57.319.600  pounds;  Peru.  57,099.140  pounds; 
Canada.  55.848.665  pounds;  Germany, 
49,162,580  pounds. 


s~ 

w/.-y 

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v^ 

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MEXICO 

5P/AIM  a 

JAPAN 

6I.OOO 

PORTWqAL 
52,168 

4Z.3IO 

'united  STATf  5 


A05TR>tLIA   (jfRMAHT   CAflADA 
34,339       32.298     2a733 


COPPER. 

A  year's  production. 
(in  tons.) 


States  was  in  the  streets 


by  gi 

of  Bi 


oston  in  1823. 


82 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Tin. 

In  1911  nominal  outputs  of  tin  as  ore,  con- 
centrates and  metal,  were  reported,  valued 
at  $56,635,  and  coming  from  Alaska  and 
Texas.  In  1910,  the  output  of  tin  valued  at 
$23,447  was  reported  from  Alaska,  North 
Carolina,  South  Dakota,  and  Texas.  92  tons 
of  stream  tin  was  dredged  at  Buck  Creek, 
Alaska,  in  1911.  The  imports  in  1911  were 
valued  at  $43,346,394. 


ffDERATED  MALAY         BOLIVIA  DUTCH  E.  INDIES 

STATES     68.856  29,937  »5.807 


UNITED  KIN^f? 
5,05Z 

TIN. 

A  year's  production. 
(in  tons.) 


51AM 
3,000 


The  Permanent  Court  of  Arbitra- 
tion. 

This  court,  more  popularly  known  as  The 
Hague  Tribunal,  was  constituted  by  virtue 
of  the  convention  for  the  pacific  regulation  of 
international  questions,  concluded  at  The 
Hague,  July  29,  1899.  (Office,  Prinsegracht 
71,  The  Hague.) 

Administrative  Council. — President:  The 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  for  Holland. 
Members:  The  diplomatic  representatives  of 
all  the  signatory  powers  accredited  to  The 
Hague. 

Members  of  the  Permanent  Court  of 
Arbitration. — Since  the  individuals  themselves 
are  constantly  changing  by  ill  health  or  death, 
we  shall  content  ourselves  by  giving  the 
signatory  powers  alone,  letting  it  suffice  to  say 
that  these  powers  appoint  their  most  dis- 
tinguished men,  preferably  lawyers,  to  the 
position.  They  are:  Austria  -  Hungary, 
Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Denmark,  France,  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  Greece,  Holland,  Italy, 
Japan,  Luxemburg,  Mexico,  Portugal,  Rou- 
mania,  Russia,  Servia,  Spain,  Sweden,  and 
Norway,  Switzerland,  and  the  United  States. 

Carnegie  Peace  Fund. 

On  December  14,  1910,  Andrew  Carnegie 
transferred  to  27  trustees  a  fund  of  $10,000,- 
000  in  5  per  cent,  first  mortgage  bonds,  the 
revenue  of  which  will  be  used  to  "hasten  the 
abolition  of  international  war"  and  to 
establish  lasting  workl  peace.  The  founda- 
tion is  to  be  perpetual,  and  when  the  estab- 
lishment of  universal  peace  is  attained  the 
donor  provides  that  the  revenue  shall  be 
devoted  to  the  banishment  of  the  "next 
most  degrading  evil  or  evils." 


COAL  MINE  ACCIDENTS  IN  NORTH  AMERICAN  MINES. 


The.  loss  of  life  in  the  production  of  anthra- 
cite and  bituminous  coal  during  1912  involved 
the  loss  of  2,360  lives  in  and  about  the  coal 
mines  of  the  United  States,  as  compared  with 
2,719  fatalities  during  1911,  a  decrease  of 
539,  or  13.2  per  cent.  The  fatality  rate  for 
1912  was  3.15  per  1,000  persons  employed,  as 
against  3.73  for  1912,  a  decrease  of.  0.58  per 
1,000,  or  15.5  per  cent. 

The  loss  of  life  based  on  actual  numbers 
was  greatest  in  the  Pennsylvania  anthracite 
region  where  584  deaths  occurred,  followed 
by  the  bituminous  region  of  Pennsylvania 
with  437,  West  Virginia  with  359,  Illinois  with 
159,  Ohio  with  133  and  Alabama  with  121; 
all  others  total  567. 

Classified  according  to  cause,  the  coal  mine 
accidents  of  the  United  States  during  1912 
may  be  divided  as  follows:  Underground, 
2,119,  or  89.79  per  pent.;  in  shafts,  54  or 
2.29  per  cent.;  on  the  surface,  187,  or  7.92  per 
cent.  Of  the  2,119  killed  underground,  1,151 
were  killed  by  falls  of  roof  and  coal;  362  by 
mine  cars  and  mine  locomotives;  301  by  gas 
•and  coal  dust  explosions;  133  by  explosives; 
76  by  electricity;  and  96  by  other  causes  not 
stated. 

During  the  year  1911,  9,106  miners  received 
serious  injuries  and  22,228  received  slight 
injuries  as  a  result  of  accidents.  As  in  the 
case  of  deaths,  the  larger  part  of  the  serious 
injuries  (43.57  per  cent)  was  due  to  falls  of 
roof  and  coal;  the  second  largest  cause  was 


mine  cars  and  locomotives,  which  accounted 
for  23.93  per  cent,  of  the  total  serious  in- 
juries. Of  those  slightly  injured,  37.64  per 
cent  were  injured  from  falls  of  roof  and  coal 
and  25.06  per  cent  by  mine  cars  and  loco- 
motives. 

The  accompanying  profile  shows  graphic- 
ally the  fluctuations  in  and  gradual  increase 
of  the  death  rate  during  the  period  1886  to 
1912.  The  lowest  rate  of  2.23  per  1,000  in 
1887  has  never  since  been  approached,  with 
the  exception  of  1897,  when  it  dropped  to 
2.33.  Since  1900,  the  rate  has  never  been 
below  3  per  1,000,  and  from  this  point  on 
there  has  been  a  rapid  and  uniform  increase. 


^^\ 


t\-t 


m. 


'1185       1690         1095       idOO        /SOS*        1510 

Y£AlfS 

INCREASE  IN  FATALITY  RATE 
1886-1912. 
F.  L.  Hoffman  in  Coal  Age. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


83 


COAL. 


During  the  year  1910  there  were  342,969,- 
220  short  tons  of  bituminous  coal  and 
73,623,227  short  tons  of  Pennsylvania  anthra- 
cite, or  a  total  of  416,592,447  short  tons  of 
coal  loaded  at  the  mines  for  shipment; 
12,286,851  short  tons  of  bituminous  and 
2,020,572  short  tons  of  anthracite,  or  14,307,- 
423  tons  in  all  sold  to  local  trade  or  used  by 
employees;  9,667,621  tons  of  bituminous  and 
8,841,437  tons  of  anthracite,  or  a  total  of 
18,509,058  tons  in  all  used  at  the  mines  for 
steam  and  heat;  there  were  52,187,450  short 
tons  of  bituminous  coal  made  into  coke  during 
the  year.  Thus  a  total  quantity  of  417,111,- 
142  short  tons  of  bituminous  coal  and 
84,485,236  tons  of  anthracite  coal  were  pro- 
duced during  the  year.  The  total  value  of 
the  coal  produced  was  $629,557,021,  of  which 
$469,281,719  was  for  the  bituminous  coal  and 
$160,275,302  for  the  Pennsylvania  anthracite. 
The  average  price  per  ton  of  bituminous  coal 
was  $1.12  per  ton  and  for  Pennsylvania  an- 
thracite $1.90  per  ton  The  average  num- 
ber of  men  employed  in  the  mines  was  725,030. 

In  1911  there  were  418,920,169  tons  of  coal 
loaded  at  the  mines  for  shipment;  15,530,992 
tons  sold  to  local  trade  and  used  by  em- 
ployees; 19,552,840  tons  used  at  the  mines  for 
steam  and  heat;  and  42,217,167  made  into 
coke;  thus  the  total  production  of  coal  for  the 
year  was  496,221,168  short  tons,  of  which 
amount  405,757,101  tons  were  bituminous 
coal  and  90,464,067  tons  were  Pennsylvania 
anthracite.  The  total  value,  at  an  average 
price  of  $1.26  per  ton,  was  $626,366,876. 
The  average  number  of  days  the  mines  were 
active  was  220  and  the  average  number  of 
employees  722,335. 


During  the  year  1911  there  were  172,585 
men  employed  in  the  anthracite  coal  mines  of 
Pennsylvania.  They  worked  on  an  average 
of  246  days  out  of  the  year.  The  average 
production  per  man  in  1911  was  524  short  tons 
and  the  average  daily  tonnage  per  man  was 
2.13  tons.  In  the  bituminous  fields  there 
were  549,750  men  employed  during  the  year 
1911  and  they  worked  on  an  average  of  211 
days.  The  average  production  per  man  in 
the  bituminous  mines  was  738  tons  and  the 
average  daily  tonnage  per  man  was  3.5  tons. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were  3,553,999 
long  tons  of  anthracite  coal  with  a  value  of 
$18,093,285,  and  13,878,754  long  tons  of 
bituminous,  valued  at  $34,499,989,  exported 
from  the  United  States.  The  anthracite  im- 
ports amounted  to  2,463  long  tons,  valued  at 
$12,550  and  the  bituminous  and  shale  im- 
ports to  1,234,998  long  tons,  valued  at  $3,- 
604,797. 

Since  1899,  the  United  States  has  ranked 
first  in  the  coal  producing  nations  of  the  world 
and  Great  Britain  has  ranked  second.  In 
1911  the  United  States  produced  496,221,168 
short  tons  of  coal;  Great  Britain,  304,518,927 
tons;  Germany,  258,223,763  tons;  Austria- 
Hungary,  53,626,639  tons;  France,  43,375,550 
tons;  Russia  and  Finland,  25,570,053;  and 
Belgium,  25,490,842.  The  grand  total  pro- 
duction of  coal  in  the  world  for  1911  amounted 
to  1,303,763,496  tons. 

A  summary  of  strikes  in  the  coal  mines  of 
the  United  States  shows  that  there  were  dur- 
ing the  year  1911,  35,513  men  idle,  in  the 
bituminous  mines,  for  an  average  of  27  days. 
In  the  anthracite  region  operations  were  con- 
tinued without  serious  trouble. 


PER   CENT.  OF    FATAL   ACCIDENTS    IN   COAL   MINES    OF    NORTH 
AMERICA  DUE  TO  EACH  CAUSE  DURING  A  TEN-YEAR  PERIOD. 


Cause. 

Fatal  accidents. 

Number. 

Per  cent 
of  total. 

Fall  of  coal  >^. 

^2,722 

5,82.-i 
309 
125 

2,204 
470 
,  30 

2,571 
908 
793 
202 
332 
73 
271 
193 

1,105 

14.3 

Fall  of  roof  slate  etc 

31.8 

Falling  into  shafts                                ....         

2.0 

FallinE  into  slopes,  man  ways,  etc       

.7 

Mine  cars                

12.0 

2.G 

Motors  . 

.2 

Explosions:  , 

Dust  or  cas                                                                        .... 

14.0 

Powder  or  dynamite                         

5.3 

Blast 

4.3 

l.G 

1.8 

Mules              

.4 

15 

1.0 

Miscellaneous                                 

G.O 

Total          

18,34G 

100.0 

F.  L.  Hoffman  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor. 


84 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  KEFERENCE  BOOK. 


ACCIDENTS  IN  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


HIGH    EXPLOSIVES. 

BLACK    POWDER. 

OTHER   EXPLOSIVES. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

1908 

1909. 

5 

7 

24 
6 
2 

20 
3 
0 

7 

61 

4 

1910 



1 

1911 

3 

1 

2 

Totals 

5 

10 

32 

23 

8 

68 

Total  Killed. 

Total  Injured. 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

36 
6 
2 
1 

45 

88 
7 
1 
5 

101 

ACCIDENTS  IN  MANUFACTURE,  STORAGE  OR  USE  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


HIGH    EXPLOSIVES. 

BLACK 

POWDER. 

OTHER  EXPLOSIVES. 

Killed. 

Injiired. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

1908 

82 

122 

80 

53 

65 

84 

110 

25 

13 

40 

23 
25 

7 
31 

20 
10 
3 
3 

91 

1909 

41 

1910 

24 

1911 ; 

7 

Totals 

337 

284 

93 

86 

36 

163 

RECAPITULATION. 

Total  Killed. 

Total  Injured. 

1908 

1909 

125 

149 

.    96 

96 

466 

179 
150 

1910 

1911 

141 
63 

533 

Central  Bureau  of  International 

Geodesy    Established    Upon    the 

Telegraphberg,  Near  Potsdam. 

This  central  bureau  has  'jxisted  since  1866. 
After  the  creation  of  the  Prussian  Geodetic 
Institute  it  was  united  with  the  latter  in  1869. 
The  object  of  the  Geodetic  Institute  is  to 
cultivate  geodesy  by  scientific  researches, 
to  execute  the  astronomical  and  physical 
determinations  which,  joined  with  the 
geodetic  determinations,  may  .serve  in  the 
exploration  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  more 
particularly  within  Prussian  territory. 

The  labors  of  the  institute  for  the  present 
bear  more  particularly  upon  the  astronomical 
determinations  of  the  vertical  in  longitude 
and  latitude,  as  well  as  upon  astronomical 
data  upon  as  many  points  of  the  geodetic 
system  as  possible;  moreover,  upon  the  de- 
termination of  zenithal  distances  for  con- 
venient points,  also  upon  the  determination  of 


the  density  and  force  of  gravitation;  it  de- 
votes its  attention,  furthermore,  to  researches 
upon  the  mean  level  and  variations  in  the  sea- 
level;  to  the  examining  into  the  refraction  of 
luminous  rays  by  the  atmosphere;  finally,  it 
is  occupied  with  all  theoretical  and  experi- 
mental researches  which  contribute  to  the 
examination  of  the  surface  and  the  geodesy 
of  the  country. 

The  Geodetic  Institute  is  placed  under  the 
immediate  supervision  of  the  Minister  of 
Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Public  Instruction,  and 
Medical  Affairs  of  Prussia. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  is  the  consulting 
organ  of  the  Minister  in  all  the  important 
affairs  of  the  Institute.  Conformably  to  the 
conventions  agreed  upon  between  the  con- 
tracting parties,  the  Institute  performs  the 
functions  of  a  Central  Bureau  for  interna- 
tional geodesy.  The  director  of  the  bureau  is 
at  the  same  time  director  of  the  Institute. — 
Almanach  de  Gotha. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


FATAL-ACCIDENT   RATE  IN   THE    COAL   MINES   OF   NORTH  AMERICA  DURING 
A  TEN-YEAR  PERIOD,  BY  CAUSES. 

Fatal  accidents. 

Cause. 

Number. 

Rate  per 

10,000 
employ- 
ees. 

Fail  of  coal 

2,722 
5,828 
369 
125 
2,204 
470 
30 

2,571 
968 
793 
292 
332 
73 
271 
193 

1,105 

4.99 

Fall  of  roof  slate  etc                                                                                           

10.68 

FaliiDEi  into  shafts                                                 .      .     ..         .................. 

.68 

Falling  into  slopes,  manways, etc. ...                   .     .             

.23 

4.04 

Outside  cars     . 

.86 

Motors         . 

.05 

Explosions: 

4.71 

1.77 

Blast             /                      

1.45 

Other  not  specified 

.53 

Mining  machinery ^ 

.61 

.13 

.50 

.35 

2.02 

Total                           

18,346 

33.60 

FATAL- ACCIDENT  RATE  PER  1,000   EMPLOYEES  AND  NUMBER  OF  LIVES  LOST 

PER  MILLION  TONS  MINED  IN  NORTH  AMERICA,  BY  STATES 

AND  PROVINCES,  1866  TO  1908. 


Years 
consid- 
ered. 

Tons  of  coal 
produced. 

Employees. 

Fatal  accidents. 

Lives  lost 

State  or  Province. 

Number. 

Per  1,000 

em- 
ployees. 

per  1,000,000 

tons  of  coal 

mined. 

Alabama 

16 
6 
25 
26 
24 
21 
22 
22 
19 
10 
19 
18 
14 
1 
34 
15 

39 
32 
18 
16 
17 
25 
5 

142,592,400 

12,307,804 

117,663,271 

611,071,223 

146,490,472 

109,736,706 

86,096,365 

112,218,992 

84,322,336 

13,081,027 

61.066,829 

24,464,869 

19,243,519 

320,742 

467,312,293 

33,906,783 

1,782,024,124 
1,806,371,370 
69,368,153 
17,754,456 
38,231,315 
453,581,594 
26,140,782 

227,828 

25,651 

188,054 

1,030,800 

245, 115 

264,400 

184,895 

218,866 

93,269 

23,356 

151,444 

37,557 

29,325 

631 

863,812 

90,774 

4,344,074 
2,729,155 
143,029 
24,424 
68,645 
625,566 
29,227 

1,037 
76 

1,074 

2,407 
547 
573 
415 
375 
165 
68 
261 
138 
212 
4 

1,845 
460 

14,625 
6,919 
027 
285 
404 
2,887 
339 

4.55 
2.96 
5.71 
2.34 
2.23 
2.17 
2.24 
L71 
1.77 
2.91 
1.72 
3.67 
7.23 
6.34 
2.14 
5.07 

3.37 
2.54 
4.38 

11.67 
0.76 
4.62 

11.60 

7.27 

Arkansas 

6.17 

Colorado . 

9.13 

Illinois 

3.94 

Indiana . 

3.73 

Iowa              

5.22 

Kansas     

4.82 

Kentucky 

3.34 

1.90 

Michigan 

5.20 

4.27 

Montana 

5.64 

New  Mexico 

11.02 

North  Dakota    . 

12.47 

Ohio  .                    .         .     .. 

3.95 

Oklahoma          .  .        

13.57 

Pennsylvania: 

Anthracite 

8.21 

3.83 

9.04 

Utah 

16.05 

Washington 

12.14 

West  vfrglnia 

6.36 

Wyosnlng...        .  . 

12.97 

Total 

0,235,366,431 

11.039,897 

35,803 

3.08 

5.74 

British  Columbia 

22,106,271 
90,512,879 

68,698 
236,998 

497 
720 

7.23 
3.04 

22.48 

Nova  Scotia 

7.95 

Total 

112,619,150 

305,6% 

1,217 

3.98 

10.  «1 

6,347,985,581 

11,945.593 

37,020 

3.10 

Sl83 

F.  L.  Hoffman  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor. 


86 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  PRINCIPAL  COAL  MINE  DISASTERS 
IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Date. 


Sept. 


Mar.  29. 


Feb.  16., 
Nov.  23. 
Jan.  24.. 
Feb.  20.. 
Mar.  13 . 


May  15.. 
June  16.. 
Jan. 27.. 
Feb.  21.. 
July  23.. 
Jan.  10.. 
Feb.  13.. 
Feb.  18.. 
Mar.  23.. 
June  28. 

June  16. 

Dec.  10.. 
Dec,  23.. 
Dec.  23.. 

Mar.  C.'.! 
May  1... 
Nov.  2.. 
Feb.  15.. 

Mar.  2... 
May  15.. 
June  10.. 
Sept.  30. 

Jan.  14.. 

Jan.  25.. 
May  19.. 

May  22., 


Name  of  mine,  or  locality, 
and  State. 


Avondale,  Pa 

Drummond,  Nova  Scotia 

Richhili,  Mo 

Fort  Pitt,  Nova  Scotia.. 

Braidwood,  111... 

Kettle  Creek,  Pa 

Crested  Butte,  Colo 

We.st  Leisenring,  Pa 

Pocahontas  mine,  W.Va. 

Johnstown  mine,  Pa 

McBeam    mine,    Nova 

Scotia /.... 

Ashley  mine.  Fa %. 

Hill  Farm  mine.  Pa. .  ^ . 

Mammoth  mine,  Pa 

Spring  Hill,  Nova  Scotia 

York  Farm  mine,  Pa 

Como,  Colo 

Gayland,  Pa 

Vulcan  mine,  Colo 

Berwind  mine,  Pa 

Twin  Shaft  mine,  Pitts- 
ton,  Pa ; 

Caledonia   mine.  Nova 

Scotia 

Carbonado  mine.  Wash . 

Brazella  mine,  Pa 

Sumner  mine,  Pa. ...... 

North  Carolina 

Red  Ash  mine,  W.  Va. . 

Schofield,  Utah 

Berrybiu-g,  W.  Va 

Union     mine     No.     6, 

British  Columbia 

Diamond  mine,  Wyo 

Chatham,  W.Va 

Port  Royal  mine.  Pa 

Extension  mine,  British 

Columbia 

Milby  and  Dowe  mine, 

Ind.T 

Lost  Creek  mine,  Iowa. . . 

Fraterville,  Tenn 

Fernie    mme,     British 

Columbia 


Lives 
lost. 

Year. 

179 

1902 

73 

1902 

23 

1902 

44 

1902 

69 

1903 

17 

1903 

59 

1903 

19 

1904 

114 

1904 

14 

1904 

1904 

13 

1905 

26 

1905 

31 

1905 

109 

1905 

125 

1905 

15 

1905 

24 

1906 

13 

1906 

49 

13 

1906 

1906 

58 

1C06 

1907 

11 

1907 

33 

1907 

20 

1907 

19 

1907 

22 

1907 

46 

1907 

200 

15 

1907 

1908 

63 

1908 

28 

1908 

10 

1908 

20 

1909 

1909 

16 

1909 

10 

1910 

22 

1910 

184 

1910 

1910 

127 

1910 

Date. 


July  10.... 
July  16.... 

Aug.  7 

Sept.  15... 
Jan.  23..-. 

July  1 

Nov.  21... 
Jan.  25.... 

Apr.  3 

Apr.  23.,.. 

Dec,  1 

Jan,  4 

Jan. 18.... 
Feb.  20.... 
Feb.  27.... 
Mar.  18-19. 

Apr.  3 

Jan. 4 

Jan. 18.... 

Feb.  8 

Mar.  22.... 
Apr.  21.... 
Jan.  23.... 
Jan.  26.... 

Jan.  29 

Feb.  4 

May  1 

Dec.  1 

Dec.  6 

Dec.  19.... 
Jan.  12.... 
May  1..... 
Aug.  26... 
Nov.  28... 

Jan. 10 

Nov.  13... 

Dec.  28.... 
Jan.  31.... 

Feb.  1 

Apr.  20.... 
Apr.  21.... 
May  5 


Name  of  mine,  or  locality, 
and  State. 


Johnstown,  Pa 

Park  City,  Utah 

Bowen  No.  3  mine,  Colo 

Algoma,  W.  Va 

Pnmero,  Colo 

Hanna,  Wyo 

Ferguson  mine.  Pa 

Harwick  mine.  Pa 

Zeigler,Ill 

Eleanora  shaft.  Pa 

Diamond  mine,  Mo 

Bluefields,  W.  Va 

Panther  Cr^ek,  W.  Va. 

Virginia  City.  Ala 

Welch,  W.Va 

Rush  Run,  W.  Va 

Zeigler,  111 

Coaldale,  W.  Va 

Detroit  and  Kanawha, 

W.  Va. 
Parrall  mine,  V/.  Va.  r. 

Century.  W.  Va, 

Trinidad,  Colo.,, 

Primero,  Colo 

Penco,  mine,  W.  Va,... 

Stuart,  W.Va 

Thomas  mine,  W.  Va. . 
Whipple  mine,  W.  Va. . 

Naomi  mine.  Pa 

Monongah  No.  8  mine, 

W.  Va. 

Darr  mine.  Pa 

Lick  BrancJi,  W.  Va... 

Mount  Lookout,  Pa 

Haileyville^Okla....... 

Mariana  mme.  Pa 

Lieter  mine,  111 

St.  Paul  mine,  Cherry, 

111. 
Lick  Branch,  W.  Va... 

Primero,  Colo 

Drakesburg,  Ky 

Mulga,  Ala 

Amsterdam  mine,  Ohio, 
Palos,  Ala 


Lives 
lost. 


112 
34 
16 
17 
24 

235 
17 

179 
53 
13 
18 
22 
18 

108 
15 
24 
47 
23 
18 

23 
23 
23 
20 
12 
85 
25 
16 
34 
359 

239 

105 
12 
29 

154 
26 

266 

51 
75 
30 
40 
16 


F.  L.  Hoffman  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor. 


LATEST  COAL   MINE  DISASTERS. 


Year 

Date 

Name   of   Mine,    or 
locality    and    State 

Lives 
lost 

10 
56 
16 
79 
10 
10 

10 
17 

73. 
128 

Year. 

Date 

Name  of  mine,  or 
locality  and  State 

Lives 
lost 

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 

Oct.  3... 
Oct.  8... 
Nov. 6... 
Nov.  8.. 
Nov.  25. 
Dec.  14. 
Dec.  31 

Feb.  9  . . 
Apr.  7  .  . 

Apr.  8  .  . 

Roslyn  mine,  Wash... 

StarkviUe,  Colo 

Lawson  mine.  Wash. .  . 
Victor  American,  Colo . 

Providence,  Ky 

Leyden,  Colo 

Lick  Fork  mine,  W. 
Va 

1911 
1911 
1911 

1911 

1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1913 

Apr.  24  . 
July  13.. 
Nov.  18. 

Dec.  9... 

Mar.  20. 
Mar.  26. 
June  18.. 
July   24.. 
Aug.  13.. 
May  19.. 

Elk  Garden,  W.  Va.  .. 

Sykesville,  Pa 

Bottom    Creek     mine, 
W.  Va 

23 
21 

18 

1910 
1910 

Cross  Mountain  mine, 
Tenn 

84 

1910 

San  Boise  mine,  Okla. 
Jed,  W.  Va        

73 

82 

1911 
1911 

Cokedale  mine,  Colo. 

Prince-Pancoast  mine, 

Pa 

Hastings,  Colo 

Superba  mine,  Pa.  .  .  . 

Abernant,  Ala 

Belle  Valley,  Ohio ... 

12 
15 

18 

1911 

Banner  mine,  Ala .  .... 

15 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


87 


PRICE  OF  COAL. 


[Sources  :  Anthracite,  for  shipment  beyond  the  Delaware  Capes,  American  Iron  and  Steel  Associa- 
tion ;  bituminous,  Saward's  Coal  Trade  Journal.] 

Calendar 
year. 

Anthra- 
cite. 

Bitumi- 
nous. 

Calendar 
year. 

Anthra- 
cite. 

Bitumi- 
nous. 

Calendar 
year. 

Anthra- 
cite. 

Bitumi- 
nous. 

1855 

Dollars. 
4.49 
4.11 
3.87 
3.43 
3.25 
3.40 
3.39 
4,14 
6.06 
8.39 
7.86 
5.80 
4.37 
3.86 
5.31 
4.39 
4.46 
3.74 
4.27 

Dollars. 
3.89^ 
8.75 
4.28 
3.70 
3.63 
3.49 
3.44 
4.23 
5.57 
6.84 
7.57 
6.94 
4.97 
4.71 
4.97 
4.72 
4.72 
4.66 
4.84 

1874 

Dollars. 
4.55 
4.39 
8.87 
2.59 
3.22 
2.70 
4.53 
4.53 
4.61 
4.54 
4.42 
4.10 
4.00 
4.05 
4.21 
4.04 
3.92i 
3.85 
3.97i 

Dollars. 

4.50 

4.35 

3.87 

3.15 

2.86 

2.79 

3.75 

3.75 

3.50 

2.90 

2.50 

2.25 

2.10 

3.45 

12.60 

12.60 

12.60 

12.60 

12.50 

1893 

Dollars. 

3.90 

3.90 

3.50 

3.50 

3.50 

3.50 

3.75 

3.47 

3.80 

4.50 

4.50 

4.50 

4.50 

4.50 

44.50 

44.60 

44.60 

44.50 

44.50 

Dollars. 
12  40 

1856.. 

1875 

1894 

12  26 

1857 

1876  . 

1895  .. 

1  2  00 

1858 

1877.. 

1896 

2  2  28 

1859 

1878.. 

1897 

31  80 

1860 

1879 

1898 

21  60 

1861 

1880 

1899 

2  2  00 

1862 

1881 

1900 

2  50 

1863 

1882 

1901 

2.50 

1864 

1883  . 

19023 

2  50 

1865 

1884 

1903 

3  35 

1866    

1885 

1904 

2  25 

1867 

1886 

1905..- 

2.60 

1868 

1887 

1906 

2.75 

1869 

1888 

1907 

2.80 

1870 

1889. . 

1908  .. 

'2  70 

1871 

1890 

1909 

^2  60 

1872 

1891 

1910 

«2. 60 

1873 

1892 

1911 

«2.60 

1  The  price  on  board  fixed  at  Baltimore  by  the  Seaboard  Coal  Association. 

a  Price  of  soft-coal  pool. 

«  Owing  to  unusual  conditions  in  the  coal  market  the  association  price  for  1902  is  not  a  correct  guide 
as  to  the  actual  selling  price,  Clearfield  coal  selling  as  high  as  $7  at  the  mines  and  as  high  as  $9  in 
New  York  Harbor.  Unsettled  conditions  lasted  until  Mar.  1, 1903,  or  nearly  so;  then,  on  Apr.  1,  prices 
were  made  83.30  at  Baltimore;  later  on  in  the  year  this  price  was  discounted  from  10  to  15  per  cent. 

4  Shipments  nominal.    No  sales  made  in  1909, 1910,  ot  1911. 

<> Cumberland  coal  now  includes  "thin  seam"  as  well  as  "big  vein"  coal,  the  former  selling  about 
26  cents  per  ton  lower  than  the  latter. 

6 Freight  on  "big  vein"  coal  to  Baltimore  having  been  reduced  15  cents,  $2.60  in  1909 and  BUb- 
eequent  years  is  equivalent  to  82.75  in  1908  and  previous  years. 


MONTANA 
AZ.ZOOsq.cni 


TEXAS 
Ar.soo  sq.mt 


ILLINOIS 
35.600  sq. mi. 


N.DAKOTA 
25.^00  sq.mi 


MISSOURI 
23.000  S<].mi 


IOWA 
20.000  sq.mi 


KANSAS 

20.000  »^.mi. 


WYOMING     . 
•  9.900.  »q.fm 


W.VIRGINIA 
(7.00Q  &q.mi. 


KENTUCKY 
I«.e70  sq.mi. 


INO.TERR. 
I4.0»o  sq.mi. 


PENNSYLVANIA 
i4.6eo  sq.mt. 


NtW  MEXICO 
13  500  sq.mi. 


OHIO  ., 

iz.«eo  sq.mi ) 

COLORA'OO 
li.&OO  sq.m». 


MICHIGAN. 
11.300  %q. mi  < 


ALABAMA    . 
S.430  5q.mi. 


ALASKA 
8.30Osq.m.. 

■ 

1N0I^NA 
7.290  sq.mi. 

■ 

UTAH 
A:sftO  sq.mi. 

■ 

TENNESSEE 
-».40O  sq  mi. 

■ 

S.OAKOTA 
Z.40O  sq.mi. 

VIRGINIA 
•z. 120  sq.mi. 

ARKANSAS 
1.730  sq.mi. 

WASHINGTON 
1. too  sq.mi. 

N.CAROUNA 
800  sq.mi . 

MARYLAND 
510  sq-mt: 

CAUfORNIA 
280  sq.mi. 

OREGOM 
230sq.mJ. 

GEORGIA 
I70  sq.rn* 

IDAHO 
1*0  sq.m* . 

COAL  RESERVES  BY  STATES. 


88 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Coke. 

The  total  production  of  coke  in  1912 
amounted  to  43,983,599  short  tons  (11,115,164 
tons  from  retort  ovens),  valued  at  $111,736,- 
696,  and  the  average  price  paid  per  ton  for 
the  same  period  was  $2.10.  The  average  out- 
put from  the  by-product  ovens  in  1912  was 
2,133  short  tons  per  oven  and  from  the  bee- 
hive ovens  48^  short  tons.  The  imports  of 
coke  were  valued  at  $488,398  in  1912  and  the 
exports  v912,576  short  tons)  at  $3,002,742. 

The  value  and  quantity  of  products  ob- 
tained in  the  manufacture  of  coke  in  retort 
ovens  were  as  follows:  Gas,  54,491,248 
thousand  cubic  feet,  valued  at  $4,650,517; 
tar,  94,306,583  gallons,  valued  at  $2,310,900; 
ammonia,  sulphate  or  reduced  to  equivalent 
sulphate,  95,275,545  pounds,  valued  at  $3,- 
649,144;  ammonia  liquor,  5,502,403  gallons, 
valued  at  $735,120;  anhydrous  ammonia, 
3,144,014  gallons,  valued  at  $4,114,449;  other 
by-products  valued  at  $610,552,  thus  making 
the  total  value  of  the  by-products  of  coke 
$16,070,682.  The  value  of  the"  coke  manu- 
factured in  retort  ovens  was  $42,632,930  and 
the  total  value  of  all  the  products  obtained 
in  the  manufacture  of  coke  by  this  process  was 
$58,703,612. 

Natural  Gas. 

The  value  of  natural  gas  produced  in  1911 
was  $74,127,534,  as  compared  with  $70,756,- 
158  in  1910.  No  imports  of  natural  gas  were 
reported  for  1911.  Penn.sylvania  consumed 
more  natural  gas  than  any  other  state  in  the 
Union,  the  amount  being  154,475,376  thou- 
sand cubic  feet,  valued  at  $23,446,001;  Ohio 
ranked  second  with  112.123,029  thousand 
cubic  feet,  valued  at  $22,792,270;  Kansas 
came  next  with  77,861,143  thousand  cubic 
feet,  valued  at  $9,493,701,  and  West  Virginia 
fourth  with  80,868,645  thousand  cubic  feet, 
valued  at  $6,240,152.  During  the  year  1911 
there  were  508,353,241  thousand  cubic  feet 
of  natural  gas  consumed  having  a  total  value 
of  $74,127,534.  The  value  of  all  the  natural 
gas  produced  in  the  United  States  for  the 
year  1911  was  $74,127,534  and  of  the  crude 
petroleum,  $134,044,752,  thus  making  the 
value  of  natural  gas  and  crude  petroleum, 
$208,172,286.  There  were  28,428  productive 
wells  on  Dec.  31,  1911. 


Production   and  Value  of  Petro- 
leum.     Well  Records,    and 
Acreage. 

In  the  year  1911  the  total  production  of 
petroleum  in  the  United  States  amounted  to 
220,449,391  barrels,  the  total  value  being 
$134,044,752,  or  an  average  price  per  barrel 
of  $0,608.  On  January  1,  1910  there  were 
149,402  productive  wells  in  the  United  States, 
and  on  Dec.  31,  there  were  152,687.  The 
average  daily  production  (in  barrels)  per  well 
amounted  to  3.8.  The  total  acreage  in  wells 
in  the  United  States  in  1911  amounted  to 
8,322,862.  Imports  for  the  year  amounted 
to  $2,410,884  and  exports  to  $105,922,848. 
The  total  production  of  the  world  was  345,512, 
185  barrels,  of  which  the  United  States 
produced  63.8  per  cent,  or  almost  two-thirds. 


Petroleum  Refining. 

The  products  of  the  petroleum-refining  in- 
dustry, statistics  for  which  are  presented  be- 
low, aggregated  $236,997,659  in  value  in  1909 
as  compared  with  $123,929,384  in  1899,  the 
increase  during  the  decade  being  91.2  i>er 
cent.  This  conforms  closely  with  the  in- 
crease in  the  cost  of  crude  petroleum  used 
which  was  89.4  per  cent.  The  crude  petroleum 
used  increased  in  quantity  from  52,011,005 
barrels  of  42  gallons  in  1899  to  120,775,439 
barrels  in  1909,  or  132.2  per  cent.,  and  the 
refined-oil  products  aggregated  40,290,985 
barrels  of  50  gallons  in  1899  and  89,082,810 
barrels  in  1909,  an  increase  of  136.2  per  cent, 
for  the  decade.  The  total  amount  of  crude 
petroleum  used  for  refining  purposes  was 
120,775,439  barrels  of  42  gallons  each,  valued 
at  $152,307,040.  The  products  of  the  refining 
process  were  as  follows:  Illuminating  oils, 
33,495,798  barrels  ,  (50  gallons),  value, 
$94,547,010;  fuel  oils  (including  gas  oils), 
34,034,577  barrels,  value  $36,462,883;  lubri- 
cating oils,  10,745,885  barrels,  valued  at 
$38,884,236;  naphtha  and  gasoline  (including 
gas  naphtha),  10,806,550  barrels,  value 
$39,771,959;  paraffin  wax,  946,830  barrels, 
value  $9,388,812;  oil  asphaltum,  233,328 
short  tons,  value  $2,724,752;  residuum  or  tar, 
1,787,008  barrels,  value  $2,215,623;  greases 
(lubricating,  etc.),  138,302  barrels,  value 
$1,567,647;  coke  and  black  naphtha,  value 
$507,695;  sludge  acid,  133,215  short  tons, 
value  $402,295;  and  all  other  products,  value 
$10,524,747. 


SCO 


<o 


OU) 


^9. 


petroleum. 

A  year's  production 

(in  thousands  of  gallons.) 

Aluminum. 

The  consumption  of  aluminum  in  1911  was 
46,125,000  pounds,  valued  at  $8,084,000,  as 
against  7,150,000  pounds  in  1900,  61,281 
pounds  in  1890  and  83  pounds  in  1883.  The 
imports  of  aluminum'  salts  in  1911  were 
valued  at  $56,833,  and  the  exports  of  manu- 
facturers of  aluminum  at  $1,158,603. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


89 


WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  CRUDE  PETROLEUM,  1907-1911,  BY 

COUNTRIES. 


Country. 


1907 


1908 


1910 


1911 


Rank. 


Barrels. 


Metric 
tons. 


Per- 
cent 
of  total 
produc- 
tion. 


United  States 

Russia 

Mexico 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Roumania 

Galicia 

India 

Japan 

Peru 

Germany 

Canada 

Italy 

Other 

Total 


166,095,335 

61,850,734 

1,000,000 

9,982,597 

8,118,207 

8,455,841 

4,344,162 

2,010,639 

756,226 

756,631 

788,872 

59,875 

0  30,000 


178,527,355 

62, 186, 447 

3,481,410 

10,283,357 

8,252,157 

12,612,295 

5,047,038 

2,070,145 

1,011,180 

1,009,278 

527,987 

50,966 

0  30,000 


183,170,874 

65,970,350 

2,488,742 

11,041,852 

9,327,278 

14,932,799 

6,676,617 

1,889,563 

1,316,118 

1,018,837 

420,755 

42,388 

0  30,000 


209,557,248 

70,336,574 

3,332,807 

11,030,620 

9,723,806 

12,673,688 

6,137,990 

1,930,661 

1,330,105 

1,032,522 

315,895 

42,388 

0  30,000 


220,449,391 

66,183,691 

14,051,643 

12,172,949 

11,101,878 

10,485,726 

6,451,203 

1,658,903 

1,398,036 

995,764 

291,096 

0  71,905 

0  200,000 


29,393, 

9,066, 

1,873, 

1,670, 

1,544, 

1,458, 

897, 

221, 

186, 

140, 

38, 

10, 


264,249,119  285,089,615 


298,326,073  327,474,304 


345,512,185  46,526,334 


63.80 
19.16 
4.07 
3.52 
3.21 
3.04 
1.87 


.29 


100.00 


a  Estimated. 


Quantity  of  Petroleum  Produced 
IN,  AND  Quantities  and  Value 
OF  Petroleum  Products  Export- 
ed FROM,  THE  United  States. 

The  total  exports  of  petroleum  from  the 
United  States  during  the  vear  1911  amounted 
to  1,768,731,699  gallons,  valued  at  $105,922,- 
848.  The  exports  of  mineral,  crude  (includ- 
ing all  natural  oils,  without  regard  to  gravity) 
oils  was  201,843,355  gallons,  valued  at 
$6,165,403;  the  exports  of  mineral,  refined,  or 
manufactured  naphtha,  benzine,  gasoline,  etc., 
totaling  137,294,606  gallons  was  valued  at 
$11,482,761;  the  exports  of  mineral,  refined 
or  manufactured  illuminating  oils  was 
1,112,295,006  gallons,  valued  at  .$61,055,095; 
the  exports  of  mineral,  refined  or  manu- 
factured lubricating  oils  (heavy  paraffin,  etc.), 
amounting  to  183,319,645  gallons  was  valued 
at  $23,337,126;  and  the  exports  of  residuum 
(tar,  pitch,  and  all  other,  from  which  the  light 
bodies  have  been  distilled)  amounting  to  133,- 
979,087  gallons  was  valued  at  $3,882,463. 

Cement. 

The  quantity  of  Portland,  natural  and 
puzzolano  cement  produced  in  the  United 
States  during  1912  was  83,351,191  barrels, 
valued  at  $67,461,513.  As  compared  with 
1911,  when  the  production  was  79,547,958 
barrels,  valued  at  $66,705,136,  the  year  1912 
showed  an  increase  of  3,803,233  barrels,  or 
4.78  per  cent  in  quantity,  and  an  increase  of 
$756,377  or  1.13  per  cent  in  value.  In  1912 
the  quantity  of  Portland   cement  produced 


was  82,438,096  barrels,  valued  at  $67,016,928; 
the  production  of  natural  cement  amounted 
to  821,231,  valued  at  $367,222;  and  the  pro- 
duction of  puzyolano  cement  amounted  to 
91,864  barrels,  valued  at  $77,363. 

From  1818  when  the  first  natural  cement 
was  used,  300,000  barrels,  up  to  the  year  1890, 
when  the  maximum  amount  9,868,179  bar- 
rels was  used,  the  consumption  of  natural 
cement  constantly  grew.  Since  1899,  how- 
ever, the  consumption  has  gradually  de- 
creased, until  in  1912  the  production  only 
amounted  to  821,231  barrels.  The  future  of 
natural  cement  depends  entirely  upon  means 
of  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
cement,  whereby  it  may  be  brought  nearer 
the  specification  for  the  high-grade  Portland 
cement.  The  decline  in  the  use  of  natural 
cement  has  been  due  principally  to  the  greater 
tensile  strength  of  Portland  cement. 

During  the  year  1912  the  domestic  con- 
sumption of  Portland  cement  amounted  to 
80,865,527  barrels,  which  figure  is  arrived  at 
as  follows:  To  the  shipments,  85,012,556 
barrels,  add  the  imports,  68,503  barrels, 
and  subtract  the  exports,  4,215,532,  leav- 
ing as  the  apparent  consumption,  80,865,527 
barrels. 


The  total  production  of  pig-iron  for  the 
year  1912  was  29,726,937  tons  against 
23,649,547  tons  in  1911.  .  On  June  30,  1912, 
there  were  266  furnaces  in  blast  and  on 
December  31  there  were  313.  The  total 
number  of  furnaces  on  December  31,  1912, 
was  466. 


90 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


91 


Copyiight  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc.        1910-S0.75 


1900-$1.00 


CEMENT  MARKET  AND  ITS  GROWTH  IN  THE  PAST  30  YEARS. 

Portland  Cement  manufactured  in  1910  would  fill  a  barrel  980  feet  high — just  short  of 
the  Eiffel  Tower.  Note  the  enormous  increase  of  cement  production  by  decades  and  the 
corresponding  drop  in  price  per  barrel  at  the  mill. 


92 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Clay  Products. 

The  value  of  all  clay  products  in  1911  was 
$162,236,181;  the  brick  and  tile  products  be- 
ing valued  at  $127,717,621  and  the  pottery  at 
$34,518,560.  The  various  kinds  of  clay  to- 
gether with  their  amount  and  value  were  as 
follows:  Kaolin,  27,400  short  tons,  valued  at 
$221,045;  paper  clay,  99,265  short  tons, 
valued  at  $454,435;  slip  clay,  8,393  short  tons, 
valued  at  $16,770;  ball  clay,  65,072  short  tons, 
valued  at  $220,710;  fire  clay,  1,526,921  short 
tons,  valued  at  $2,112,827;  stoneware  clay, 
151,384  short  tons,  valued  at  $165,751;  brick 
clay,  142,020  short  tons,  valued  at  $123,900; 
miscellaneous,  162,243  short  tons,  valued  at 
$165,325. 

The  imports  of  pottery  in  1911  amounted 
to  $10,638,616;  the  imports  of  brick,  fire 
brick,  tile,  etc.,  were  valued  at  $10,804,749. 
The  exports  of  brick  in  1911  were  valued  at 
$2,264,354,  and  the  exports  of  pottery  at 
$1,401,366.  The  imports  of  kaolin  or  china 
clay  in  1911  were  valued  at  $1,461,068,  and 
the  imports  of  other  clays  amounted  to 
$235,254. 

Sand  and  Gravel. 

During  the  year  1912  there  were  1,465,386 
short  tons  of  glass  sand,  valued  at  $1,430,471, 
produced  in  the  United  States,  4,484,593 
short  tons  of  molding  sand,  valued  at  $2,718-, 
398;  23,632,157  tons  of  building  sand,  valued 
at  $7,904,321;  1,397,667  tons  of  grinding  and 
polishing  sand,  valued  at  $667,750;  455,454 
tons  of  fire  sand,  valued  at  $318,742;  1,288,486 
tons  of  engine  sand,  valued  at  $428,928; 
51,446  tons  of  furnace  sand,  valued  at  $27,258; 
1,778,530  tons  of  paving  sand,  valued  at 
$670,680;  other  sands  amounting  to  3,986.288 
tons,  valued  at  $1,177,065;  and  29,768,510 
tons  of  gravel,  valued  at  $7,737,942.  Thus 
the  total  quantity  of  sand  and  gravel  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  during  the  year 
1912  amounted  to  68,318,988  short  tons, 
valued  at  $23,081,555.  The  imports  of  sand 
for  the  same  period  amounted  to  $141,690. 

Salt  and  Bromine. 

The  production  of  salt  in  the  United  States 
(including  Hawaii  and  Porto  Rico)  in  1912 
was  33,324,808  barrels,  of  280  pounds  each, 
or  4,665,473  short  tons,  valued  at  $9,402,772. 
The  production  of  brine  salt  in  the  United 
States,  for  the  same  period,  by  grades  was  as 
follows:  Table  and  Dairy,  3,961,450  barrels; 
common  fine,  6,021,052  barrels;  common 
coarse,  2,753,375  barrels;  packers',  751,551 
barrels;  coarse  solar,  1,105,935  barrels;  other 
grades,  231,063  barrels  and  brine,  11,408,623 
barrels,  making  the  total  production  of  brine 
salt  26,233,059  barrels,  valued  at  $7,704,943. 
The  quantity  of  rock  salt  mined  in  the  United 
States  during  1912  was  992,846  short  tons, 
valued  at  $1,697,829. 

The  imports  of  salt  during  the  year 
amounted  to  998,664  barrels,  valued  at 
$370,648  and  the  exports  to  445,785  barrels, 
valued  at  $418,525,  leaving  an  excess  of  im- 
ports over  exports  of  552,879  barrels.  This 
added  to  the  domestic  production  makes  the 
apparent  consumption  of  salt  for  the  year 
33,877,687. 

The  production  of  bromine  in  1912 
amounted  to  647,200  pounds,  valued  at 
$136,201. 


Slate. 

The  production  of  slate  in  1912  was  valued 
at  $6,043,318.  The  imports  of  slate  for  the 
same  period  were  valued  at  $14,768;  the  ex- 
ports were  not  reported  separately  from  that 
of  other  varieties  of  stone. 

Lime. 

The  production  of  lime  in  1912  was 
3,529,462  short  tons,  valued  at  $13,970,114. 
The  average  price  per  ton  was  $3.96.  The 
imports  in  1912  amounted  to  4,268  short  tons, 
valued  at  $48,153  and  the  exports  amounted 
to  260,669  barrels,  valued  at  $199,515. 

Stone, 

The  value  of  all  kinds  of  stone  produced  in 
the  United  States  in  1911  amounted  to 
$76,966,698.  The  imports  of  marble  and 
stone  were  valued  at  $1,556,398  and  the  ex- 
ports at  $1,810,182.  The  value  of  the 
granite  produced  in  the  United  States  during 
1911  was  $21,391,878;  trap  rock,  .$6,.399,622; 
sandstone,  $7,730,868;  bluestone,  $1,876,473; 
limestone,    $33,897,362;    marble,    $7,546,718. 

Sulphur  and  Pyrite. 

The  domestic  production  of  sulphur  in  1912 
was  303,472  long  tons,  valued  at  $5,256,422. 
The  production  of  pyrite  in  1912  was  350,928 
long  tons,  valued  at  $1,334,259.  The  im- 
ports of  sulphur  amounted  to  29,927  long 
tons,  valued  at  $583,974,  and  the  exports  to 
57,736,  valued  at  $1,076,414.  The  imports  of 
pyrite  for  1912  were  valued  at  $3,841,683. 

Pigments. 

Barytes. — The  production  of  crude  barytes 
in  19il  was  38,445  short  tons,  valued  a 
$122,792.  The  imports  of  barytes  were 
valued  at  $58,726  and  the  imports  of  barium 
compounds  at  $398,213. 

Mineral  Paints. — The  commercial  pro- 
duction of  mineral  paints  in  1911  amounted  to 
143,350  short  tons,  valued  at  $7,842,583. 
This  includes  the  natural  mineral  pigments, 
pigments  made  directly  from  ores,  and  chemic- 
ally manufactured  pigments. 

Asphalt. 

i~  During  the  year  1912  the  total  production 
of  asphalt  and  bituminous  rock  amounted  to 
449,510  short  tons,  valued  at  $4,620,731  and 
was  divided  into  the  following  varieties; 
Bituminous  rock,  53,041  short  tons,  valued 
at  $152,675;  refined  bitumin,  22,852  short 
tons,  valued  at  $241,772;  maltha,  474  short 
tons,  valued  $3,518;  wurtzilite  (elaterite), 
8,452  short  tons,  valued  at  $115,620;  gilsonite, 
31,478  short  tons,  valued  at  $573,069;  oil 
asphalt,  333,213  short  tons,  valued  at  $3,534,- 
077.  The  mportsof  asphalt  in  1912  amounted 
to  218,328  short  tons,  valued  at  $921,145,  and 
the  exports  to  1,170,882  short  tons. 

Nickel. 

No  production  of  nickel  ore,  as  such,  was 
reported  in  the  United  States  during  1911 
but  445  tons  of  metallic  nickel,  valued  at 
about  $127,000,  were  saved  as  by-products. 
The  imports  during  1911  were  valued  at 
$4,050,030,  and  the  exports  at  $8,283,777. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


93 


Ma 


Copyright  1908  by  Munn  &  Co. 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  SALT  INDUSTRY. 

Salt  in  sea  and  on  land. — Yearly  production  in    the   United    States.    157,267,544    tons   of 
sodium   are   annually   poured    into    the   sea.      Of  this  amount,  77|  per  cent,  is  common  salt. 


94 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


GEMS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 
Production  of 'predous  stones  iri  the  United  States  in  1907,  1908, 1909,  and  1910. 


Value. 


1907 


1909 


1910 


Remarks. 


Agates,  chalcedony,  etc., 
moonstones,  etc.,  onyx. 

Amethyst 

Azurmalachite,  malachite,  etc. 

Benitoite 

Beryl,  aquamarine,  blue, 

Sink,  etc. 
ifornite 

Catlinite 

Chiastolite 

Chlorastrolite 

ChrysocoUa 

Chrysoprase 

Cyanite 

Diamond 

Diopside 

Emerald 

Epidote 

Feldspar,  sunstone,  amazon 

stone,  etc. 
Garnet,    hyacinth,    pyrope, 

almandine,  rhodolite. 

Gold  quartz 

Jasper 

Opal 

Peridot 

Petrified  wood , 

Phenacite 

Prase 

Pyrite , 

Quartz,  rock  crystal,  smoky 

quartz,  rutilated,  etc. 
Rose  quartz .« 


Rhodocrosite. 
Rhodonite... 


$650 

850 

250 

1,500 

6,435 

a  25, 000 
25 
20 


$1,125 

210 
5,450 
3,638 

7,485 


$750 

190 
2,000 

500 
1,660) 

a  18, 000 


$2,268 


550 
"5,"  545 
a8,000 


150 

a  46, 500 

100 

02. 800 


25 

600 
0  48,225 


2,400 

300 

a  84, 800 


02,000 

a'g'ooo' 


02,100 
120 


2,033 


0  1,320 

60 

1,110 


1,000 
675 
180 

1,300 

325 

25 


2,850 

13,100 

1,010 


0300 

15 

02,700 

1,650 


01,400 
"0766' 


50 
1,300 


100 
200 
300 


2,510 

3,100 

1,000 
475 
270 


50 


400 
2,580 

0,375 

150 


3,595 
508 


2,689 
2,970 


1,385 
2,537 


1,250 


125 


06,200 


Ruby 

Rutile... 
Sapphire - 


Smithsonite 

Spodumene,    kunzite,    hid- 

denlte. 
Thompsonite 


Topaz. 


2,000 

200 

a229,800 

800 
14,500 


Tourmaline 

Turquoise  and  matrix. 


Variscite,  amatrice,  utahlite. 
Miscellaneous  gems 


2,300 

0  84,120 
23,840 

7,500 


0  58,397 

0  1,200 
06,000 

35 

4,435 

0  90,000 
1147,950 

14,250 


25 
044,998 

300 
15,150 

100 

512 

ol33,192 
0179,273 

35,938 
1,060 


52,983 


33,000 
610 


0  46,500 
0  85,900 

o  26, 125 
2.755 


Total. 


471,300     415,063 


534,380     295,797 


^^ 


About  1,150  pounds;  California,  Col- 
orado, Montana,  and  Wyoming. 
No  production  reported. 
475  pounds;  Arizona  and  Nevada. 
No  production  reported. 
About  30  pounds  rough  and  selected. 

1,500  pounds;  California;  not  sold. 
No  production  reported. 

1,250  pounds;  Michigan. 

No  production  reported. 

1,700  pounds;  California. 

No  production  reported. 

208  stones;  Arkansas  and  California. 

No  production  reported. 

North  Carolina. 

No  production  reported. 

4,128  pounds;  Colorado  and  Califor- 
nia. 

151  pounds;  California,  Arizona,  and 
Colorado. 

Colorado  and  California. 

500  pounds;  Colorado  and  California. 

Nevada. 

No  production  reported. 

Colorado. 

50  pounds;  Oregon. 

No  production  reported. 

1,753  pounds;  Colorado,  Maine,  Ver- 
mont, CaUfomia,  and  Texas. 

25,025  pounds;  South  Dakota  and 
CaUfomia. 

No  production  reported. 

3,200  pounds;  Montana  and  Califor- 
nia. 

No  production  reported. 

1,062,000  carats;  Montana  and  Indi- 
ana. 
No  production  reported. 
120  pounds;  California. 

About  50  pounds;  Michigan,  Minne- 
sota, and  New  Jersey. 

75  pounds;  CaUfomia,  Colorado,  and 
Texas. 

1,548  pounds;  CaUfomia  and  Maine.  ■ 

16.886  pounds;  Nevada,  New  Mex- 
ico, Arizona,  and  Colorado. 

5,377  pounds;  Utah  and  Nevada. 

Datohte,  obsidian,  fossil  coral,  and 
ornamental  stones  with  trade 
names. 


a  Estimated  pr  partly  so. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


95 


Miscellaneous. 

Asbestos. — The  asbestos  commercially  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  in  1912  was  ob- 
tained from  deposits  in  Georgia,  and  Ver- 
mont, with  small  quantities  from  Idaho  and 
Wyoming.  The  total  commercial  produc- 
tion in  1912  was  4,403  short  tons,  valued  at 
$87,959.  The  imports  for  consumption  were 
valued  at  $1,819,771  in  1912. 

Graphite. — The  commercial  production  of 
crystalline  graphite  in  1912  amounted  to 
3,543,771  pounds,  valued  at  $187,689.  The 
production  of  amorphous  graphite  in  1912 
was  673  short  tons,  valued  at  $19,344.  The 
production  of  artificial  graphite  was  12,896,- 
347  pounds,  valued  at  $830,193,  the  average 
price  per  pound  being  $6.44.  The  imoorts 
of  graphite  in  1912  were  valued  at  $1,709,337. 

Mica. — The  total  production  of  mica  in 
1912  was  845,483  pounds  of  sheet  mica, 
valued  at  $282,823,  and  3,226  short  tons  of 
scrap  mica,  valued  at  .$49,073.  The  imports 
of  mica  in  1912  were  valued  at  $748,973. 

Mineral  waters. — The  total  production  of 
mineral  waters  in  1911  was  63,923,119  gal- 
lons, valued  at  $6,837,888.  The  imports  of 
mineral  waters  in  1911  amounted  to  $1,037,- 
485. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were  732 
springs  in  the  United  States  reporting  sales 
of  mineral  waters.  They  sold  63,923,119 
gallons  of  mineral  waters,  valued  at  $6,837,- 
888.  Each  year  has  shown  a  growth  in  the 
production  of  what  is  known  as  "soft  drinks." 
In  all  6,595,757  gallons  of  water  were  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  soft  drinks.     Wisconsin 


leads  all  the  states  in  the  amount  of  water 
used,  using  2,037,258  gallons,  or  about  one- 
third  of  all  the  mineral  waters  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soft  drinks  in  the  United 
States. 

The  total  imports  of  iron  ore  into  the 
United  States  in  1910  amounted  to  2,591,031 
long  tons  and  the  quantity  of  iron  ore  ex- 
ported from  the  United  States  in  the  same 
year  amounted  to  644,875  long  tons. 


(.APE  OF  QOOD  HOPE 


TRANSVAAL       ORANGE-  F. STATE 
X  1.733.1  IS  £|,M8.258 


o 


(?ERMAM  5.W.Affr/CA    BRAZIL     5.fiH00E5M     0RlT.<7UIAriA 
i  1,058,497      f  100,000      il0,35O         £6,103 

DIAMOND    PRODUCTION, 
(in  Pounds  Sterling.) 


THE  NATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  MINES. 


The  National  Bureau  of  Mines  for  the 
United  States  was  created  by  act  of  Congress 
approved  May  16,  and  effective  July  1,  1910. 
The  chief  purpose  of  the  bureau  is  to  carry  on 
inquiries  and  investigations  with  the  view  of 
lessening  loss  of  life  and  waste  of  resources  in 
mining  and  metallurgical  operations.  It  is 
to  make  investigations  of  the  methods  of 
mining,  especially  in  relation  to  the  safety 
of  miners,  the  appliances  best  adapted  to  the 
prevention  of  mine  accidents,  the  improve- 
ment of  mining  conditions,  the  treatment  of 
ores  and  other  mineral  substances,  as  to  the 
use  of  explosives  and  electricity  in  mining, 
and  other  inquiries  and  technologic  in- 
vestigations pertaining  to  mining,  metal- 
lurgical and  quarry  industries.  The  act 
establishing  the  bureau  provides  that  no 
officer  or  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
shall  exercise  any  right  or  authority  in  ,c9n- 
nection  with  the  inspection  or  supervision 
of  mines  and  metallurgical  plants  in  any 
state;  under  the  Constitution  such  in- 
spection and  supervision  is  within  the  province 
of  the  State  and  is  not  germane  to  the  duties 
of  the  Federal  Government. 

The  scope  of  the  fuel  investigations  of  this 
bureau  conforms  to  the  provisions  of  the  Act 
of  Congress  which  provides  for  the  analyzing 
and  testing  of  coals,  lignites,  and  other 
mineral  fuel  substances  belonging  to  or  for 
the  use  of  the  United  States.  Several  lines 
of  inquiry  are  embodied  in  this  plan,  which 
however,  are  too  numerous  to  be  men- 
tioned here. 


The  act  also  transferred  to  the  new  Bureau 
of  Mines  the  personnel  and  equipment  of  the 
technologic  branch  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey.  This  personnel  and 
equipment  were  developed  during  the  preced- 
ing five  years  in  connection  with  the  investiga- 
tion of  fuels  and  mine  accidents,  and  the 
new  bureau  is  to  continue  similar  investiga- 
tions. 

Its  chief  Experimental  Station  is  located  at 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.  where  the  work  in  the  labora- 
tories is  supplemented  by  experiments  con- 
ducted in  a  small  coal  mine  under  the  cori- 
ditions  of  actual  mining.  At  this  station  it 
also  is  conducting  a  number  of  investigations 
in  connection  with  the  use  of  explosives  and 
electricity,  and  other  mining  problems. 

As  a  means  of  carrying  on  an  educational 
campaign  in  behalf  of  mine  rescue  and  first 
aid  to  the  injured  work,  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
has  purchased  and  equipped  vvith  rescue 
apparatus,  first  aid  and  fire  fighting  devices, 
seven  cars  of  standard  Pullman  size,  each 
completely  fitted  with  modern  appliances. 
These  cars,  one  stationed  in  each  of  the  im- 
portant coal  fields  or  coal  mining  regions  of  the 
country,  will  visit  all  the  important  groups  of 
coal  mmes  where  demonstrations  and  illustra- 
tions of  this  work  will  be  given. 

The  law  establishing  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
became  effective  on  July  1,  1910.  On 
September  1st,  Dr.  J.  A.  Holmes,  formerly 
Chief  of  the  Technologic  Branch  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  was  appointed  Director  of 
the  new  Bureau. 


96 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright, 


Co. 


GRAPHIC    REPRESENTATION    OF    THE    ENORMOUS    ENERGY 
FENDED  IN  MANUFACTURES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


EX- 


The  total  steam  power  employed  in  manufactures  In  the  United  States  in  1905  was  10,664,560. 
A  single  steam  engine  of  this  power  would  measure  400  feet  by  255  feet  on  the  base,  and 
would  extend  735  feet  into  the  air,  or  123  feet  above  the  Singer  building.  To  develop  the 
total  electric  horse-power  of  1,138,208  would  call  for  a  generator  with  a  134-foot  base,  and 
126  feet  high.  The  total  of  298,514  gas  engine  power  would  require  an  engine  350  feet  long 
by  80  feet  high.     Now   the  Woolworth   Building  could  be   substituted  for  the    Singer   Building. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


MANUFACTURES, 


MANUFACTURES :  A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  ESTABLISHMENTS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  AND  NON -CONTIGUOUS  TERRITORY,  1909. 


NUMBER  OB  AMOUNT. 

Total. 

Continental  United 
States. 

Alaska. 

Hawaii 

Porto  Rico. 

i     Number  of  estabUshmenta , >.... 

1     Persons  engaged  in  manufactures 

Proprietors  and  firm  members 

Salaried  employees 

Wage  earners  (average  number) 

Primary  horsepower 

Capital 

Expenses 

270,082 

7, 707, 751 

275,952 

792, 168 

e,  639, 931 

18,  760,  686 

$18,490,749,000 

18,525,426,000 

4,375,634,000 

940,900,000 

3,434,734,000 

12,194,019,000 

1, 955, 773, 000 

20,767,540.000 

8,573,527,000 

268,491 

7, 678, 578 

273, 265 

790, 267 

6,615,046 

18, 680,  776 

$18,428,270,000 

18,453,080,000 

4, 365, 613, 000 

938, 575, 000 

3,427,038,000 

12,141,791,000 

1, 945, 676, 000 

20,672,052,000 

8,530,261,000 

152 

3,479 

135 

245 

3,099 

3,975 

$13, 060, 000 

9, 454, 000 

2,328,000 

380,000 

1, 948, 000 

5, 120, 000 

2,006,000 

11,340,000 

6,220,000 

500 

7,572 

1,074 

694 

5,904 

41, 930 

$23,875,000 

31, 753, 000 

2,795,000 

686,000 

2, 109, 000 

25,629,000 

3,329,000 

47,404,000 

21,776,000 

939 

18, 122 

1,478 

1,062 

15,  582 

34,005 

$25,544,000 

31,139,000 

4, 898, 000 

1, 259, 000 

3,639,000 

21, 479, 000 

4, 762, 000 

36,750,000 

15,271.000 

Services 

Salaries 

Materials          "......."!!!!!!!!.!.!.. 

Miscellaneous                             

Value  added  by  manufacture  (value  of 
products  less  cost  of  materials) 

A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  ESTABLISHMENTS    OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

FOR  SPECIFIED  YEARS :  1909,   1904,   1889  ;  AND  THE  PER  CENT. 

OF   INCREASE. 


Number  of  establiahments 

Persons  engaged  in  manufactures 

Proprietors  and  firm  members 

Salaried  employees 

Wage  earners  (average  number) 

Primary  horsepower 

Capital 

E2q>en8es 

Services 

Salaries 

Wages 

Materials 

Miscellaneous 

Value  of  products 

Value  added  by  manufacture  (value  of  prod 
ucta  less  cost  of  materials) 


KUMBE8  OR  AMOUNT. 


268, 491 

7.  678, 578 

273, 265 

790, 267 

6,  615, 046 

18, 680, 776 

$18, 428, 270, 000 

18, 453, 080, 000 

4,365,613,000 

938,575,000 

3,427,038,000 

12,141,791,000 

1,945,676,000 

20,672,052,000 

8,530,261,000 


216, 180 

6,  213,  612 

225,  673 

519,  556 

5,  468,  383 

13, 487,  707 

$12,  675,  581, 000 

13, 138,  260, 000 

3,184,884,000 

574,  439, 000 

2,  610,  445, 000 

8,  500,  208, 000 

1,  453, 168,  000 

14, 793,  903, 000 

6,293,695,000 


207, 514 


364, 120 

4, 712,  763 

10, 097,  893 

$8,  975,  256, 000 

9,  870,  425, 000 

2, 389, 132, 000 

380,  771, 000 

2,008,361,000 

6,  575,  851, 000 

905, 442,  000 

11,406,927,000 

4,831,076,000 


MtB  WKT  Of  mCEBASE. 


23.6 
21.1 
52.1 
21.0 
38.5 
45.4 
40.5 
37.1 
63.4 
31.3 
42.8 
33.9 
39.7 

35.5 


42.7 
16.0 
83.6 
4L2 
33.1 
33.3 
50.9 
30.0 
29.3 
60.6 
29.7 

30.3 


97 


98 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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g|^.D.g§|   a-^  co^ 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


99 


LEADING  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1909. 


AU  industries. 


Slaughtering  and  meat  packing 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Iron  and  steel,  steel  works  and  rolling  mills. 
Flour-mill  and  gristmill  products 


Printing  and  publishing 

Cotton  goods,  including  cotton  small  wares. . . 

Clothing,  men's,  including  shirts 

Boots  and  shoes,  including  cut  stock  and  find- 


Woolen,  worsted,  and  felt  goods,  and  wool  hats , 


Tobacco  manufactures 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs 

by  steam-railroad  companies 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products, 

Iron  and  steel,  blast  furnaces 

Clothing,  women's ^ •. . . . 


Smelting  and  refining,  copper 

Liquors,  malt 

Leather,  tanned,  curried,  and  finished 

Sugar  and  molasses,  not  including  beet  sugar. 
Butter,  cheese,  and  condensed  milk 


Paj)er  dnd  wood  pulp 

Automobiles,  includmg  bodies  and  parts 

Furniture  and  refrigerators. 

Petroleum,  refining 

Electrical  machinery,  apparatus,  and  supplies. 


Liquors,  distilled , 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods. 


Copper,  tin,  and  sheet-iron  products 

Silk  and  silk  goods,  including  throwsters. 
Smelting  and  refining,  lead 


Gas,  illuminating  and  heating. . 

Carriages  and  wagons  and  materials. 

Canning  and  preserving 

Brass  and  bronze  products 

Oil,  cottonseed,  and  cake 


Agricultural  implements. 

Patent  medicines  and  comi>ounds  and  drug- 
gists' preparations 

Confectionery. 

Paint  and  varnish 


Cars,  steam-railroad,  ilot  including  operations 
of  railroad  companies 


Chemicals 

Marble  and  stone  work. 

Leather  goods 

All  other  industries . . . . 


Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments 


268,491 

1,641 

13,253 

40,671 

446 

11,691 

31,445 
1,324 
6,354 

1,918 


15,822 

1,145 

23,926 

208 

4,558 

38 

1,414 

919 

233 

8,479 

777 
743 

3,155 
147 

1,009 

613 
1,374 
4,228 

852 


1,296 
5,492 
3,767 
1,021 
817 


3,642 

1,944 

791 


110 


4>964 

2,375 

61,887 


WAOE  EARNERS. 


Average 
number. 


6,618,046 

89,728 
531,011 
695,019 
240,076 

39,453 

258,434 
378,880 
239,696 

198,297 
168,722 

166,810 

282, 174 
100,216 
38,429 
153,743 

15,628 
54,579 
62,202 
13,526 
18,431 

75,978 
75,721 
128,452 
13,929 
87,256 

6,430 
129,275 
73,615 
99,037 

7,424 

37,215 
69,928 
59,963 
40,618 
17,071 

50,551 

22,895 
44,638 
14,240 

43,086 

23,714 

65,603 

34,907 

1,648,441 


ter 
cent 
dis- 
tribu- 
tion 


100.0 

1.4 
8.0 
10.5 
3.6 
0.6 

3.9 
5.7 
3.6 

3.0 
2.6 

2.5 

4.3 
1.5 
0.6 
2.3 

0.2 
0.8 
0.9 
0.2 
0.3 

1.2 
1.1 
1.9 
0.2 
1.3 

0.1 
2.0 
1.1 
1.5 
0.1 

0.6 
1.1 
0.9 
0.6 
0.3 

0.8 

0.3 
0.7 
0.2 

0.7 

0.4 

1.0 

0.5 

24.9 


VALUE  OF  PRODUCTS. 

Amount 

Per 

(expressed 
in  thou- 
sands). 

i 

dis- 
trlbu- 
tion. 

$20,672,052 



100.0 

1,370,568 

1 

6.6 

1,228,475 

2 

5.9 

1.156,129 

3 

5.6 

985,723 

4 

4.8 

883,584 

5 

4.3 

737,876 

6 

3.6 

628,392 

7 

1? 

568,077 

8 

512,798 

9 

2.5 

435,979 

10 

2.1 

416,695 

11 

2.0 

405,601 

12 

2.0 

396,865 

13 

1.9 

391,429 

14 

1.9 

384,752 

15 

1.9 

378,806 

16 

1.8 

374,730 

17 

1.8 

327,874 

18 

1.6 

279,249 

19 

1.4 

274,558 

20 

1.3 

267,657 

21 

1.3 

249,202 

22 

1.2 

239,887 

23 

1.2 

236,998 

24 

1.1 

221,309 

25 

1.1 

204,699 

26 

LO 

200,144 

27 

1.0 

199,824 

28 

1.0 

196,912 

29 

1.0 

167,406 

30 

0.8 

166,814 

31 

0.8 

159,893 

32 

0.8 

167,101 

23 

0.8 

149,989 

34 

0.7 

147,868 

35 

0.7 

146,329 

36 

0.7 

141,942 
134,796 

37 

0.7 

38 

0.7 

124,889 

39 

0.6 

123,730 

40 

0.6 

117,689 

41 

0.6 

113,093 

42 

0.5 

104,719 

43 

0.5 

4,561,002 

.... 

22.0 

100 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  INDUSTRIES,  BY  STATES  AND  WAGE  EARNERS:  1909. 


United  States 

New  York. 

Pennsylvania  * 

Illinois 

Massachusetts 

Ohio 

New  Jersey 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Indiana 

Missouri 

CaUfornia 

Connecticut 

Minnesota 

Kansas 

Maryland 

Rhode  Island 

Texas 

Iowa 

Louisiana 

Kentucky.., 

Washington 

Virginia^ 

North  Carolina.. 

Georgia 

Nebraska 

Tenne 

Maine 

New  Hampshire. .... 

West  Virginia 

Alabama 

Colorado 

South  Carolina 

Oregon , 

Mississippi 

Arkansas , 

Montana , 

Florida 

Vermont 

Utah 

Oklahon^a 

Delaware 

Arizona 

District  of  Columbia. 

Idaho 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Nevada 

New  Mexico 

Wyoming.. 


Number 
of  estab- 

lish- 
jnents. 

Population. 

91.972,266 

268,491 

9,113.614 
7, 665! Ill 
5,638,591 
3,366,416 
4,767,121 

44,935 
27,563 
18,026 
11,684 
15, 138 

2,537,167 
2,810,173 
2,333,860 
2,700,876 
3,293,335 

8,817 
9,159 
9,721 
7,969 
8,375 

2,377,549 
1,114,756 
2,075,708 
1,690,949 
1,295,346 

7,659 
4,251 
5,561 
3,435 
4,837 

542,610 
3,896,542 
2,224,771 
1,656,388 
2,289,905 

1,951 
4,588 
5,528 
2,516 
4,776 

1,141,990 
2,061,612 
2,206,287 
2,609,121 
1,192,214 

3,674 
5,685 
4,931 
4,792 
2,.500 

2,184,789 

742,371 

430,572 

1,221,119 

2,138,093 

4,609 
3,546 
1,961 
2,586 
3,398 

799,024 
1,515,400 

672,765 
1,797,114 
1,574,449 

2,034 
1,854 
2,246 
2,598 
2,925 

376,053 
752,619 
355,956 
373,351 
1,657,155 

677 
2,159 
1,958 

749 
2,310 

202,322 
204,354 
331,069 
325,594 
577,056 

726 
311 

518 
725 
752 

583,888 
81,875 
327,301 
145,965 

1,020 
177 
313 
268 

1 

WAGE  EARNERS. 


Average 
number. 


6,615,046 


877,543 
465,764 
684,559 
446,934 

326,223 
231,499 
182,583 
186,984 
152,993 

115,296 
210,792 
84,767 
44,215. 
107,921 

113,538 
70,230 
61,635 
76,165 
65,400 

69,120 
105,676 
121,473 
104,588 

24,336 

73,840 
79,955 
78,658 
63,893 
72,148 

28,067 
73,046 
28,750 
50,384 
44,982 

11,655 
57,473 
33,788 
11,785 
13,143 

21,238 
6,441 
7,707 
8,220 
2,789 

3,602 
2,257 
4,143 
2,867 


Per 

cent 


tribu 
tion. 


100.0 

15.2 

13.3 

7.0 

8.8 


4.9 
3.5 
2.8 
2.8 
2.3 

1.7 
3.2 
1.3 
0.7 
1.6 

1.7 
1.1 
0.9 
1.2 
,1.0 

1.0 
1.6 
1.8 
1.6 
0.4 

1.1 
1.2 
1.2 
1.0 
1.1 

0.4 
1.1 
0.4 
0.8 
0.7 

0.2 
0.9 
0.5 
0.2 
0.2 

0.3 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
(^) 

0.1 
(^) 
O.l 

(«) 


VALUE  OF  PRODUCTS. 

Amount 

Per 

(expressed 
in  thou- 
sands). 

1 

dis- 
tribu- 
tion. 

$20,672,052 

100.0 

3,369,490 

1 

16.3 

2,626,742 

2 

12.7 

1,919,277 

3 

9.3 

1,490,529 

4 

7.2 

1,437,936 

5 

7.0 

1,145,529 

6 

5.5 

685,109 

7, 

3.3 

590,306 

8 

2.9 

579,075 

9 

2.8 

574,  }11 

10 

2.8 

529,761 

11 

2.6 

490,272 

12 

2.4 

409,420 

13 

2.0 

325, 104 

14 

1.6 

315,669 

15 

1.5 

280,344 

16 

1.4 

272,896 

17 

1.3 

259,238 

18 

1.2 

223,949 

19 

1.1 

223,754 

20 

1.1 

220,746 

21 

1.1 

219,794 

22 

1.1 

216,656 

23 

1.0 

202,863 

24 

1.0 

199,019 

25 

1.0 

180,217 

26 

0.9 

176,029 

27 

0.8 

164,581 

28 

0.8 

161,950 

29 

0.8 

145,962 

30 

0.7 

130,044 

31 

0.6 

113,236 

32 

0.5 

93,005 

33 

0.4 

80,555 

34 

0.4 

74,916 

35 

0.4 

73,272 

36 

0.4 

72,890 

37 

0.4 

68,310 

38 

0.3 

61,989 

39 

0.3 

53,682 

40 

0.3 

52,840 

41 

0.3 

50,257 

42 

0.2 

25,289 

43 

0.1 

22,400 

44 

0.  I 

19,138 

45 

0.1 

17,870 

46 

0.1 

11,887 

47 

0.1 

7,898 

48 

(») 

6,249 

49 

(*) 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFEREN'Cfi  BOOK. 


101 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES,  BY  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  irY   BLA.NK.^ 

1909. 


CITt. 


New  York,  N.  Y. 

Chicago,  111 

PMadelphla,  Pa. 

St.  Louis.  Mo 

Cleveland,  Ohio.. 


Detroit,  Mich... 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.. 

Boston,  Mass 

Buffalo,  N.Y... 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 


Newark,  N.J 

Cincinnati,  Ohio.,. 

Baltimore,  Md 

Minneapolis,  Minn . 
City,  Kans. 


San  Francisco,  Cal . 
Jersey  City,  N.  J . . . 
Indianapolis,  Ind.. 
Providence,  R.  I.., 
Rochester,  N.Y..., 


Louisville,  Ky 

South  Omaha,  Nebr. 
Youngstown,  Ohio. . 

Lawrence,  Mass 

New  Orleans,  La 


Worcester,  Mass. . 
Bayonne,  N.  J... 

Akron,  Ohio 

Perth  Amboy,  N. 
Lynn,  Mass .. . 


Paterson,  N.  J... 
Los  Angeles,  Cal . . 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Fall  River,  Mass. 
Peoria,  111 


Toledo,  Ohio... 
Omaha,  Nebr.. 
Dayton,  Ohio.. 
Lowell,  Mass... 
Yonkers,  N.  Y. 


St.  Paul,  Minn 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

New  Bedford,  Mass. 

Denver,  Colo 

Reading,  Pa 


New  Haven,  Conn. 

Seattle,  Wash , 

Waterbury,  Conn. , 

S3Tticuse,N.  Y 

Camden,  N.J 


Populatioii. 


4,766,883 

2, 185, 283 

1,549,008 

687, 029 

560,663 

465,766 
533,905 
670, 585 
423, 715 
373,857 

347, 469 
363,591 
558,485 
301,408 
82,331 

416,912 
267, 779 
233,650 
224,326 
218, 149 

223,928 
26,259 
79,066 
85.892 

339,075 

145,986 
55,545 
69,067 
32, 121 
89,336 

125,600 
319, 198 
102, 054 
119,295 
66,950 

168, 497 
124, 096 
116,577 
106,294 
79,803 

214, 744 
248,381 

96,652 
213,381 

96,071 

133,605 
237, 194 

73, 141 
137,249 

94,538 


Number 

of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 


25,938 
9,656 
8,379 
2,667 
2.148 

2,036 
1,659 
3,155 
1,753 
1,764 

1,858 
2,184 
2,502 
1,102 
165 


745 

855 

L,080 

[,203 

903 
71 
115 
162 
848 


97 
246 

80 
431 

702 

1,325 

367 

288 
283 

760 
432 
513 
320 
158 

719 
902 
207 
766 

482 

590 
751 
169 
738 
365 


WAGE 
EABNERS. 


Average 
number. 


554,002 
293,977 
251,884 
87,371 
84,728 

81,011 
67, 474 
69,637 
51,412 
59,502 

59, 955 
60,192 
71,444 
26, 962 
12,294 

28,244 
25,454 
31,815 
46, 381 
39, 108 

27,023 
6,306 
10, 498 
30,542 
17, 186 

28,221 
7/519 

15,831 
5,866 

27,368 

32,004 
17, 327 
25,775 
37, 139 
5,981 

18, 878 
8,023 
21.549 
32,575 
12,711 

19, 339 
14,043 
26, 566 
12, 058 
24,145 

23,547 
11,331 
20,170 
18, 148 
16,527 


VALUE  OP 
PEODUCTS. 


Amount 
(expressed 
in  thou- 
sands). 


12,029,693 

1,281,171 

746,076 

328,495 

271,961 

252,992 
243,454 
237,457 
:^18,804 
208,324 

202,511 
194,516 
186,978 
165,405 
164,081 

133,041 
128, 775 
126,522 
120,241 
112,676 

101,284 
92, 436 
81,271 
79,993 
78, 794 

77, 148 
73,641 
73, 158 
73,093 
71,503 

69,584 
68,586 
65,609 
64,146 
63,061 

61,230 
60,854 
'60.378 
60.271 
59,  334 

58,990 
54,  704 
53,238 
51,538 
51, 135 

51,071 
50,569 
60, 350 
49. 435 
49, 138 


102 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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103 


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104 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  EXPENSES  IN  PERCENTAGES  FOR 
THE   LEADING  INDUSTRIES    1909. 


All  industries 

Agricultural  implements 

Automobiles,  including  bodies  and  parts 

Boots  and  shoes,  including  cut  stock  and  findings. 

Brass  and  bronze  products 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products 

Butter,  cheese,  and  condensed  milk 

Canning  and  preserving , 

Carriages  and  wagons  and  materials 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 

steam-railroad  companies 

Cars,  steam-railroad,  not  including  operations  of 

railroad  companies 

Chemicals 

Clothing,  men's,  including  shirts 

Clothing,  women's 

Confectionery 

Copper,  tin,  and  sheet-iron  products 

Cotton  goods,  including  cotton  small  wares 

Electrical  machinery,  apparatus,  and  supplies.. . 

Flour-mill  and  gristmill  products 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products 

Furniture  and  refrigerators 

Gas,  illuminating  and  heating 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods 

Iron  acd  steel,  blast  furnaces 

Iron  and  steel,  steel  works  and  rolling  mills 

Leather  goods: , 

Leather,  tanned,  curried,  and  finished 

Liquors,  distilled 

Liquors,  malt 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Marble  and  stone  work 

Oil,  cottonseed,  and  cake 

Paint  and  varnish 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds  and  druggists' 

preparations 

Petroleum,  refining 

Printing  and  publishing 

Silk  and  silk  goods,  including  throwsters 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing 

Smelting  and  refining,  copper 

Smelting  and  refining,  lead 

Sugar  and  molasses,  not  including  beet  sugar  — 

Tobacco  manufactures 

Woolen,  worsted,  and  felt  goods,  and  wool  hats. . 
All  other  industries 


PER  CENT  OF  TOTAL  EXPENSES 
REPORTED. 


Sala- 
ries. 


6.1 

8.6 
4.5 
3.9 


4.1 
4.0 

1.4 

5.6 
5.7 

4.3 

4.3 

6.5 
5.2 
6.0 

7.6 
5.8 

2.6 
10.0 
1.5 
8.7 
7.3 


10.9 
4.4 
1.8 
2.9 
7.2 

2.2 
1.0 

7.6 
4.8 
6.7 

3.1 
9.3 
4.0 

14.9 

1.8 

16.7 
4.2 
1.5 
0.7 
0.9 

0.9 
4.6 
2.6 
6.4 


Wages. 


18.6 

24.3 
23.1 
20.6 
17.3 
17.4 

4.3 
13.5 
,27. 0 


23.0 

15.0 
20.7 
23.0 
13.1 
22.4 

24.0 
24.5 
2.6 
29.8 
30.8 

18.4 
25.5 
6.8 
18.3 
19.3 

10.5 

1.6 

13.7 

32.0 

44.8 

4.3 

7.4 

17.2 

8.7 
4.4 

26.6 

21.8 

3.9 

3.8 

3.4 

2.8 
19.0 
18.7 
5fl.l 


Mate- 
rials. 


51.1 
62.5 
69.6 
72.6 


91.0 
72.0 
58.9 


68.2 
57.9 
61.1 
67.9 
63.7 


53.8 
92.8 
50.1 
51.0 

46.2 
62.7 
88.4 
73.9 
64.6 

81.2 
18.4 
32.2 
51.0 
39.4 

87.7 
71.1 
69.7 

44.1 


32.6 
60.8 
91.3 
94.4 


Mis- 
cellane- 
ous ex- 
penses. 


10.6 

16.0 
9.9 
5.9 
6.0 

8.6 

3.3 
9.0 

8.4 

L8 

6.0 

10.3 
16.2 

9.9 
11.4 

8.1 

6.5 
11.7 

3.1 
11.4 
10.9 

24.5 
7.4 
3.0 
4.8 
8.9 


79.0 
46.5 
12.2 
9.1 

4.9 
12.2 
9.1 

32.4 
4.2 

24.1 

13.2 

3.3 

1.1 

0.9 

3.7 

28.0 

■    5.8 

10.5 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


105 


I.     ENGINES  AND  POWER. 


In  1909  408,472  engines  or  motors,  having 
a  total  horse-power  of  18,675,376,  used  pri- 
mary power  in  the  United  States.  Of  this 
number  209,163  were  owned  and  199,309  were 
rented.  The  owned  engines  or  motors  were 
divided  according  to  power,  as  follows:  Steam, 
153,525  with  total  horse-power  of  14,199,339, 
gas,  34,356,  total  horse-power  751,186,  water 
wheels,  20,079,  total  horse-power  1,807,439, 
water  motors,  1,203,  total  horse-power  15,449; 
all  other  owned  engines  or  motors  having  a 
horse-power  of  29,293.  The  rented  engines 
were  divided  as  follows:    Electric,    199,309, 


total  horse-power  1,749,031;  all  other 
rented  engines  or  motors  having  a  total  horse- 
power of  123,639.  At  the  end  of  the  year  1909 
there  were  388,854  electric  motors  in  the 
United  States,  having  a  total  horse-power  of 
4,817,140.  Of  these  189,545,  having  a  horse- 
power of  3,068,109,  were  run  by  current  gen- 
erated by  establishment;  and  199,309,  having 
a  total  horse-power  of  1,749,031,  were  run  by 
rented  power.  Our  comparison  would  be  even 
more  spectacular  if  figures  for  the  year  1912 
could  be  obtained. 


11.     MANUFACTURED  FOOD  PRODUCTS. 


Slaughteking   and    Meat  Packing. 

The  total  cost  of  all  the  material  used  in  the 
slaughtering  and  meat-packing  business 
during  the  year  1909,  amounted  to  $1,202,- 
827,784.  The  cost  of  all  the  animals  slaugh- 
tered was  $960,725,581.  The  total  number 
of  beeves  killed  was  8,114,860  and  they  were 
valued  at  $392,127,010;  the  total  number  of 
calves  slaughtered  was  2,504,728  and  they 
were  valued  at  $25,030,014;  the  number  of 
sheep  slaughtered  was  12,255,501,  and  their 
value  was  $59,924,931;  the  number  of  hogs 
slaughtered  amounted  to  33,870,616  and  their 
value  was  $483,383,848;  the  goats  slaughtered 
numbered  33,224  and  were  valued  at  $121,230; 
and  the  cost  of  all  other  animals  slaugh- 
tered was  $138,548.  The  dressed  meat  pur- 
chased during  the  year  1909  was  valued  at 
$93,409,286,  and  all  the  other  materials  pur- 
chased at  $147,692,917.  The  products  of  the 
slaughtering  and  meat  packing  business  for 
the  year  were  valued  at  $1,370,568,101  and 
were  divided  as  follows:  Beef,  4,335,674,330 
pounds,  value,  $339,742,608;  of  which 
4,209,196,668  pounds,  valued  at  $327,583,456, 
were  fresh,  and  126,477,662  pounds, 
valued  at  $12,159,152,  were  salted  or  cured; 
veal,  252,997,078  pounds,  value,  $25,058,886; 
fresh  mutton,  495,457,894,  value,  $50,735,116; 
pork,  4,377,127,187,  value,  $486,845,161,  of 
which  1,547,494,184  pounds,  valued  at 
$158,714,862,  were  fresh;  952,130,557  pounds, 
valued  at  $95,959,048,  were  salted; 
789,861,744  pounds,  valued  at  $101,089,390, 
were  hams;  346,294,769  pounds,  valued  at 
$33,225,458,  were  shoulders;  and  741,345,933 
pounds,  valued  at  $97,856,403,  were  bacons 
and  sides;  sausage,  fresh  or  cured,  value, 
$59,564,582;  all  other  fresh  meat,  257,809,083 
pounds,  vahie,  $16,392,768;  canned  goods, 
121,376,837  pounds,  value,  $15,345,543;  lard, 
1,243,567,604  pounds,  value,  $134,396,587; 
tallow  or  oleo  stock,  202,844,139  pounds, 
value,  $13,499,659;  oleo  oil,  19,692,172 
gallons,  value,  $16,475,726;  other  oils, 
11,343,186  gallons,  value,  $6,350,745;  oleo- 
margarine, 42,912,466  pounds,  value, 
$5,963,981;  stearin,  54,957,997  pounds,  value, 
$0,871,935;  glue  and  gelatine,  27,936,035 
pounds,  value,  $1,944,338;  fertilizers  and 
fertilizer  materials,  362,136  tons,  value, 
$8,726,818;  hides,  9,560,138,  value,  $68,- 
401,515;  sheep  pelts,  11,691,308,  value, 
$11,404,556;  goat  and  kid  skins,  33,359, 
value,    $20,679;     wool,    21,858,926    pounds, 


value,  $8,327,095;  amount  received  for 
custom  or  contract  work,  $1,329,739;  and  all 
other  products,  value,  $93,170,064. 

Canning  and  Preserving. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1909  there  were 
3,767  canning  and  preserving  establishments 
in  the  United  States,  having  a  total  capital 
of  $119,207,000.  The  total  cost  of  all  ma- 
terials used  in  the  establishments  was  $101,- 
823,000;  the  amount  spent  in  these  factories 
for  wages  was^  $19,082,000;  the  amount  spent 
for  salaries  $7,864,000;  and  the  miscellaneous  ■ 
expenses  were  $12,718,000.  The  total  value 
of  the  products  was  $157,101,000,  and  the 
value  added  by  manufacture  (products  less 
cost  of  materials)  was  $55,278,000.  The  total 
number  of  salaried  officials  and  clerks  em- 
ployed in  the  establishments  numbered  7,760; 
and.  the  average  number  of  wage  earners  em- 
ployed during  the  year  was  59,968.  The  pri- 
mary horse-power  of  the  establishments  was 
81,179. 

There  were  32,752,469  cases  of  vegetables, 
having  a  value  of  $51,568,914,  canned  during 
the  year.  The  total  value  of  the  tomatoes 
canned  during  the  year  was  $18,747,941;  the 
value  of  the  corn,  $10,332,136;  of  peas,  $10,- 
247,363;  of»beans,  $6,013,098;  of  asparagus, 
$1,975,775.  There  were  5,501,404  cases  of 
fruits  canned  during  the  year  1909,  and  their 
total  value  was  $12,938,474.  The  total  value 
of  the  peaches  canned  during  the  year  was 
$3,753,698;  of  the  apples,  $1,898,720;  of  the 
apricots,  $1,825,311;  of  the  pears,  $1,833,214; 
of  the  berries,  $1,754,927;  of  the  cherries, 
$1,019,013.  During  the  same  year  there  were 
400,328,767  pounds  of  fruits,  with  a  total 
value  of  $19,840,395  dried  in  the  United 
States.  Of  this  total  $4,837,933  represented 
the  value  of  the  raisins  dried;  $5,130,412  that 
of  the  prunes;  $3,098,095  that  of  the  apples; 
$2,423,083  that  of  the  peaches;  $2,277,177 
that  of  the  apricots. 

During  the  year  1909  there  were  235.418,713 
pounds  of  fish  and  oysters,  with  a  value  of 
$17,573,311,  canned  in  the  United  States. 
There  were  99,831,528  pounds  of  salmon,  with 
a  value  of  $8,723,565.  canned  during  the  year; 
90.694.284  pounds  of  sardines,  with  a  value  of 
$4,931,831;  28,192.392  pounds  of  oysters,  with 
a  value  of  $2,443,101.  There  were  39,814,989 
pounds  of  fish,  having  a  value  of  $2,900,417, 
smoked  during  the  year  1909;  and  128,539,299 
pounds  of  fish,  having  a  value  of  $7,174,561. 


106 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


salted  during  the  year.  49,494,338  pounds  of 
cod,  with  a  value  of  $3,077,612,  were  salted 
during  this  period;  and  9,045,469  pounds  of 
mackerel,  with  a  value  of  $740,513. 

Rice,  Cleaning  and  Polishing. 

In  1909  there  were  974,747,475  pounds  of 
rice  treated,  970,8'73,740  of  which  were 
domestic  and  3,873,735  of  which  were  of 
foreign  growth.  The  total  value  of  the 
products    derived    therefrom    amounted    to 


$22,371,457.  There  were  626,089,489  pounds 
of  rice,  valued  at  $20,685,982,  produced  in 
the  United  States,  477,589,004  of  which, 
valued  at  $17,398,736,  were  whole  and 
148,500,485  pounds  of  which,  valued  at 
$3,287,  246,  were  broken.  There  was  29,821,- 
813  pounds  of  polish,  valued  at  $362,052, 
produced  from  rice  during  the  year;  91,208,- 
529  pounds  of  bran,  valued  at  $736,215; 
$106,147  worth  of  hulls  and  waste;  and 
$421,061  worth  of  all  other  rice  products. 


Copyright,    Munn 


THE  MEATS  WE  EAT. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


107 


FLOUR  AND  GRIST  MILL  PRODUCTS. 


1909 


1904 


MATERIALS. 

Total  cost 

Grain  ground  or  milled,  bushels 

Wheat 

C!orn 

Rye 

Buckwheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Other 

PEODUCTS. 

Total  value ; 

Wheat  flour: 

Barrels 

Value 

White- 
Barrels 

Value 

Graham- 
Barrels 

Value 

Rye  flour: 

Barrels 

Value 1 

Buckwheat  flour: 

Pounds 

Value 

Barley  meal: 

Pounds 

Value 

Com  meal  and  com  flour: 

Barrels 

Value 

Hominy  and  grits: 

Pounds 

Value 

Feed: 

Tons  (2,000  pounds).. .w 

Value 

Offal: 

Tons  (2,000  pounds) 

Value 

All  other  cereal  products-"  breakfast 
foods/'  oatmeal,  rolled  oats,  etc., 
value. 

All  other  products,  value 

EQtnPMENT. 

Pairs  of  rolls 

Runs  of  stone 

Attrition  mills 


$767,576,479 


806,247 

496, 480; 

209,281 

11,503, 

7, 156; 

24,509 

50,241 

7,075 


,961 
,314 
,237 
,969 
062 
,770 
,598 
,011 


$883,684,405 

105,756,645 
$550,116,254 

105,321,969 
$548,017,654 

434,676 
$2,098,600 

1,532,139 
$6,383,538 

176,081,891 
$4,663,561 

28,550,952 
$486,000 

21,552,737 
$66,941,095 

827,987,702 
$12,509,493 

5,132,369 
$140,541,915 

4,104,042 
$89,814,427 


$4,720,106 
$7,408,016 


76,866 

11,185 

981 


$619,971,161 

754,945,729 

494,095,083 

178,217,321 

11,480,370 

6,531,305 

18,628,552 

45,381,009 

612,089 


2  $713,033,395 

104,013,278 
$480,258,514 

103,608,350 
$478,484,601 

404,928 
$1,773,913 

1,503,100 
$5,892,108 

175,354,062 
$4,379,359 

68,508,655 
$922,884 

23,624,693 
$56,368,556 

756,861,398 
$8,455,420 

3,456,786 
$76,096,127 

4,468,626 
$76,105,532 


(») 
$4,554,895 


80,822 
10,609 
(*) 


$428,116,767 

729,061,820 

471,306,986 

180,573,076 

10,088,381 

5,490,156 

10,067,348 

47,175,766 

4,360,107 


$601,396,304 

99,763,777 
$333,997,686 

(3) 
(') 

(«) 
(») 

1,443,339 
$4,145,565 

143,190,724 
$3, 190, 152 

91,275,646 
$963,710 

27,838,811 
$52,167,739 

291,726,145 
$2,567,084 

3,993,080 
$63,011,421 

3,164,408 
$36,679,196 


$4,673,751 


(«) 


67, 141 
10,939 


1  In  addition,  merchant-ground  products,  valued  at  $1,637,228,  were  made  by 
establishments  engaged  primarily  in  the  manufacture  of  products  other  than  those 
covered  by  the  industry  designation.  The  items  covered  by  this  amount  were 
wheat  flour,  105,477  barrels,  valued  at  $614,952;  corn  meal,  32,804  barrels,  valued  at 
$87,507;  rye  flour,  2,620  barrels,  valued  at  $12,330;  feed,  33,765  tons,  valued  at  $907,165; 
and  offal,  627  tons,  valued  at  $15,274;  and  in  addition,  "breakfast  foods."  to  the 
value  of  $36,978,613,  were  made  by  establishments  engaged  primarily  in  the  manu- 
facture of  food  preparations.  See  note  to  table  on  page  73,  for  custom  ground 
by-products. 

>  In  addition, "  breakfast  foods,"  to  the  value  of  $23,904,952,  were  made  by  estab- 
lishments engaged  primarilv  in  the  manufacture  of  food  preparations. 

» Not  reixjrted  separately. 

« Not  reported. 


108 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUGAR. 


The  total  acreage  of  sugar  beets  planted  in 
the  United  States  amounted  to  415,964.  Of 
these  29,459  were  planted  directly  by  the 
factory;  18,166  by  tenants  of  the  factory; 
368,339  on  contract  by  others  than  tenants 
of  the  factory.  There  were  3,965,356  tons  of 
beets  used  in  the  industry.  Of  these  266,768 
were  grown  directly  by  the  factory;  163,843 
tons  by  tenants  of  the  factory;  and  3,534,745 
tons  on  contract  by  others  than  the  tenants 
of  the  factory.  The  total  value  of  the  pro- 
ducts derived  from  the  beets  was  $48,122,383. 
Of  this  496,807  tons  of  granulated  sugar  were 
valued  at  $45,645,810;  4,875  tofis  of  raw 
sugar  were  valued  at  $291,819;  20,812,747 
gallons  of  molasses  or  syrup  were  valued  at 


$1,129,905;  beet  pulp  was  valued  at  $795,900; 
and  all  other  products  were  valued  at 
$258,949. 

The  total  value  of  all  the  sugar  produced  in 
the  United  States  during  the  year  1909  was 
$77,991,683,  and  of  this  $48,122,383  was 
derived  from  the  sugar-beet  industry,  and 
$29,869,300  from  the  cane-sugar  industry. 
There  were  828,540  tons  of  sugar  produced, 
the  total  value  of  which  was  $72,033,302,  of 
which  amount  501,862  pounds,  valued  at 
$45,937,629,  were  beet  sugar,  and  326,858 
pounds,  valued  at  $26,095,673,  were  cane 
sugar.  The  total  value  of  molasses,  sj^rup, 
and  all  other  products  produced  of  either 
cane  or  beet  was  $5,958,381. 


III.     TEXTILES. 


Rugs  and  Carpets. 

During  the  year  1909  there  were  57,176,729 
square  yards  of  carpets,  with  a  value  of 
$48,475,889,  manufactured  in  the  United 
States.  During  the  same  period  there  were 
24,042,152  square  yards  of  rugs,  valued  at 
$18,490,449,  woven  in  the  United  States. 

Cordage  and  Twine  and  Jute  and 
Linen  Goods. 

The  total  value  of  the  cordage  and  twine 
and  jute  and  linen  goods  produced  in  the 
United  States  during  the  year  1909  was 
$61,019,986.  The  total  value  of  the  rope 
and  binder  twine  for  the  same  year  was 
$33,930,306;  of  the  twine  not  including 
binder,  $8,934,352;  of  the  yarns  for  sale, 
$5,434,037;  of  the  6,530,503  pounds  of  linen 
thread  used,  $3,407,008;  of  the  69,311,288 
square  yards  of  gunny-bagging,  $3,507,482; 
and  of  the  2,206,114  square  yards  of  jute 
carpets  and  rugs,  $549,221. 

Felt  Goods. 

The  aggregate  cost  of  the  material  required 
in  the  production  of  the  felt  goods  of  the 
United  States  during  the  year  1909  was 
$6,967,206,  and  the  total  value  of  these 
products  for  the  same  period  was  $11,852,626. 
There  were  3,764,468  square  yards  of  felt 
cloths,  valued  at  $1,381,854,  produced  in  that 
year. 

Hats,  Fur-Felt  and  Wool-Felt. 

The  value  of  the  2,989,252  dozens  of  fur- 
felt  hats  produced  during  the  year  1909  was 
$43,442,466,  and  the  value  of  the  366,370 
dozen  of  fur-felt  hat  bodies  and  hats  in  the 
rough  for  the  same  period  was  $2,703,738. 

The  total  value  of  the  590,957  dozen  wool- 
felt  hats  produced  in  the  United  States  during 
the  year  1909  was  $3,646,787. 

Hosiery  and  Knit  Goods. 

There  were,  during  the  year  1909,  62,825,- 
069  dozen  pair  of  hosiery  produced  in  the 
United  States  and  they  were  valued  at 
$68,721,825.  During  the  same  period  there 
were  25,337,779  dozen  shirts  and  drawers 
produced,  with  a  total  value  of  $69,592,817; 


2,473,103  dozen  combinations,  with  a  value 
of  $14,853,536;  sweaters,  cardigan  jackets, 
etc.,  to  the  value  of  $22,430,817;  and  gloves 
and  mittens  to  the  value  of  $7,296,887.  In 
the  production  of  the  hosiery  and  knit  goods 
of  the  United  States  there  were  2,681  sets  of 
cards  used;  736,774  spindles;  112,206  knitting 
machines  of  all  classes,  and  43,885  sewing 
machines  of  all  classes. 

Cotton  Goods. 

The  total  cost  of  the  2,335,344,906  pounds 
of  cotton  material  consumed  in  the  production 
of  cotton  goods  during  the  year  1909  was 
$274,724,210.  The  total  value  of  the  cotton 
goods  produced  from  these  materials  was 
$628,391,813,  divided  as  follows:  6,348,568,593 
square  yards  of  woven  goods,  valued  at 
$456,089,401;  23,700,957  pounds  of  thread, 
valued  at  $20,516,269;  and  13,715,771  pounds 
of  twine,  valued  at  $2,417,391,  There  were 
27,425,608  producing  spindles  used  during  the 
year,  and  065,049  looms  of  all  classes. 


UNITED  KINODOM         U.S. A  QERMAHY 

54.000,000  24,000.000      9,000.001 


RUSSIA 
8,000.000 


FRANCt 
6,000.000 


1/iDJA 
5,800,000 


chief  manufacturing  countries. 

(Number  of  Spindles). 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


109 


Copyright,    Munn    &   Co. 


THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  COTTON  INDUSTRY,  FROM  COTTON  BOLL 
TO  FINISHED  PRODUCT. 


110 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Oilcloth  and  Linoleum. 

The  total  value  of  the  oilcloth  and  linoleum 
produced  in  the  United  States  during  the  year 
1909  was  $26,253,796.  The  oilcloth,  valued 
at  $11,681,012,  was  divided  as  follows: 
18,354,851  square  yards  of  floor  oilcloth, 
valued  at  $3,776,660;  17,338,440  square 
yards  of  enameled  oilcloth,  valued  at  $2,265,- 
146;  61,168,777  square  yards  of  table  oil- 
cloth, valued  at  $5,639,206.  The  total  value 
ol  the  linoleum  produced  in  the  United  States 
during  the  same  period  was  $10,844,928. 
The  value  of  the  artificial  leather  produced 
in  the  United  States  during  the  same  period 
was  $3,448,617. 

Silk  and  Silk  Goods. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
production  of  the  silk  products  of  the  United 
States  was  $107,766,916.  There  were  17,- 
472,204  pounds  of  raw  silk,  valued  at  $67,- 
787,037,  required;  2,212,972  pounds  of  spun 
silk,  valued  at  $4,848,789,  used;  914,494 
poimds  of  artificial  silk,  valued  at  $1,926,894; 
3,377,972  pounds  of  organzine  and  tram, 
valued  at  $14,679,719,  purchased;  $1,637,187 
dollars  worth  of  fringe  and  floss,  including 
waste,  noils,  etc.;  14,111,878  pounds  of  cotton 
and  mercerized  yam,  valued  at  $5,811,582; 
610,588  pounds  of  woolen  or  worsted  yams, 
valued  at  $765,989;  710,108  pounds  of 
mohair  yarn  valued  at  $640,529;  and  353,780 
pounds  of  all  other  kinds  of  yarn,  valued  at 
$456,597.  Chemicals  and  dyestuffs,  cost 
$1,062,313;  and  all  other  materials  used  in 
the  production  of  silk  and  silk  goods  cost 
$8,150,280. 


1 
f — 1 

CH/NA 
3.5H5.000 

u 

^4% 

[^ 

ITALY 
12.753.000 


JAPAN 
12.725.000 


TANKING 
1.651.161 


SILK. 
A  tear's  production. 


The  products  of  the  silk  and  silk  goods 
industry  in  the  United  States  during  the  year 
1909  were  valued  at  $1"'6,91 1,667.  Of  this 
amount  $107,881,146  were  derived  from  the 
manufacture  of  185,707,316  yards  of  broad 
silk,  as  follows:  $53,282,704  from  the  manu- 
facture of  81,934,158  yards  of  all  silk,  plain 
and  fancies;  $14,207,861  from  the  24,742,556 
yards  of  silk  mixed,  plain  and  fancies;  $9,835,- 
345  from  the  13,249,090  yards  of  all  silk  jac- 
quard;  $3,473,799  from  the  6,043,686  yards  of 


silk  mixed  .iacquard;  $11,353,242  from  the 
19,693,393  yards  of  all  piece-dyed  broad  silk,  , 
and  $15,728,195  from  the  40,044,433  yards  of 
mixed  piece-dyed  broad  silk;  $4,767,990 
from  the  10,093,583  yards  of  velvet;  $2,104,- 
768  from  the  2,759,411  yards  of  plushes; 
$382,820  from  the  226,717  yards  of  tapestries 
and  upholstery;  $32,744,873  from  ribbons; 
$1,350,850  laces,  nets,  veils,  veiling,  etc.; 
$485,322  from  embroideries;  $824,527  from 
fringes  and  gimps;  $4,483,248  from  braids 
and  bindings;  $3,850,448  from  trimmings; 
$6,341,719  from  the  1,088,780  pounds  of 
machinist  twine;  $4,179,355  from  the 
747,246  pounds  of  sewing,  embroidery,  wash, 
fringe  and  floss  silks;  $12,550,510  from  the 
2,740,319  pounds  of  organzine  and  tram; 
and  $2,104,066  from  the  779,462  pounds  of 
spun  silk.  The  value  of  all  other  products  of 
the  silk  and  silk  goods  industries  amounted  to 
$4,495,675;  and  the  value  of  all  the  work 
done  on  materials  for  others  amounted  to 
$8,364,350. 

Woolen  and  Worsted  Goods. 

The  total  cost  of  all  the  materials  required 
in  the  manufacture  of  all  the  woolen  and 
worsted  goods  produced  in  the  United  States 
during  the  year  1909  amounted  to  $273,438,- 
570.  This  amount  was  divided  as  follows: 
474,755,366  pounds  of  wool  in  the  condition 
purchased,  value  $136,666,917,  of  which 
310,602,279  pounds  were  domestic  wool,  with 
a  value  of  $85,018,238,  and  164,153,087 
pounds  were  foreign  wool,  with  a  value  of 
$51,648,679;  mohair,  camel,  alpaca  and 
vicuna  hair,  7,805,422  poxmds,  value 
$2,399,123;  cow  and  other  animal  hair, 
17,356,100  pounds,  value  $932,911;  cotton, 
20,024,061  pounds,  value  $2,515,409;  tailors' 
clippings,  rags,  etc.,  40,402,460  pounds,  value 
$2,856,966;  shoddy,  mungo  and  wool  extract 
purchased,  21,454,187  pounds,  value  $3,058,- 
214;  waste  and  noils  of  wool,  mohair,  camel 
hair,  etc.,  purchased,  26,473,311  pounds, 
value  $7,523,283;  tops  purchased,  20,828,245 
poimds,  value  $14,614,527;  woolen  yams 
purchased,  931,222  pounds,  value  $558,270; 
worsted  yams  purchased,  59,148,771  pounds, 
value  $56,033,701;  merino  yams  purchased, 
1,971,709  pounds,  value  $318,456;  cotton 
yams  purchased,  39,169,388  pounds,  value 
$10,492,185;  silk  and  spun  silk  yams, 
282,536  pounds,  value  $1,142,663;  all  other 
yarns,  1,046,735  pounds,  value  $40,739; 
chemicals  and  dyestuffs,  value  $8,820,928; 
and  all  other  materials,  value  $25,464,278. 

The  total  value  of  all  the  products  of  the 
woolen  and  worsted  goods  manufactories  was 
$419,743,521.  This  amount  was  derived  from 
the  following  products:  All-wool  woven  goods, 
322,944,365  square  yards,  value  $219,853,767; 
wool  cloths,  doeskins,  cassimeres,  cheviots, 
etc.,  40,843,979  square  yards,  value  $29,- 
291,059;  worsted  coatings,  serges  and  suitings, 
119,655,069  square  yards,  value  $101,903,153; 
woolen  overcoatings,  14,697,770  square  yards, 
value  $11,230,856;  worsted  overcoatings 
and  cloakings,  654,404  square  yards,  value 
$821,688;  wool  dress  goods,  sackings,  tricots, 
etc.,  and  opera  and  similar  flannels,  29,099,- 
956  square  yards,  value  $16,385,498;  worsted 
dress  goods,  cashmeres,  serges,  bunting,  etc., 
105,801,349  square  yards,  value  $54,030,376; 
carriage  cloths,  1,782,855  square  yards,  value 
$947,862;    flannels  for  imderwear,  3,856,553 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Ill 


square  yards,  value  $1,257,271;  blankets, 
5,137,903  square  yards,  value  $3,228,797; 
horse  blankets,  247,395  square  yards,  value 
$185,430;  woven  shawls,  704,153  square 
yards,  value  $404,583;  and  all  other  all-wool 
woven  goods,  463,179  square  yards,  value 
$167,194;  union,  or  cotton  mixed,  woven 
goods,  37,453,351  square  yards,  value 
$14,327,973;  unions,  tweeds,  cheviots,  cassi- 
meres,  etc.,  18,917,478  square  yards,  value 
$7,780,854;  overcoatings  and  cloakings, 
4,281,739  square  yards,  value  $2,363,381; 
sackings,  tricots,  dress  goods  and  opera  and 
similar     flannels,     4,319,539     square     yards, 


value  $1,776,721;  flannels  for  underwear, 
7,063,572  square  yards,  value  $1,308,369; 
blankets,  1,717,758  square  yards,  value 
$650,714;  all  other  union,  or  cotton  mixed, 
woven  goods,  1,153,265  square  yards,  value 
$447,934;  all  cotton-warp  woven  goods, 
210,346,081  square  yards,  value  $62,265,854; 
all  upholstering  goods  and  sundries,  value 
$1,986,330;  all  partially  manufactured  prod- 
ucts for  sale,  value  $115,032,285;  all  other 
products,  value  $3,250,857.  During  the  year 
there  were  4,287,640  spindles,  producing  and 
doubling  and  twisting;  also,  72,532  looms, 
all  classes. 


IV.     IRON  AND  STEEL  MANUFACTURES. 


MATERIALS. 


Total  cost 

Iron  ore: 

Tons 

Cost 

Domestic — 

Tons 

Cost 

Foreign- 
Tons 

Cost 

Mill  cinder,  scrap,  etc.: 

Tons 

Cost 

Fluxes: 

Tons 

Cost 

Fuel,  total  cost  * 

Coke- 
Tons  (2,000  pounds) 
Cost 

Charcoal — 

Bushels. 

Cost 

Anthracite  coal  »— 

Tons 

Cost 

Bituminous  coal  2 — 

Tons 

Cost 


All  other  materials,  cost. 


Total  value . 
Pig  iron: 

Tons 

Value 


All  other  products,  value 

Piff  iron,  classified  according  to  fuel  used: 
Bituminous,  chiefly  coke- 
Tons 

Value 

Anthracite  coal  and  coke  mixed 
and  anthracite  alone — 

Tons 

Value 

Charcoal — 

Tons 

Value , 


Pig  iron,  classified  according  to  dispo- 
sition: 
Produced    for   consumption   in 
works  of  company  reporting- 

Tons 

Vahie , 


1909 


1320,637,889 

48,353,677 
$187,264,601 

46,605,930 
$177,589,789 

1, 747, 747 
$9, 674, 812 

1,982,530 
$5,544,859 

13,570,845 
$12, 239, 493 
$105, 994, 112 

31,436,536 
$102,134,423 

38,032,618 
$2,787,026 

265,401 
$904, 102 

102,833 
$168,561 

$9,594,824 


$391,429,283 


25,651,798 
$387,830,443 


$3,698,840 


»  24, 608, 572 


670, 991 
962,150 


372,235 
183,657 


,858,203 
,387,017 


PRODUCTS — continued. 

Pig  iron,  classified  according  to  dispo- 
sition—Continued . 
Produced  for  sale — 

Tons 

Value 


Pig  iron,  classified  by  grades  (tons) : 
Bessemer,  (0.04  to  0.10  per  cent 

in  phosphoras) 

Low  phosphorus  (below  0.04  per 

cent  in  phosphorus) 


Foundry 

Forge  or  mill 

Malleable  Bessemer 

White,  mottled,  and  miscellane- 
ous  

Direct  castings,  i 

Ferro  alloys 

Spiegeleisen 

Ferromanganese 

Ferrosilicon,  including  Besse- 
mer ferrosilicon  (7  per  cent 
or  over  in  silicon)  and  fer- 
rophosphorus , 


Pig  iron,  classified  by  method  of  delivery 
or  casting  (tons) : 
Delivered  in  molten  condition. . 

Sand  cast 

Machine  cast: 

Chill  cast 

Direct  castings 


EQUIPMENT. 

Furnaces  in  active  establishments: 
Completed  stacks  at  end  of  year- 
Number 

Daily  capacity,  tons 

Active  during  the  year- 
Number 

Daily  capacity,  tons 

In  course  of  construction  at  end 
of  year- 
Number 

Daily  capacity,  tons 


1909 


Pig-casting  machines,  number 

Granulated  slag,  pits: 

Number 

Annual  capacity,  tons 

Gas  engines  operated  with  blast-fur- 
nace gas: 

Number 

Horsepower : 


9,793,595 
$148,443,426 


10, 147, 052 

248, 720 

7,741,759 

5,539,410 

586, 685 

934,211 

110,810 
16, 181 
326, 970 
142,223 
82, 208 


12,197,686 
7,655,668 
5,096,797 


16,181 


101,447 


370 
98,973 


10 
4,100 


104 

85 
5,699,259 


85 
198,040 


112 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


IRON  AND  STEEL. 


I.   MATERIALS. 


Total  cost 

Iron  and  steel :  > 

For  furnaces  and  hot  rolls- 
Tons 

Cost 

Pig  iron  and  ferroalloys- 
Tons 

Cost , 

Pjg  iron- 
Tons 

Cost 

Ferroalloys— spiege  1  el  s  e  n , 
ferromanganese,  etc. — 

Tons 

Cost 

Scrap,  including  old  rails  not  in- 
tended for  rerolling— 

Tons 

Cost 

Ingots,  blooms,  billets,  slabs, 
muck  and  scrap  bar,  rerolling 
rails,  and  sheet  and  tin-plate 
bars- 
Tons 

Cost 

Rolledforms  for  further  manufacture— 
Skelp— 

Tons 

Cost 

Wire  rods — 

Tons : 

Cost 

Iron  ore: 

Tons 

Cost 


All  other  materials,  cost $127, 480, 754 


$657,500,866 


30,388,755 
1515,769,588 


19,076,889 
1297,471,122 


18,712,304 
$282,663,740 


364,585 
$14,807,382 


4,803,61V 
$72,722,831 


6, 508, 249 
$145,575,635 


176,717 
$5,704,856 


146,425 
$4,252,695 


835,338 
$4,292,963 


E   PRODUCTS 


Total  value 

Rolled,  forged,  and  other  classified  prod- 
ucts, steel  and  iron: 

Tons 

Value 

Rails- 
Tons •. 

Value , 

Bessemer  steel- 
Tons 

Value 

Open-hearth  steel,  basic- 
Tons 

Value 

ReroUed  or  renewed  rails- 
Tons : 

Value 

Rail    fastenings    (splice   bars,  tie- 
plates,  fishplates,  etc.)— 

Tons 

Value 


Structural   shapes,   not   including 
plates  used  for  making  girders- 
Tons ;... 

Value 

Steel- 
Tons 

Value 

Open-hearth— 

Tons 

Value ;. 

Bessemer- 
Tons 

Value 


$985,722,534 


26,723,274 
$863,342,711 

2,858,599 
$81,128,295 

1,643,527 
$44,727,615 

1,215,072 
$36,400,780 

106,352 
$2,683,017 


396,911 
$14,488,412 


2,123,630 
$65,564,593 


2,102,300 
$64,853,466 


5  1,934,230 
$59,789,948 


168.070 
$5,063,518 


n.  FRODUCTS— continued. 
Iron- 


Tons.. 
Value. 


Bars  and  rods,  including  merchant, 
shovel,  finger,  and  horseshoe  bars, 
spike,  chain,  bolt,  and  nut  rods, 
etc.  (but  not  including  wire  rods, 
sheet  and  tin-plate  bars,  splice 
bars,  and  bars  ror  reenforced  con- 
crete): 

Tons 

Value 

Bars  for  reenforced  concrete: 

Tons 

Value 

Wire  rods: 

Tons 

Value 


Plates  and  sheets,  not  including 
black  plates  or  sheets  for  tirming, 
nail  and  tack  plates,  tie-plates, 
fishplates,  or  armor  plates: 

Tons 

Value. .- 

Black  plates,  or  sheets,  for  tinning: 

Tons 

Value 1. . . 

Skelp,  flue  and  pipe: 

.  Tons 

Value 

Hoops,  bands,  and  cotton  ties: 

Tons 

Value 

Nail  and  tack  plates: 

Tons 

Value 

Axles,  car,  locomotive,  automobile, 
wagon,  carriage,  etc.,  rolled  or 
forged: 

Tons 

Value 

Armor  plates,  gun  forgings,  and  ord- 


Tons 

Value 

Blooms,  billets,  and  slabs,  pro- 
duced for  sale  or  for  transfer  to 
other  works  of  same  company: 

Tons ^ 

Value 


Rolled  forging  blooms  and  billets 
produced  for  sale  or  for  transfer  to 
other  works  of  same  company: 

Tons :... 

Value 

Sheet  and  tin-plate  bars  produced 
for  sale  or  for  transfer  to  other 
works  of  same  company: 

Tons 

Value 


Muck  and  scrap  bar  produced  for 
sale  or  for  transfer  to  other  works 
of  same  company: 

Tons 

Value 

All  other  rolled  steel  or  iron: 

Tons 

Value 


566,627 
,570,061 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


113 


IRON  AND  STEEL— Continued. 


n.  PRODUCTS— continued. 

Rolled,   forged,   and    other   classified 
products,  steel  and  iron— Continued. 
Ingots  produced  for  sale  or  for  trans- 
fer to  other  works  of  same  corn- 


Tons 

Value 

Direct  steel  castings: 

Tons 

Value 

All  other  forged  steel  and  iron,  not 
including  remanufactures  of  roll- 
ing-mill products: 

Tons 

Value 


All  other  products,  value 

Miscellaneous  steel  and  iron  prod- 
ucts not  rolled,  including  value 
added  to  iron  and  steel  rolling- 
mill  products  by  further  manufac- 
ture, value 

Scrap  steel  or  iron  produced  for  sale 
or  for  transfer  to  other  works  of 
same  company: 

Tons 

Value 


All  products  other  than  steel  and 
iron,  value 


Total  production: 

Tons 

Value  (included  above),. 

Classified  according  to  process: 
Open-hearth— 

Tons 

Value — 

Basic- 
Tons 

Value 

Acid— 

Tons 

Value 


Tons 

Value 

Crucible  and  miscellaneous- 
Tons r 

Value ■ 


Classified  according  to  form.- 

Ingots- 
Tons ■- 

Value 

Castings- 
Tons 

Value 


Duplex  process — open-hearth  steel  partly 
purified  in  Bessemer  converters  before 
finishing  in  open-hearth  furnaces  (in- 
cluded above),  tons 


Alloyed  steels,  nickel,  tungsten,  titanium 
chrome,    vanadium,   etc.    (included 

above) ,  tons 

Classified  according  to  process; 

Open-hearth 


Acid. 


Crucible  and  miscellaneous. 
Classified  according  to  form; 

Itigots , 

Castings 


1909 


142,745 
»3, 593, 726 


504,856 
$38,862,448 


$18,740,241 
$122,379,823 


$86,534,369 


1,238,554 
$18,163,624 


$17,681,830 


•  23,473,718 
$478,736,988 


14,176,054 
$292,360,129 


13,210,419 
$262,529,822 


$29,830,307 

9,190,291 
$178,232,848 

107,373 
$8,144,011 


22,968,862 
$439,874,540 

504,856 
$38,862,448 


622,682 


158,216 

100,335 
86,242 
14,093 
45,324 
12,557 

151,300 
6,916 


IV.  MANUFACTURES  FROM  ROLUNG-MILL 
PRODUCTS. 

(Made  in  mill  producing,  value  pre- 
viously included.) 

Wire  and  wire  products: 

Tons  (2,000  pounds) 

Value 

Pipes  and  tubes: 

Wrought  welded— 

Tons 

Value 

Seamless,  hot-rolled  or  drawn- 
Tons 

Value 

All  other,  including  clinched,  rivet- 
ed, etc.,  but  not  including  cast: 

Tons 

Value 

Bolts,    nuts,    rivets,    forged    spikes, 
washers,  etc.: 

Kegs  (200  pounds) 

Value 

Cut  nails  £md  spikes: 

K^s  (100  pounds) 


Horse  and  mule  shoes: 

Kegs  (200  pounds) 

Value 

Springs,  car,  furniture,  and  all  other,  not 
including  wire  springs: 

Tons 

Value 

Switches,  frogs,  crossings,  etc.: 

Tons 

Value 

Galvanized  plates  or  sheets: 

Tons 

Value -■■ 

Stamped  ware: 

Tons 

Value 

Shovels,  spades,  scoops,  etc,,  value 


v.  PRODUCTS  SOLD  FOR  EXPORT. 

(By  establishments  producing.) 


1909 


Total  tons 

Rails 

Rail  fastenings 

Pipes  and  tubes 

Sheet  and  tin-plate  bars 

Plates  and  sheets 

Galvanized  plates  or  sheets . 

Structural  shapes 

Bars  and  rods 

Wire  rods 

Blooms,  billets,  and  slabs. . . 

Skelp 

Miscellaneous 


VI.  EQUIPMENT. 

Steel  plants:  Daily  capacity  of  steel  fur- 
'  naces  and  converters,   tons  of  steel, 

double  turn -  — 

Open-hearth  furnaces- 
Number 

Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 

doubletum 

Basic- 
Number • 

Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 

doubletum.. 

Acid- 
Number 

Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 
double  turn 


1,634,855 
$71,624,024 


1,314,771 
$68,471,673 


54,273 
$5,650,739 


4,471,985 
$20,638,868 


1,009,319 
$2,218,207 


996,383 
$7,202,897 


6,191 
$374,924 

28,608 
$2,471,008 

431,658 
$25,912,056| 

24,612 

$2,296,707 

$540,321 


317,455 
20,118 
89,377 
85,123 
80,706 
79,246 
69,764 
48,938 
18,738 
18,021 
10,703 
29,457 


108,716 

687 

61,601 

549 

55,273 

138 

6,328 


114 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


IRON  AND  STEEL— Continued. 


1909        1 

VI.  EQUIPMENT,  -coatinued. 
Ck)nverters,  Bessemer  or  modified 
Bessemer— 
Number                           

99  1 

Daily  capacity,   tons  of  steel, 

45,983 

Crucible  furnaces- 
Number                      

257 

Number  of  pots  that  can  be  used 
at  a  heat 

3,840 

Daily  capacity,   tons  of  steel, 
double  turn              

840  1 

All  other  steel  furnaces— 

16 

■    Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 
double  turn     

2921 

Metal  mixers— 

59, 

14,343  1 

sRoJUn^  mills:  Daily  capacity  of  rolled 
steel  and  iron,  double  turn,  tons 

150,403 

Production  of  Coke. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
production  of  coke,  was  $65,388,124.  The 
cost  of  the  coal  charged  into  ovens,  was 
$59,354,937.  The  total  value  of  the  coke 
produced,  was  $98,078,383;  39,315,065  tons 
were  valued  at  $89,965,483.  Among  by- 
products obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  coke 
was  gas,  which  measured  in  thousands  of 
cubic  feet,  amounted  to  76,590,763  of  which 
60,799,543  cubic  feet  (thousands)  were  used 
in  process  or  wasted  and  15,791,220  cubic 
feet  (thousands)  were  sold  at  a  value  of 
$2,609,211.  60,126,006  gallons  of  tar  were 
obtained  having  a  value  of  $1,408,611;  of 
sulphate  ammonia,  or  its  equivalent  in 
sulphate,  123,111,197,  valued  at  $3,227,316. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  1909,  the  number  of 
ovens  in  use  in  the  United  States  was  103,982. 
201  had  been  abandoned  during  the  year,  and 
2,950  were  building. 


Coal  seems  to  have  been  used  for  fuel  by 
the  ancient  Britons,  but  the  first  proper 
notice  we  have  is  that  it  was  mined  in  New- 
castle 1233. 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


Total  value . . , 

Implements  of  cultivation 

Seeders  and  planters 

Harvesting  implements 

Seed  separators 

All  other  products 

Amoimt  received  for  repair  work 

Principal  kind  of  implements,  hy  number. 

Implements  of  cultivation: 
Cultivators — 

Beet 

Small 

Wheeled 

Cotton  scrapers 

Harrows- 
Disk 

Spring-tooth 

Spike- tooth 

Listers 

Plows^ 

Disk 

Gang 

Shovel 

Steam 

Sulky  or  wheel 

Walking 

Seeders  and  planters: 
Seeders- 
Broadcast 

Combination 

Cornplanters- 

Hand 

Horse 

Cotton  planters 

Potato  planters 


)»46,329,268 

135,246,030 
$13,679,921 
$34,568,131 
$11,030,412 
$48,690,082 
$3,114,692 


435,429 
20,180 

193,000 
112,832 
394,988 
44,840 

22,132 
91,686 
254,737 
2,355 
134,936 
1,110,006 


38,007 


96,465 
122,780 
79,271 
23,092 


Drills—  continued 

Com 

Disk 

Grain 

Another 

Seed  sowers 

Harvesting  implements: 

Grain  cradles 

rveste 

Bean 

Com 

Grain 

Harvesters  and  thrashers  com 
bined 

Other 

Hay  carriers 

Hayforks,  horse 

Hay  loaders 

Hayrakes,  horse 

Haystackers 

Hay  tedders 

Mowers 

Potato  diggers,  horse 

Reapers 

Seed  separators: 

Clover  huUers 

Com  buskers 

Com  buskers  and  shredders i.. 

Corn  sbellers— 

Hand 

•  Power 

Fanning  mills 

Thrashers- 
Horsepower 

Steam  power 


20,137 
21,292 
68,611 
32,507 
7,847 

22,635 

1,409 
19,693 
129,274 

543 
1,707 
46,064 
43,675 
34,705 

266,260 
17,212 
34,396 

359, 264 
25,632 
58,294 

437 

372 

1,240 

74,223 
9,049 
33,805 


23,586 


The  total  cost  of  the  materials  vised  in  the 
manufacture  of  Glucose  and  Starch  was  $36,- 
898,771.  The  total  value  of  the  manufactured 
products  was  $48,799,311;  677,535,647  pounds 
of  starch  were  valued  at  $17,514,823;  769,- 


660,210  pounds  of  glucose,  including  all 
sirups,  valued  at  $17,922,514;  159,060,478 
pounds  grape  sugar,  valued  at  $3,620,816; 
8,164,175  gallons  corn  oil,  valued  at 
$2,802,763. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


115 


TIN  AND  TERNE  PLATE. 


1909 

MATERIALS. 

$41,889,434 

11,321,071,691 
$28,981,151 

1,291,048,109 
$28,245,234 

30,023,582 
$735,917 

40,927,759 
$9,670,037 

31,077,651 
$9,235,718 

9,850,108 
$434,319 

28,586,267 
$8,490,794 

2,708,496 
$117,656 

9,632,996 
$1,061,587 

$3,238,246 

7  $47,969,645 

1,315,313,132 
$45,815,146 

Black  plates  or  sheets: 

Cost                                     

Produced  by  the  establishment 
reporting: 

Purchased: 

Pounds . 

Coating  metals: 

Pounds 

Cost 

Tin,  including  tin  contents  of  teme 
mixture  purchased— 

Cost 

Lead,  including  lead  contents  of 
teme  mixture  purchased— 
Pounds                         ... 

Cost                  

In  condition  purchased— 
Pig  tin- 

Pig  lead- 

Pounds       •         

Cost            

Teme  mixture- 

All  other  materials,  cost 

PRODUCTS. 

Tin  and  teme  plates: 

Value 

1909 

PBODxrcTs-conttnued. 

Tin  plates- 
Pounds.., ,, 

1,123,968,875 
$38,259,885 

191,344,257 
$7,555,261 

19,400,934 
$520,465 

$1,634,034 

563 

450 

113 

2,795,972 

2,055,915 

740,057 

7,016,293 
49 

335 

.1,042,088 

•20 

36,600 
268 

Value .* 

Teme  plates- 
Pounds 

Value. 

Other  sheet  iron  or  sheet  steel  tinned 
or  teme-plated,  taggers  tin,€tc.: 
Poimas 

Value 

EQUIPMENT. 

Tin  or  teme  sets  at  end  of  year: 
Completed— 

Number 

Usually  employed  on  tin 
plates 

Usually     employed     on 
^teme  plates 

Daily  capacity,  single  turn. 

Daily  capacity  as  operated, 
whether  on  single,  double, 
or  triple  turn,  pounds 

Black-plate  department    of   establish- 
ments making  their  black  plates: 
Hot  black-plate  mills  at  end  of 
year— 
Completed- 

Annual  capacity  on  triple 
turn,  lone  tons  . 

Building- 

Annual  capacity  on  triple 
turn,  long  tons 

Cold  mills,  completed,  number.... 

WIRE. 

The  value  of  the  metal  used  in  the  production  of  wire,  amounted  to  $115,655,427,  while 
the  total  value  of  the  products  was  $180,083,522.  There  were  produced  2,471,858  tons  of 
steel  and  iron  wire,  having  a  value  of  $120,585,637.  There  were  also  produced  13,926,861 
kegs  of  wire  nails  and  spikes,  allowing  100  pounds  to  each  keg,  the  total  value  being  $27,575,774. 
There  were  also  produced  28,125  tons  of  wire  brads,  tacks  and  staples,  having  a  value  of 
$1,324,170.  The  quantity  of  barbed  wire  manufactured  was  323,565  tons,  valued  at  $13,881,517; 
woven  wire,  fencing,  and  poultry  netting,  had  a  tonnage  of  422,127,  valued  at  $21,419,170; 
wire  rope  and  strands  had  a  tonnage  of  45,303,  the  value  being  $6,683,771;  other  manu- 
factures of  iron  and  steel  wire,  such  as  springs,  bale  ties,  flat  wire,  etc.,  weighed  129,945  tons, 
and  cost  $10,856,154. 

There  were  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1909,  154,231  tons  of  copper  wire,  valued 
at  $47,184,164.  The  equipment  consisted  of  43,697  wire  drawing  blocks,  having  an  annual 
capacity  of  3,213,574  tons;  4,428  wire  nail  machines,  having  an  annual  capacity  of  18,756,995 
kegs  of  100  pounds  each.  There  were  446  woven-wire  fence  machines,  having  an  annual 
capacity,  in  tons,  of  481,373. 

The  total  value  of  the  steel  and  iron  wire  products,  1909,  was  $120,585,637;  the  wire 
mills  were  valued  at  $47,934,204;  the  wire  departments  of  rolling  mills  produced  1,649,929 
tons,  valued  at  $72,651,433. 

PRODUCTION  OF  SOAP. 


The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  this  product  in  the  United 
States  in  1909  was  $72,179,418.  Of  tallow, 
grease,  and  other  fats,  413,969,787  pounds 
were  consumed,  costing  $23,341,905;  11,856,- 
837  gallons  of  cocoanut  and  palm-kernel  oil, 
costing  $5,875,294;  24,221,712  gallons  cotton- 
seed oil,  costing  $9,718,988;  207,296,447 
pounds  of  rosin,  costing  $4,362,412;  94,050,892 
pounds  hoofs,  costing  $2,453,609;  52,172  tons 


(2,000  pounds)  caustic  soda,  costing  $2,212,- 
232;  121,016  tons  (2,000  pounds)  soda  ash, 
costing  $2,281,787. 

The  total  value  of  the  soap  products  of  the 
United  States  in  1909  was  $111,357,777. 
1,736,740,466  pounds  of  hard  soap  were  made, 
valued  at  $88,550,830;  44,052,615  pounds  of 
soft  soap,  valued  at  $943,676;  39,689,300 
pounds  of  glycerin,  valued  at  $5,713,558. 


116 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


V.     TRANSPORTATION. 


Railroad  Cars. 

The  total  value  of  all  railroad  cars  con- 
structed in  all  establishments  throughout  the 
United  States,  in  1909,  was  $102,137,396. 
The  value  of  the  steam-railroad  cars  was 
$94,874,287:  Of  these  for  passenger  service 
were  built  1,819  cars,  valued  at  $15,120,961; 
for  freight  service,  96,648  cars,  valued  at 
$79,753,326.  Of  street-railroad  cars,  which 
were  chiefly  electric,  there  were  built  2,772 
cars,  valued  at  $7,263,109. 

Steam-Railroad  Cars. 

The  total  value  of  the  products  of  this  in- 
dustry in  the  United  States,  in  1909,  was 
$123,729,627.  Of  steam-railroad  cars  for  the 
passenger  service  there  were  constructed 
1,601  cars,  valued  at  $13,829,607:  of  this 
class  there  were  built  216  baggage  and  ex- 
press cars,  valued  at  $1,105,779;  95  mail  cars, 
valued  at  $600,912;  957  passenger  cars, 
valued  at  $7,209,425;  the  chair,  dining  and 
buffet,  parlor,  sleeping,  and  all  other  cars, 
amounted  to  333,  valued  at  $4,913,491.  For 
the  freight  service  the  number  of  cars  con- 
structed, totaled  73,177,  valued  at  $61,691,- 
825;  Of  these  there  were  29,728  box  cars, 
valued  at  $23,982,446;  11,473  coal  and  coke, 
valued  at  $9,419,655;  3,232  flat  cars,  valued 
at  $2,033,801;  900  fruit  cars,  valued  at 
$784,476;  90  furniture  cars,  valued  at 
$70,515;  19,607  gondola  or  ore,  valued  at 
$18,128,186:  2,618  refrigerator  cars,  valued  at 
$2,747,957;  2,349  stock  cars,  valued  at 
$1,586,008;  537  caboose,  valued  at  $525,605; 
2,643  other  cars,  valued  at  $2,413,176.  There 
were  also  built  603  street-railroad  cars,  valued 
at  $2,023,922:  Of  these  558  were,  passenger 
cars,  valued  at  $1,903,317;  45  other  cars, 
valued  at  $120,605. 

Cars  and  General  Shop  Construc- 
tion   AND    Repairs    by    Steam 
Railroad  Companies. 

The  cars  and  general  shop  construction  and 
repairs  made  by  the  steam  railroad  companies 
in  1909,  reached  a  total  of  $405,600,727.  The 
value  of  the  car  department  was  $199,768,9.39. 
The  value  of  the  cars  built  was  $13,326,171: 
Of  these  there  were  218  passenger  cars,  valued 
at  $1,291,354;  13,972  freight  cars,  valued  at 
$11,767,664;  the  number  of  all  other  cars 
manufactured  was  359,  valued  at  $267,153. 
Repairs  to  cars  of  all  kinds  amounted  to 
$147,194,065. 

Cars,  Street-Railroad. 

The  total  value  of  the  products  of  this  in- 
dustry in  the  United  States,  in  1909,  was 
$7,809,866.  There  were  constructed  1,922 
electric-railroad  cars,  valued  at  $4,602,435: 
Of  these  there  were  1,323  closed  cars,  valued 
at  $3.500,781 ;  369  combination  cars,  valued 
at  $704,309;  95  open  cars,  valued  at  $141,008; 
92  freight,  express,  and  mail  cars,  valued  at 
$179,293;  of  all  other  varieties,  43,  valued 
at  .$77,044.  There  were  steam-railroad  cars 
built  for  freight  service,  167,  all  classes — 
valued  at  $111,813. 


Shipbuilding,    Including    Boat 
Building. 

The  total  value  of  work  done  on  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  water  craft,  not  in  Govern- 
ment establishments,  the  value  of  the  repair 
work,  and  all  other  products  of  the  ship- 
building industry,  in  1909,  was  $73,360,315. 
Work  done  during  the  year  on  vessels  and 
boats,  amounted  to  $42,310,925;  vessels  of 
5  gross  tons  and  over,  $37,718,018;  boats  of 
less  than  5  gross  tons,  $4,592,907;  repair 
work,  $26,678,643. 

Bicycles,  Motorcycles,  and  Parts. 

The  total  value  of  bicycles  and  motor- 
cycles, and  parts,  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  in  1909,  was  $10,698,567.  168,824 
bicycles  were  manufactured,  valued  at 
$2,436,996;  18,628  motorcycles  were  made, 
their  value  being  $3,015,988, 

AUTOMOBILE  INDUSTRY. 


PRODUCT. 

1909 

Number. 

Value. 

Total  valne 

'  $249,202,67ff 

161,269,324. 
153,529,653 

Automobiles 

126.593 

120,393 

3,826 

2,374 

123,338 

117,633 

3,331 

2,374 

4,582 

4,314 

268 

36,204 

35,347 

496 

361 

76,114 

73,883 

243 

1,988 

5,205 

3,290 

1,915 

1,233 
799 
409 
25 
3,255 
2,760 
495 

Gasoline 

Electric 

7,259.430 

Steam 

3,480,241 

150,039,301 
149.530.232 

Passenger  ye,'ifdM  (pleasure,  fam- 
ily, and  public  conveyances). . . 

Electric 

6.028,828 
3,480,241 
2,391,250 
2,039,129 
352. 121 

Buggies 

Electric 

Runabouts 

28  030  479 

27,116,901 

Electric 

648  630 

264, 948 

Touring  cars  . 

113  403  188 

109,844,295 

387,526 

3,171,367 

Electric. 

Steam 

Closed  (limousine,  cabs,  etc.). . . 
Gasoline 

12,729,304 
8, 762, 768 

Electric 

3, 966, 536 

All  other  (omnibuses,  sight-see- 
ing wagons,  ambulances,  pa- 
trol wagons,  etc.) 

2,485,080 

Gasoline 

1,767,139 

Electric.   .   . 

674,015 

43,926 

Business  vehicle's  (merchandise) . . 
Gasoline 

5,230,023 
3, 999, 421 

Electric 

1  230  602 

Steam 

1,862 

1,645 

217 

1,918,856 

Gasoline 

1,474,063 

444, 793 

Steam 

1,366 

1,090 

276 

27 

25 

2 

3,165,612 

Gasoline. 

2, 384, 703 

780,809 

All  other 

145  655 

140,655 

Electric 

'    6,000 

All  other  products,includingbodies 
and  parts 

'78,684,753 
6,317,998 

Amount  received  for  custom  work 
and  repairing ...  .        

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


117 


'.Cf  CkVERED  s\ 


Copyright,  1913,  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

THE  GREATER  EFFICIENCY  OF  THE  MOTOR  TRUCK  AS  COM- 
PARED WITH  THE  EFFICIENY  OF  THE 
HORSE-DRAWN  WAGON. 


118 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Carriages  and   Wagons   and 

Materials. 

The  total  value  of  carriages  and  wagons  and 
materials  manufactured  in  the  United  States, 
in  1909,  was  $159,892,547.  Of  carriages 
(family  and  pleasure)  there  were  made 
828,411,  valued  at  $47,756,118;  587,685 
wagons,  valued  at  $39,932,910,  were  manu- 
factured; of  these  154,631  were  business 
wagons,  their  value  being  $16,440,816; 
429,952  farm  wagons,  valued  at  $22,615,875; 
the  remainder,  government,  municipal,  etc., 
3,102,  valued  at  $876,219.  Of  public  con- 
veyances (cabs,  hacks,  hansoms,  hotel  coaches-, 
omnibuses,  etc.),  2,243  were  manufactured, 
valued  at  $939,267;  100,899  sleighs  and  sleds, 
valued  at  $2,065,850. 


Cars  and  General  Shop  Construc- 
tion   AND    Repairs    by   Street- 
Railroad  Companies. 

The  cars  and  general  shop  construction  and 
repairs  by  street-railroad  companies  in  1909, 
reached  a  total  value  of  $31,962,561.  The 
value  of  the  motive  power  and  machinery  de- 
partment, was  $4,510,332.  The  value  of  the 
repairs  to  motors,  etc.,  was  $4,004,336.  The 
value  of  the  car  department  was  $25,835,463. 
The  value  of  all  the  cars  built  was  $626,752: 
Of  these  there  were  129  passenger  cars, 
valued  at  $498,709;  63  freight  cars,  valued  at 
$59,102;  of  all  other  cars  there  were  51  built, 
valued  at  $68,941. 


VI.     CLAY  AND  STONE  PRODUCTS. 


The  total  value  of  these  products  for  the 
year  1909,  was  $168,895,365.  The  value  of 
the  brick  and  tile,  terra-cotta,  and  fire-clav 
products,  was  $136,387,846;  of  common  brick 
there  were  9,787,671  thousand,  valued  at 
$57,216,789;  of  fire  brick,  838,167  thousand, 
valued  at  $16,620,695;  of  the  vitrified, 
paving,  etc.,  1,023,654  thousand,  valued  at 
$11,269,586;  front,  including  fancy  colored 
and  fancy  or  ornamental  brick,  821,641 
thousand,  valued  at  $9,886,292;  the  sand 
lime  brick  used  had  a  value  of  $1,150,580; 
the  enameled  brick  were  valued  at  $993,902; 
the  value  of  the  drain  tile  was  $9,798,978;  the 
sewer  pipe  used  was  valued  at  $10,322,324; 
the  value  of  the  architectural  terra-cotta  was 
$6,251,625;  the  fireproofing,  terra-cotta 
lumber  and  hollow  building  tile,  or  blocks, 
was  valued  at  $4,466,708;  the  value  of  the 
tile,  not  drain,  was  $5,291,963;  the  value  of 
the  stove  lining  was  $423,583;  other  material, 
ealued  at  $2,694,821.  The  value  of  the 
pottery  manufactured  was  $31,048,341. 

Building  Operations. 

In  1912  the  total  cost  of  buildings,  accord- 
ing to  reports  of  municipal  authorities  to  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  was  $683 ,506,372  against 
$702,143,956  in  1911,  and  $726,436,975  in 
1910.  The  total  number  of  permits  for  1911 
was  192,978. 

Cement. 

The  total  value  of  the  cement  product  in 
1909,  for  the  United  States,  was  $63,205,455. 
There  were  manufactured  66,689,715  barrels 
of  cement,  valued  at  $53,610,563;  ot  this 
64,991,431  barrels  was  Portland,  valued  at 
$52,858,354;  1,537,638  was  natural,  valued  at 
$652,756;  160,646  barrels  puzzoian,  valued  at 
$99,453.  The  value  of  all  other  products  of 
this  industry,  was  $9,594,892, 

Glass. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  in  1909,  amounted  to 
$32,119,499,  while  the  total  value  of  these 
products  was  $92,095,203  Of  this  amount  the 
value  of  building  glass  aggregated  $26,308,438; 
included  under  this  head  are  6,921,611  50-foot 
boxes  of  window  glass,  valued  at  $11,742,959; 
also  included  in  this  division  is  plate  glass,  of 


which  there  was  cast  a  total  of  60,105,694 
square  feet;  of  this  amount  47,370,254  square 
feet  was  polished  glass,  valued  at  $12,204,875; 
the  remainder,  rough  glass,  made  for  sale, — 
205,690  square  feet,  valued  at  $37,431.  Of 
cathedral  glass  there  were  7,405,980  square 
feet,  valued  at  $569,848;  15,409,966  square 
feet  of  skylight  glass,  valued  at  $788,726.  The 
value  of  the  pressed  and  blown  glass  was 
$27,398,445;  Of  this  goods  there  was  manu- 
factured tableware,  100  pieces,  1,286,056  sets; 
jellies,  tumblers,  and  goblets,  11,687,036  dozen; 
lamps,  322,482  dozen;  chimneys,  6,652,967 
dozen;  lantern  globes,  952,620  dozen;  globes 
and  other  electrical  goods,  11,738,798  dozen; 
shades,  globes,  and  other  gas  goods,  1,541,449 
dozen;  blown  tumblers,  stem  ware,  and  bar 
goods,  9,182,060  dozen;  opal  ware,  3,095,666 
dozen;  cut  ware,  206,336  dozen.  The  value 
of  the  bottles  and  jars  manufactured,  was 
$36,018,333.  Of  prescriptions,  vials,  and  drug- 
gists' wares,  3,624,022  gross  were  made;  2,345, 
204  gross  of  beer,  soda  and  mineral  glassware; 
1,887,344  gross  of  liquors  and  flasks;  440,302 
gross  milk  jars;  1,124,485  gross  fruit  jars;  of 
battery  jars  and  other  electrical  goods,  9,981 
gross;  of  patent  and  proprietary  glassware, 
1,637,798  gross;  of  packers  and  preservers, 
1,237,175  gross;  of  demijohns  and  carboys, 
122,570  dozen. 

Artificial  Ice. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  estab- 
lishments for  the  manufacture  of  ice,  in  1909, 
was  $1,021,913.  By  the  compressor  system 
there  were  used  3,097,191  pounds  of  anhy- 
drous ammonia,  costing  $826,222.  By  the 
absorption  system  there  were  used  369,093 
pounds  of  anhydrous  ammonia,  valued  at 
$100,283.  There  were  also  used  1,670,698 
pounds  of  aqua  ammonia,  valued  at  $95,408. 

The  total  value  of  the  ice  products  for  the 
year  1909  was  $42,953,055.  Of  the  ice  itself 
there  was  12,647,949  tons  (2,000  pounds  each), 
valued  at  $39,889,263:  Of  the  can  ice,  11,- 
671,547  tons  (2,000  pounds),  valued  at  $37,- 
085,533;  of  the  plate  ice,  976,402  tons  (2,000 
pounds),  valued  at  $2,803,730. 


The  first  permanent  electric   railway  was 

operated  near  Berlin  in   1881,  and  the  first 

permanent    elevated    electric     railway  was 
operated  in  Chicago  1895. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


119 


STfiucruuAL 
urcEL 


Copyright, 


A  MAMMOTH  OFFICE  BUILDING  DISSECTED. 

THE  WHITEHALL  BUILDING. 


120 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


VII.     LEATHER  INDUSTRY. 


MATERIALS. 

Total  cost 


Tanning. 


Hides »  (all  kinds): 

Number 

Cost 

Skins: » 

Number.. 
Cost 

Calf  and  kip— 
Number.. 
Cost 

Goat- 
Number.. 
Cost 

Sheep- 
Number.. 
Cost 

All  other- 
Number.. 
Cost 


Currying. 
Piu-chased  rough  leather  used,  cost. 


Sides- 
Number. 


Grains- 
Sides.... 
Cost 

SpUts— 
Number. 
Cost 

All  other- 
Cost 


All  other  materials,  cost. 

PRODUCTS. 

Total  value 


Leather,  value 

Sold  in  rough,  value. 
Sides- 
Number 

Value 

Grains- 
Sides 

Value 


Splits- 
Number. 


Value. 

Sole,  value.... 

Hemlock- 


Value. 

Oak- 
Sides. 
Value. 

Union- 


Value. 


1248,278.933 


« 18, 360, 415 
$119,410,767 

97,680,571 
$75,647,790 

19,732,638 
$31,790,572 

48,077.664 
$27,833,214 

26,082,060 
$12,231,618 

» 3, 788, 209 
$3,792,386 


$9,556,257 

1,468,213 
$4,967,781 

525,786 
$1,201,842 

2,043,283 
$1,442,505 

$1,944,129 

$43,664,119 


*  $327,874,187 

$306,476,720 
$6,335,599 

828,887 
$3,539,617 

317,814 
$718,562 

2,912,964 

$2,077,420 

$88,331,713 

7,963,728 
$32,237,151 

3,805,861 
$26,083,793 

5,756,227 
$28,375,815 


PRODUCTS— continued . 

Leather— Con  t  inued . 
Sole— Continued. 
Chrome- 
Sides. 

Value 

Upper,  other  than  calf  or  kip 

skins,  value 

Grain,    satin,    pebble,    etc. 
(side  leather)— 

Sides 

Value 

Finished  splits- 
Number 

Value 

Patent  and  enameled  shoe- 
Sides 

Value 

Horsehides  and  coltskins— 

Number 

Value 

Calf  and  kip  skins,  tanned  and 
finished- 
Number 

Value 

Grain  finished- 
Number 

Value 

Flesh  finished- 
Number 

Value 

Goatskins,  tanned  and  finished- 
Number ' 

Value 

Black- 
Number 

Value 

Colored- 
Number 

Value •-- 

Sheepskins,  tanned  and  finished - 

Number 

Value 

Belting- 
Sides 

Value 


Value 

Carriage,  automobile,  and  furni- 
ture- 
Sides  

Value 

Trunk,   bag,   and   pocketbook, 
value 

Bookbinder's,  value 

Glove,  value 

All  other,  value 


All  other  products,  value 

Work  on  materials  for  others. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.  121 


Copyright,    Munn    &   Co. 

THE  GREAT  GLASS   INDUSTRY  OF  THE  U.  S.  AMOUNTING  TO 

$92,000,000. . 


122 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Boots  and  Shoes. 

In  1909  there  were  produced  in  the  United 
States  247,643,197  pairs  of  boots  and  shoes. 
The  classification  of  this  product  was  as  fol- 
lows,— Men's,  93,888,892;  boys'  and  youths', 
23,838,626;  women's,  86,595,314;  misses'  and 
children's,  43,320,365.  Of  slippers  there  were 
manufactured  17,507,834  pairs,  distributed  as 
follows, — Men's,  boys'  and  youths',  4,802,841 
pairs;  women's,  misses',  and  children's,  12,- 
704,993.  There  were  15,000,721  pairs  of  in- 
fants' shoes  and  slippers  manufactured,  and  of 
all  other  goods  of  this  nature  there  were 
4,865,429  pairs.       

The  products  of  the  essential-oil  industry  in 
1909  had  a  total  value  of  $1,737,234. 


Gloves  and  Mittens — Leather. 

The  total  value  of  the  manufactures  in  the 
United  States,  in  1909,  was  $23,630,598.  Of 
gloves,  mittens,  and  gauntlets,  there  were  man- 
ufactured 3,368,655  dozen  pairs,  valued  at 
$22,525,86 1,  Of  these  there  were  made  for  men 
2,585,977  dozen  pairs,  valued  at  $17,060,797; 
this  included  921,259  dozen  pairs  lined  gloves 
and  mittens,  valued  at  $5,222,174;  1,664,718 
dozen  pairs  unlined,  valued  at  $11,838,623 
For  women  and  children  there  were  manu- 
factured 782,678  dozen  pairs,  valued  at  $5,- 
465,064;  this  included  365,477  dozen  pairs 
liued  gloves  and  mittens,  valued  at  $1,718,198 
417,201  pairs  unlined,  valued  at  $3,746,866. 
The  value  of  all  other  products  of  this  industry 
was  $1,104,737. 


VIII.     CHEMICALS  AND   ALLIED  PRODUCTS. 


The  total  value  of  chemicals  and  allied 
products  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was 
$117,688,887.  The  value  of  the  acids  was 
$11,926,389;  sodas  were  valued  at  $21,417,982; 
of  potashes  there  were  manufactured  1,866,570 
pounds,  valued  at  $88,940;  the  value  of  the 
alums  manufactured  was  $2,578,842;  coal-tar 
products  were  valued  at  $2,675,327;  the  value 
o''  the  cyanides  was  $1,941,893;  bleaching  ma- 
terials were  valued  at  $1,635,046;  chemical 
substances  produced  by  the  aid  of  electricity, 
were  valued  at  $17,968,277;  121,946,967 
pounds  of  calcium  carbide,  were  produced, 
valued  at  $2,984,001;  11,802,076  pounds  of 
anhydrous  ammonia,  valued  at  $2,503,315;  of 
carbon  dioxide,  47,238,267  pounds  were  pro- 
duced, valued  at  $2,317,808. 

Dyestuffs  and  Extracts. 

The  total  value  of  these  products  for  the 
year  1909  was  $15,954,574.  The  12,267,399 
pounds  of  artificial  dyestuffs  were  valued  at 
$3,462,436.     • 

Explosives. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  explosives  was  $22,811,548; 
188,889  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda  were  used, 
valued  at  $7,892,336;  51,764,694  pounds  of 
mixed  acids  costing  $1,512,626,  were  needed; 
7,591,756  pounds  of  nitric  acid,  costing  $541,- 
314;  22,501  tons  of  sulphuric  acid,  costing 
$406,204;  17,389  tons  of  sulphur  or  brimstone, 
costing  $367,866.  The  cost  of  all  other  ma- 
terials used  was  $12,091,202.  The  total  value 
of  the  manufactured  products  was  $40,139,- 
661;  the  value  of  the  177,155,851  pounds  of 
dynamite  used  was  $18,699,746;  28,913,253 
jounds  of  nitroglycerin,  sold  as  such,  $3,162,- 
434;  9,339,087  twenty-five  pound  kegs  of 
blasting  powder,  valued  at  $9,608,265;  of  per- 
missible explosives  9,607,448  pounds  valued 
at  $863,209;  12,862,700  pounds  of  gunpowder, 
valued  at  $1,736,427;  7,464,825  pounds  of 
other  explosives,  valued  at  $3,913,787.  The 
value  of  all  other  products  was  $2, 155,793. 

Fertilizers. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
making  of  fertilizers  in  1909  was  $69,521,920. 
The  total  value  of  the  products  was  $103,- 
960,213.  5,240, 164  pounds  of  fertilizers,  valued 
at  $92,369,631. 


Salt. 

The  total  value  of  the  salt  products  of  the 
United  States  in  1909  was  $11,327,834.  There 
were  29,933,060  barrels  of  salt,  valued  at 
$8,311,729;  728,875  pounds  of  bromine,  valued 
at  $92,735;  the  value  of  all  other  products  was 
$2,923,370. 

SALT,    CLASSIFIED    BY    GRADE    (bARRELS). 

Table  and  dairy 3,042,824 

Common,  fine 7,745,204 

Common,  coarse 2,843,393 

Packers 385,802 

Coarse,  solar 1,109,396 

Rock  salt,  mined 5,938,721 

Milling,  other  grades  and  brine  8,867,720 

PROCESS    EMPLOYED 

Total  number  of  establishments ....  124 

Number  reporting: 

Solar 46 

Kettle 1 

Grainer 50 

Open  pan 11 

Vacuum  pan 21 

See  also  Chapter  on  "Mines  and  Quarries." 

Paint  and  Varnish. 

In  the  manufacture  of  these  products  the 
following  materials  were  used, — 145,917  tons 
(2,000  pounds)  of  pig  lead,  costing  $12,014,859; 
1,683,382  gallons  alcohol,  costing  $920,086, 
1,327,157  gallons  of  which  was  wood  alcohol, 
costing  $693,362;  356,225  gallons  grain  alco- 
hol, costing  $226,724. 

The  total  value  of  these  products  in  1909 
was  $124,889,422.  The  value  of  the  pigments 
was  $16,985,588;  85,234,414  pounds  of  white 
lead,  dry,  was  valued  at  $3,921,803.  The  value 
of  paints  in  oil  was  $56,763,296;  246,567,570 
pounds  white  lead  in  oil,  were  valued  at  $15,- 
234,411.  The  value  of  varnishes  and  japans 
was  $31,262,535.  The  value  of  fillers,  all  kinds 
included,  was  $3,126,271;  of  these  1,159,569 
gallons  of  liquid  fillers  were  valued  at  $823,063. 

Turpentine  and  Rosin. 

The  total  value  of  the  turpentine  and  rosin 
industry  for  1909  was  $25,295,017;  the  28,- 
988,954  gallons  of  turpentine  were  valued  at 
$12,654,228;  the  3,263,857  barrels  (280  pounds 
each),  of  rosin,  were  valued  at  $12,576,721. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


123 


COAUNO  STATIONS  OF  EUROPE  AND  AFRICA. 


124 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


IX.     ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRY. 


Total  value 

Dynamos: 

Number 

Kilowatt  capacity 

Value 

Dynamotors,  motor  generators,  boost- 
ers, rotary  converters,  and  double 

current  generators 

Transformers 

Switchboards,  panel  boards,  and  cut- 
out cabinets 

Motors: 

Total  number 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  power— 

N  umber 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  automobiles— 

Num  ber 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  fans- 
Number 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  elevators- 
Number 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  railways,  and  miscellaneous 
services,  including    value  of 
parts  and  supplies- 
Number 

Horsepower 

Value 

Storage  batteries,  including  value  of 
parts  and  supplies: 

Weight  of  plates  in  pounds 

Value 

rHiLOLon 


t  $243,965,093 

16,791 

1,405,950 

$13,081,048 


$3,154,733 
$8,801,019 

$5,971,804 

504,030 

2,733,418 

$32,087,482 

243,423 

1,683,677 

$18,306,451 

2,796 

12,471 

$294, 152 

199,113 

178,033 

$2,450,739 

4,988 

63,585 

$1,188,653 


53,710 

795,652 

$9,847,487 


Primary  batteries,  including  value 
of  parts  and  supplies: 

5f  umber 

Value 

Arc  lamps: 

Number 

Value 

Searchlights,  projectors,  and  focusing 
lamps 


Incandescent  lamps 

Carbon  filament 

Tungsten 

Gem,  tantalum,  glower,  and 
vacuum  and  vapor  lamps 

Decorative  and  miniature  lamps. 
X-ray  bulbs,  vacuum  tubes, 
etc 


Sockets,  receptacles,  bases,  etc 

Electric-lighting  fixtures  of  all  kinds. 

Telegraph  apparatus 

Telephone  apparatus 

Insulated  wires  and  cables 

Electric  conduits 

Annunciators — domestic,  hotel,  and 
oflBce 

Electric  clocks  and  time  mechanisms 

Fuses 

Lightning  arresters 

Rheostats  and  resistances 

Hewing,  cooking,  and  welding  appa- 
ratus   

Electric  flatirons 

Electric  measuring  instnunents 

Electrical  therapeutic  apparatus 

Magneto-ignition  apparatus,  sparks, 
coils,  etc 

Electric  switches,  signals,  and  attach- 
ments   

Circuit  fittings  of  all  kinds 


All  other  products,  value. 


34,333,531 
$5,934,261 

123,985 
$1,706,959 

$935,874 

$15,714,809 
$6,157,066 
$6,241,133 

$2,715,991 


$600,619 

$4,521,729 
$6,128,282 
$1,957,432 
5  14.259,357 
8  51,624,737 
$5,098,264 

$235,567 
$352,513 

$1,001,719 
$940, 171 

$2,674,963 

$1,003,038 

$951,074 

$7,800,010 

$1,107,858 

$6,092,343 

$5,377,843 
$1,080,287 

$39,691,708 


•It 


— '   hi 


taa]     [ifScRirnoK,6ro«RAPHy*TR;ivFL. 


BIOGRXPHY  +  COSfftSPOKDENCC.        6« 


i>Hi5icAL*»feTH.  sen 


POrrHY*  DRAM;*. 


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LiTEBATOBC  *  COLLECTEO  WORHi 


Charts  Prepared  by  F.  E.  Woodward,  Washington,  D.  C, 
ANALYSIS  OF  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  1910-1911. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


125 


X. 

PAPER  AND  PULP. 

1909 

1909 

MATEBIAI,S. 

$165,442,341 

•$33,772,475 

1,241,914 
$43,861,357 

452,849 
$9,487,508 

154,626 
$6,862,864 

626,029 
$27, 1.84, 726 

8.410 
$326,259 

357,470 
$10,721,559 

933.882 
$13,691,120 

117.080 
$3,560,033 

303.137 
$1,460,282 

$58,375,515 

» $267,656,964 

1,091,017 
$42,807,064 

84,537 
$4,048,496 

575,616 
$42,846,674 

93,213 
$9,413,961 

6,498 
$555,352 

17,578 
$1,982,853 

51,449 
$3,352,151 

169,125 
$24,906,102 

29,08d 
$4,110,536 

73,731 
$6,989,436 

108,561 
$4,380,794 

32,988 
$870,419 

PRODUCTS— continued. 

Wrapping  paper— Continued. 

Bogus  or  wood  manila,  all  grades- 
Tons 

367,932 

Wood  pulp,  purchased: 

Tons 

Value 

$19,777,707 

All  other- 
Tons  

Cost 

179,855 

Value 

$10,202,035 

Boards; 

Wood  pulp- 
Tons  ... 

Cost 

Soda  fiber- 

71,036 

Tons 

Value. 

$2,639,496 

Cost 

Straw- 
Tons 

Sulphite  fiber- 
Tons   .'       -■ . . 

171.789 

Value.. 

$3,750,851 

Cost 

News- 
Tons 

Other  chemical  fiber- 

74.606 

Value 

$2,215,469 

Cost     

All  other- 
Tons  . .   . . 

Rags,  including  cotton,  flax  waste 
and  sweepings: 

514,208 

Value 

$17,539,768 

Tons 

Other  paper  products: 
Tissues- 

Cost 

Old  and  waste  paper: 

77,745 

Value 

$8,553,654 

Cost .  .            

Blotting- 

9,577 

rope,  waste,  threads,  ete.: 
Tons 

Value 

$1,186,180 

Building  roofinj,',  asbestos,  and 
sheathing— 

Cost. 

Straw: 

225,824 

Tons 

Value.               

$9,251,368 

Cost 

Hanging- 

.      92,158 

Value 

$4,431,514 

PRODUCTS. 

Miscellaneous- 

96,577 

Value  .            

$6,869,169 

Total  ▼alu6         ^ 

Wood  pulp  made  for  sale  or  for  con- 
sumption in  mills  other  than  where 
produced: 
Ground- 

News  paper: 

In  rolls  for  printing- 
Tons 

Value 

310,747 

In  sheets  for  printing- 

Value 

$5,649,466 

Tons.....    ......  

Soda  fiber- 

Value 

155,844 

Book  paper: 

Value :.... 

$6,572,152 

B5ok- 

Tons 

Sulphite  fiber- 
Tons 

444,255 

Value 

Value 

$17,955,748 

Coated- 

Tons 

All  nthf>r  nmtlnot^   V9.1llP 

$4,738,549 

Vahie  . 

Wood  pulp. 
Quantity  produced  (including  that 
used   m    mills   where    manufac- 
tured), total  tons 

Plate,  lithograph,  map,  wood- 
cut,  etc.— 
Tons 

Value 

2,495,523 

Cover- 

Ground,  tons 

1.179,266 

Value 

Soda  fiber,  tons 

298,626 

Cardboard,  bristol  board,  card  mid- 
dles, tickets,  etc.— 
Tons 

1,017,631 

EQUIPMENT. 

Paper  machines: 

Total  number 

Value 

Finepaper: 
Writing- 
Tons 

1.480 

FouSffii?-^'""'''"-" 

5.293.397 

Value..... 

804 

All  other- 

Capacity  per  24  hours,  tons. . 
Cylinder- 
Number                             ... 

.10.508 

Value 

676 

Wrapping  paper: 

STanila  (rope,  jute,  tag,  etc.)— 

Capacity  per  24  hours,  tons. . 

6.316 
1,435 

Value 

542 

Heavy  (mill  wrappers,  etc.)— 
Tons 

Sulphite  fiber,  number 

348 
194 

Value 

Capacity,  yeariy,  tons  of  pulp... . 
Ground  totis      .         ...... 

3,405,621 

Straw- 

1.809,685 

Tons 

Sulphite  tons 

1,250,983 

Value V. 

Soda,  tons 

344,953 

126 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,    Munn    &    Lu. 


THE  CIVILIZED   WORLD'S   CONSUMPTION  OF   PAPER  PRESENTED 
IN  GRAPHICAL  FORM. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


127 


PUBLICATIONS. 


Total  value 

Publications: 

Newspapers  and  periodicals 

Subscriptions  and  sales . 

Advertising 

Newspapers 

Subscriptions  and  sales. . 

Advertising 

Pferiodicals 

Subscriptions  and  sales. . . 

Advertising 

Ready  prints,  patent  insides  and 

outsides 

Books  and  pamphlets- 
Published,  or  printed  and 

published 

Printed  for  publication  by 

others 

Sheet  music  and  books  of  music- 
Published   or  printed  and 

published 

Printed  for  publication  by 

others 

Products  for  sale  add  in  execution  of 
orders: 

Job  printing 

Book  binding  and  blank  books  . . 
Electrotyping,    engraving,   and 

lithographing 

All  other  products 

NEWSPAPERS  AND  PERIODICALS. 

Number 

Aggrregate  circulation 

By  period  of  issue: 

Daily  (exclusive  of  Sunday)— 

Number 

Aggregate  circulation 

Sunday- 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation 

Semiweekly  and  triweekly- 
Number  . ., 

Aggregate  circulation 

Weekly- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation 

Monthly- 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation 

All  other- 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation 

By  character: 
News,  poUtics,  and  family  read- 
ing- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation 

Religious- 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation 

Agricultural,  horticultural,  dairy, 
stock  raising,  etc. — 

Number 

Aggregate  circulation 


$737,876,087 

$337,596,288 
$135,063,043 
$202,533,245 
$232,993,094 
$84,438,702 
$a48,554,392 
$104,603,194 
$50,624,341 
$53,978,853 

$2,293,077 


$62,930,394 
$10,209,509 

$5,510,698 
$1,000,966 


$207,940,227 
$50,552,808 


$47,956,979 
$11,885,141 


22,141 
164,463,040 


2,600 
24,211,977 

520 
13,347,282 

708 
2,648,308 

15,097 
40,822,965 

2,491 
63,280,535 

725 
20,151,973 


17,698 
61,074,990 


1,251 
29, 523, 777 


316 
11,327,253 


The  earliest  advertisement  in  England  was 
found  in  "Perfect  Occurrences  of  Every 
Daie"  1647. 


PRODUCT. 

1909 

NEWSPAPERS    AND     PERIODICALS— 

Continued. 

By  c/»orac<€f— Continued, 
Commerce,   finance,   insurance, 
railroads,  etc.— 
Number 

264 
1,411,738 

685 
3,572,441 

340 
31,322,035 

197 
931,584 

56 
151,346 

139 
1,421,955 

419 
6,982,235 

202 
1,879,383 

164 
13,445,661 

271 
330.705 

139 
1,087,937 

20,744 
155,432,243 

1,397 
9,030,797 

39 
446,739 

692 
4,434,146 

104 
500,475 

161 
1,118,601 

169 
917,649 

232 
1.613,187 

Aggregate  circulation 

Trade  journals  generally- 

Aggregate  circulation v . . 

General  literature,  including 
monthly  and  quarterly  maga- 
zines— 

Number        

Aggregate  circulation 

Medicine  and  surgery- 

Aggregate  circulation 

Law- 

Aggregate  circulation 

Science  and  mechanics — 

Number               ............ 

Aggregate  circulation 

Fraternal  orgainizations— 

Aggregate  circulation 

Education  and  history- 

Aggregate  circulation 

Society,  art,  music,fashions,  etc.— 

Aggregate  circulation 

College  and  school  periodicals- 

Aggregate  circulation 

Miscellaneous— 

Number 

Aggregate  circulation 

Aggregate  circulation 

Foreign  (including  foreign  and 
English)- 

Number                    

Aggregate  circulation 

French- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation 

German- 

Aggregate  circulation. . . . 
Italiafi- 

Number 

Aggregate  circulation 

Scandinavian- 
Number                 

Aggregate  circulation 

Slavonic — 

Niunber 

Aggregate  circulation 

Aggregate  circulation 

128 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PUBLICATIONS  BY  STATES. 


Showing  the  numberof  newspapers  and  periodicals  of  all  Issues  published  in  the  United  States, 
Territories,  and  Dominion  of  Canada;  tlie  number  of  towns  lu  which  newspapers  are  pub- 
lished, and  the  niunber  of  towns  which  are  county  seats. 


STATES,TERRITORIES  AND 
CANADIAN  PRO  VINCES. 


NEW  ENGLAND    STATES. 

Connecticut _ 

Maine  

Massachusetts 

New  Hampshire 

Rhode  Island 

Vermont 


NEW  YOllK. 


New  York 

MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 

Delaware  

District  of  Columbia 

Maryland 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania  ~. 


SOUTHERN    STATES. 

Alabama 

Arkansas  

Florida 

Georgia 

KentucKy 

Louisiana 

Mississippi  

North  Carolina 

.South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Virginia 

West  Virginia 


MIDDLE  WESTERN  STATES. 
Illinois 

Indiana _ 

Michigan 

Ohio 

Wisconsin 


WESTERN   STATES. 

Colorado  

Iowa 

Kansas 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New  Mexico 

North  Dakota _ 

Oklahoma 

South  Dakota 

Wyoming 


PACIFIC  SLOPE  STATES. 

Arizona 

California 

Idaho 

Nevada 

Oregon  

Utah  

Washington 


OUTLYING  TERRITORIES. 

Alaska ; :.. 

Hawaii „ 

Philippines 

Porto  Rico «.... 


CANADIAN  PROVINCES. 

Alberta  

British  Columbia 

Manitoba..... 

Saskatchewan 

Yukon 

New  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 

Ontario  

Prince  Edward  Island 

Quebec 


Newfoundland 


504  j  61 


^S   I  !   I 

I  e  I  I 


1 


40  I  5 


1056      6 

30 

ft?.5 

ti 

5M(» 

1 

2 

T>X) 

13 

538 

3 

33B9 

14 

54 

-w 


tt 


J58 
135 

esi 

114 

56 
101 

1225 


248 
312 
173 
353 
306 
227 
246 
304 


1021 

202 

J222 

4143 


1779 
774 
731 

1163 
679 

5126 


417 
959 
747 
748 
966 
193 
628 
119 
353 
646 
445 


157 
46 

285 
98 
393 


Ayer*s  Newspaper  Annual. 


SCIENTIFIO  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


129 


INTERNATIONAL  BOOK  PRODUCTION. 


TABI,E  OF  BOOK  PRODUCTION  OF  I,EADING    COUNTRIES— igoi-igio. 


■Germany. ...... 

France   

Great  Britain . . 

Italy 

Switzerland 

Holland 

Belgium. . , . .   . 
United  States. . 


25,331 
13.053 
6,044 


1,766 
2,837 
2,613 
8,141 


1902 


26,906 

12,199 

7.381 


1.655 
2,917 
2,499 
7,833 


1903 


27,606 
12,264 
8,381 


2,452 
3,005 
2,639 
7,865 


1904 


28,378 
12,139 
8,334 

2,739 
3,403 
2,734 
8,291 


1905 


28,886 

12,416 

8,252 

3.316 
3.290 
2,624 
8,122 


1906 


28,703 
10,898 
8,603 
6,822 
3.249 
3.346 
2,410 

7.139 


1907 


30,073 
10,785 
9,914 
7,040 
3,085 
3,408 
2,680 
9,620 


30,317 
11,073 
9,821 
6,918 
4,256 
3,258 
2,763 
9.254 


1909 


31,051 

13,185 

10,725 

6,833 

4,390 

3,652 

2,697 

10,901 


Publishers'  Weekly, 


RECORD    OF    AMERICAN    BOOK    PRODUCTION    FOR    1912 


For  1912 


international 
Classification 


Philosophy  . .  i.. 

Religion  and  Theology 

Sociology  and  Economics  . .  • 

Law. 

Education 

Philology..., ;. 

Science .^ 

Applied  Science,  Technology, 
Engineering.... ....  ........ 

Medicine,  Hygiene 

Agriculture 

Domestic  Economy 

Business... 

Fine  Arts 

Music 

Games,  Sports,  Amusements. . 

General  Literature,  Essays . . . 

Poetry  and  Drama.   

Fiction.... 

Juvenile  Publications 

History! , 

Geography  and  Travel 

Biography,  Genealogy 

General  Cyclopaedias,  General 
Works,  Bibliogrkphies,  Mis- 
cellaneous  

Total 


New 

Publica- 
tions 


308 
865 
802 
783 
251 
279 
631 

594 
388 
292 

:83 
189 

217 

89 

126 

498 

620 
960 
533 
492 
476 
•554 


105 


£j>  Origin 


233 

58.8 
764 
852 
217 

548 
362 
275 

lOI 

V76 
^35 
57 
106 

337 
377 
712 
428 
373 
307 
33^ 


74 


English 
and  Other 
Foreign 
A  uthors 


75 
285 

86 
8 

35 

95 
180 

120 
J23 

28 
7 

•33 
105 

33 

25 
152 
162 
/88 

9/ 
^47 
190 
227 


29 


321 
916 
867 
862 

254 
294 

695 

674 
495 
305 
no 
210 
243 
93 
132 
524 
636 

lOIO 

546 
524 
504 

581 


107 


For  191 1 


New 
Publica- 
tions 


305 
879 
614 
629 
289 
180 
559 

584 
390 
231 
81 
209 
176 
81 
94 
892 
674 
999 
725 
425 
555 
647 


10,135768  7P755<?^^^^^ 1 10,903   10,440   ^%2,\8I83   77/2269   11,123 


29 
38 
•39 
53- 
II 
12 
65 

122 
137 

9 
14 
18 
20 

5 

9 
27 
II 
25 

9 
1.7 
43 
48 


By  Origin 


244 
662 
559 
^675 

26g 

89 

492 

575 

460 

219 

86 

206 

^05 

62 

80 

523 

385 

701 

439 

38r 
433 


English 

and  Other 

Foreign 

Authors 


18 


4 

8 

60 

10 

7 
io 

2 
3 
7 
4 

2 
170 
148 

12/ 
36 

^5 
25 
36 


72 
207 

73 
3 

23 

43 
122 

t24 

47 
21 

Is 

84 

20 

21 

226 

152 

202 

259 
lOI 
192 
226 


26 


Tvbliahett'  Wetkitft 


130 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATISTICS  RELATIVE" TO  NEWSPAPERS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


No.  of  Towns  In  which  Papers  are 

published  .... 
No.  of  Towns 

8e»U 


'I 


1913  1912  19U  1912 


1912  1913 


^      ' 


ll 


•Tout  of  all  Issues 


1212  I  1225  |[  2<a)  I  19»4     2077  |  2(M7  I  1192     1143     6131     5126     62«     6301 


s  1 20.»  I  : 


1837     1907  j     il9  i     112  .J22J37 


'i""r^^ 


Ayer's  Newspaper  Annxuil. 


■Uecrease.   tNetIacr<M«k 


Book  ProductioxV  of  Leading  Coun- 
TEiES,  1910,  BY  Classes. 


Fiction. 

Law 

Religion 

Educaiion '..... 

Bssays,  Miscellany. 
Juvenile  Publications. 

Sociology 

Poetry  and  Drama  .. 

Science 

History  

Biography 

Medicine 

Description  and  Travel 

Fine  Arts 

Applied  Science 

Philosophy 

Household  Science... 

Agriculture , 

Sports,  Games 

Wit  and  Humor 

Philology 

Military  Science 

General  Works 


Germany  g'^^  France 


2510 
4852 
4815. 

3'25 

»7So 
1254 
1981 
1480 


668 
1030 


667 
1094 


2833 
248 

1064 
659 
272 

590 


398 
604 


464 


United 
States 


1 1 52 

1797 

IH* 

678 

888 

943 

X160 

523 

142 

2042 

lOIO 

I4V? 

784 

1028 

752 

4'7 

711 

17.8 

\fA 

1230 

544 

394 

599 

,28 

36s 

8S7 

168 

265 

»9 
282 

[33= 

145 

49 


Printing  was  originally  practiced  by  the 
Chinese  in  very  early  times;  the  origin  of  the 
present  system  seems  to  be  very  doubtful. 
The  first  metal  plate  from  which  impressions 
on  paper  were  taken  seems  to  have  been 
executed  in  1452.  It  was  a  pax  or  metal  plate 
used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  service.  Early 
books  containing  engravings  reproduced  from 
metal  plates  are  the  "Kalendar"  dated  1465, 
and  the  "Monte  Santo  de  Dio,"  1477.  The 
first  engraver  proper  who  seems  to  have  done 
nothing  but  engrave  was  Antonio  Raimondi 
(1488-1530).  

The  first  steam  turbine  was  built  in  1894 
by  the  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons  of  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne;  the  first  Atlantic  passage  turbine 
steamer  was  launched  in  1904. 


Book  Production  of  Leading 
Countries. 


4 


Country. 

Algeria    

Argentine  Republic. . 

Australia    

Austria    

Belgium    

Brazil 

Bulgaria    

Canada   

Cape  of  Good  Mope. 

Ceylon   

Chili    

China 

Costa-Rica     

Denmark 

Egypt    

Finland    

France   

Germany     

Great    Britain 

Greece    

Haiti   : 

Hawaii    

Holland    

Hungary    

Iceland   .- 

India    

Ireland    

Italy    

Japan    

Luxemburg    

Mexico     

Norway    

Paraguay    

Persia  

Portugal    

Roumania    

Russia    

Servia     

Spain    

Sweden    

Switzerland    

Turkey    

United  States 

Uruguay  

Venezuela  


A^ear. 


1 90 1 

IQIO 


»893 


1909 
.891 


[910 
[898 


1910 
1910 
1910 


J  903 
1895 
1902 
1910 
1909 
19x0 

1904 


1901 
1910 

1902 
1904 
1910 
1890 
1910 
1906 


Books. 

Year. 

Periodic 

1908 

28, 



1900 

73' 

1903 

1,001 

2,050 

1910 

3,95 

2,588 

1910 

1,65 

1902 

30< 

1897 

9< 

450 

1910 

1,429 

1900 

9t 

422 

400 

1896 

3" 

1907 

12 

I 

1903 

3.305 

1910 

1.41^ 

160 

1902 

I2< 

1909 

36( 

11,266 

1908 

8,65J 

31,281 

1910 

10,017! 

10,804 

1907 

4,32! 

1895 

I3< 

1903 

2; 

1908 

4! 

3,777 

1908 

i,49i 

1,600 

1904 

1,64^ 

212 

1903 

40 

8,000 

1899 

i,oo< 

180 

1902^ 

3; 

6,788 

1907 

3,o6J 

34.730 

1900 

2.721 

97 

1908 

53 

1892 

300 

682 

1903 

497 

1908 

21 

1892 

10 

1894 

2j 

1,740 

1903 

33« 

29.057 

1910 

2.391 

1897 

8a 

1,400 

1900 

1,350 

1,474 

1906 

804 

4,290 

J  909 

1.332 

900 

1909 

380 

13.470 

IQIO 

22.806 

no 

1906 

240 



1908 

237 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


131 


XI.     MINOR  INDUSTRIES 
Gas,  Illuminating  and  Heating. 


The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  this  product  in  the  year  1909 
was  $52,427,844;  4,940,598  tons  of  coal  cost 
$16,304,832;  579,657,152  gallons  of  oil  cost 
$17,345,750;  591,919  tons  coke,  costing  $2,- 
667,706;  all  other  materials  cost  $16,109,556. 
The  total  value  of  these  products  in  1909  was 


$166,814,371:  150,835,793  cubic  feet  (thou- 
sands) of  gas  were  produced,  having  a  value 
of  $138,615,309;  19,985,253  cubic  feet  (thou- 
sands) straight  coal,  valued  at  $18,065,841; 
25,186  cubic  feet  (thousands)  of  acetylene, 
valued  at  $361,348;  82,049,683  bushels  of  coke 
were  produced,  valued  at  $5,723,215;  92,152,- 
938  gallons  of  tar,  valued  at  $1,875,549;  the 
value  of  all  other  products  was  $13,556,908. 


Copyright,    Munn   &  Co. 

THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  GAS  INDUSTRY. 

A  Week's  Supply  of  Gas.     Fuel  for  23  Million  Horse-Power  Hours.     The  Gas 
Holder  contains  2,163,207,368  Cubic  Feet. 


132 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Laundries  in  1909. 

Number  of  establishments 5,186 

Capital  invested $68,935,000 

Cost  of  materials  used 17,696,000 

Salaries  and  wages,  total 53,007,747 

Salaries 8,180,769 

Wages 44,826,978 

Miscellaneous  expenses 14,483,497 


Value  of  products,   or  amount 

received  for  work  done.  .   $104,680,086 

Pianos  and  Organs  and  Materials. 

In  1909,  the  total  value  of  the  pianos  and 
organs,  and  materials,  in  establishments  espe- 
cially designed  for  their  manufacture  through- 
out the  United  States,  amounted  to  $89,789,- 
544.  The  wholenumber  of  pianos  manufactured 
was  374,154,  valued  at  $59,501,225:  Of  these 
there  were  365,413  upright  pianos,  valued  at 
$55,462,556;  330,918  pianos  without  player 
attachment,   valued  at   $46,187,555;    34,495 


pianos  for  or  with  player  attachment,  valued 
at  $9,275,001;  8,741  grand  pianos,  valued  at 
$4,038,669.  There  were  10,898  player  attach- 
ments made  separate  from  pianos,  valued  at 
$1,474,630.  The  whole  number  of  organs  made 
was  65,335,  valued  at  $5,309,016:  Of  these 
there  were  1,224  pipe  organs,  valued  at  $2,- 
713,587;  64,111  reed  organs,  valued  at  $2,- 
595,429.  The  value  of  other  parts  and  ma- 
terials manufactured,  was  $20,417,762;  the 
value  of  all  other  products  was  $3,086,911. 

Phonographs  and  Graphophones. 

The  total  value  of  the  phonographs,  grapho- 
phones, and  records  manufactured  in  1909, 
throughout  the  United  States,  was  $11,725,- 
996.  There  were  344,681  phonographs  and 
graphophones  made,  valued  at  $5,406,684; 
27,183,959  records  and  blanks,  valued  at  $5,- 
007,104;  all  other  products  were  valued  at 
$1,312,208.  Since  1909  the  products  have 
vastly  increased  in  quantity  and  value. 


TABLE  OF  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT  AT  VARYING  AGES. 

Based  upon  an  Analysis  of  74,162  accepted  Male  Applicants  for  Life  Insurance,  as  reported  to 
The  Association  of. Life  Insurance  Medical  Directors,   1897. 


Aoss, 

IS— 24 

39—29 

3P-34 

39-39 

40-44 

49—49 

90— 34 

SS— 99 

60— 64 

r- ~ 

65—69 

■       96' 

100 

102 

105 

106 

107 

107 

107 

105 

3  feet  O  inches 

I20 

"5 

128 

'3' 

'33 

'34 

'34 

'34 

'3' 

150 

'54 

'57 

161 

161 

'57 

98 

lOI 

103 

'05 

107 

109 

109 

109 

107 

131 

126 

129 

'3' 

'34 

'36 

•36 

136 

146 

>5' 

'55 

'57 

161 

'63 

'63 

'63 

161 

99 

102 

105 

106 

109 

no 

no 

no 

no 

"4 

128 

"3' 

.33 

136 

'38 

'38 

'38 

'37 

149 

'H 

'57 

160 

■  63 

166 

166 

166 

164 

102 

105 

107 

109 

III 

"3 

"3 

"3 

112 

in 

IJ7 

'3' 

'34 

'36 

'39 

141 

141 

14: 

140 

140 

"52 

'57 

'63 

167 

169 

169 

169 

168 

168 

105 

108 

iro 

112 

"4 

"5 

n6 

n6 

"5 

"4 

"31 

"35 

■38 

146 

'43 

144 

'45 

'45 

'44 

'43 

'S7 

172 

'73 

'74 

'74 

'73 

172 

107 

no 

"3 

"4 

"7 

n8 

"9 

"9 

n8 

n8 

•34 

•38 

141 

143 

146 

147 

148 

169 

'72 

'75 

176 

'79 

'79 

178 

176 

no 

"4 

116 

1.8 

120 

121 

122 

122 

122 

121 

'J? 

142 

'45 

'47 

150 

'5' 

'53 

'53 

'53 

'5' 

170 

174 

175 

180 

181 

184 

184 

184 

181 

114 

n8 

120 

122 

124 

'25 

126 

126 

126 

142 

'47 

'50 

'52 

'55 

'56 

'58 

'58 

,158 

'.56 

170 

176 

180 

■  82 

186 

.87 

190 

.90 

190 

«87 

"7 

121 

'S3 

126 

•      128 

129 

'30 

'30 

■30 

'30 

146 

'2' 

«54 

'57 

160 

I6i 

'63 

'63 

'63 

162 

■75 

'85 

188 

192 

•93 

196 

196 

196 

'94 

120 

124.' 

127 

'30 

.32 

'33 

'34 

'34 

'34 

'34 

150 

'55 

'59 

162 

'6S 

I66 

167 

168 

168 

168 

. 

180 

186 

191 

'94 

198 

199 

202 

202 

202 

"3 

127 

'3' 

'34 

'36 

'37 

'38 

'38 

139 

'39 

"34 

'59 

164 

167 

170 

'7' 

172 

173 

174 

'74 

'83 

191 

'97 

200 

204 

205 

206 

208 

209 

209 

"7  . 

'3' 

'35 

'38 

'40 

142 

142 

142 

11 

'59 

164 

169 

173 

'75 

'77 

'77 

178 

180 

i8q 

191 

197 

203 

208 

210 

213 

212 

2'4 

216 

216 

'32 

■36 

140 

'43 

'44 

146 

146 

146 

148 

148 

6       O 

'65 

170 

'75 

'79 

180 

'83 

182 

'83 

'85 

'85 

198 

204 

2'5 

2I6 

220 

218 

'36 

142 

'45 

148 

149. 

'5' 

'50 

'5' 

'5' 

'5' 

170 

*77 

181 

'85 

186 

189 

188 

189 

189 

189 

204 

212 

2'7 

223 

227 

226 

227 

227 

227 

141 

'47 

150 

'54 

'55 

'57 

'55 

'55 

■54 

'54 

176 

184 

1S8 

'92. 

'94 

196 

'94 

'94 

192 

192 

211 

221 

230 

233 

235 

233 

233 

230 

230 

'45 

'52 

'56 

160 

162 

'63 

161 

'58 

3 

I8l 

190 

'95 

20O 

203 

204 

20I 

198 

aij 

218 

'34      . 

J40 

24+ 

345 

241 

238 

, 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


133 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES :   BY  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  1909. 

Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  The 
figures  for  some  industries  do  not  represent  the  total  value  of  the  products,  because  import- 
ant establishments  that  manufacture  the  same  class  of  products  may  be  included  in  other 
industries.  [Primary  horse-power  includes  power  generated  in  manufacturing  establishments 
plus  electric  and  other  power  rented  from  outside  sources;  it  does  not  include  electric  power 
generated  by  primary  units  of  the  establishments  reporting.] 


INDUSTRY. 


Persons 

Primary 

Value  of 

ngaged. 

Power. 

Products 

60,229 

100,601 

$146,329,000 

11,583 

334 

23.981.000 

15,202 

12,185 

18,596,000 

865 

1,628 

2,340,000 

85,359 

75,550 

249,202,000 

5,747 

2,022 

14,499.000 

334 

492 

1,481,000 

1,491 

2,293 

19,768,000 

8,838 

6,855 

54,882,000 

3,683 

3,885 

15,698.000 

3,531 

3,335 

20,775,000 

5.419 

7,196 

5,695,000 

8,389 

57,202 

48,122.000 

4,370 

5,438 

23,692,000 

7,304 

6,319 

24,729,000 

5,017 

5,932 

10,699,000 

1,776 

2,642 

5,878,000 

4,407 

3,977 

14,679,000 

545 

242 

1,074,000 

302 

1,023 

1,093.000 

215,923 

96,302 

180,060,000 

18,899 

25,903 

49,721,000 

6,852 

6,049 

8,4-91,000 

43,568 

23,323 

54,450,000 

45,441 

106,120 

149,989,000 

144,322 

65,298 

396,865,000 

85,764 

341,169 

92,776,000 

15,143 

8,800 

29,126,000 

31,506 

101,349 

274,558,000 

418 

1,471 

8,200,000 

18,004 

12,831 

22,708,000 

26 

53 

52,000 

649 

799 

3,130,000 

71,972 

81,179 

157,101,000 

702 

269 

1,031,000 

34,706 

38,553 

7i,  188,000 

2,688 

2,651 

2,568,000 

5,769 

5,281 

8,805,000 

82,944 

126,032 

159,893.000 

301,273 

293,361 

405,601,000 

23,699 

35,794 

31,963,000 

47,094 

97,797 

123,730,000 

4,005 

15,161 

7,810,000 

9,249 

6,944 

23,708,000 

29,551 

371,799 

63,205,000 

731 

165 

872,000 

27,791 

208,604 

117,689,000 

436 

18 

786,000 

3,404 

10,593 

22,390,  000 

25,439 

14,957 

35,197,000 

1,167 

704 

1,544,000 

1,830 

1,454 

4,135,000 

271,437 

42,725 

568,077,000 

1^31 

176 

781,000 

179,021 

22,294 

384,752,000 

13,516 

22,234 

110,533,000 

11,448 

16,490 

24,526,000 

31,226 

62,602 

95,697,000 

54.854 

35,870 

134,796,000 

Agricultural  implements 

Artificial  flowers  and  feathers  and  plumes 

Artificial  stone 

Artists'  materials 

Automobiles,  including  bodies  and  parts 

Awnings,  tents  and  sails 

Axle  grease 

Babbitt  metal  and  solder 

Bags,  other  than  paper 

Bags,  paper : 

Baking  powders  and  yeast 

Baskets,  and  rattan  and  willow  ware 

Beet  sugar 

BeUing  and  hose,  leather 

Belting  and  hose,  woven  and  rubber 

Bicycles,  motor  cycles  and  parts 

Billiard  tables  and  materials 

Blacking  and  cleansing  and  polishing  preparations 

Bluing 

Bone,  carbon  and  lampblack 

Boots  and  shoes,  including  cut  stock  and  findings 

Boots  and  shoes,  rubber 

Boxes,  cigar 

Boxes,  fancy  and  paper 

Brass  and  bronze  products 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products 

Brick  and  tile 

Brooms  and  brushes ■ 

Butter,  cheese  and  condensed  milk 

Butter,  reworking 

Buttons 

Calcium  lights 

Candles 

Canning  and  preserving 

Card  cutting  and  designing 

Carpets  and  rugs,  other  than  rag 

Carpets,  rag 

Carriages  and  sleds,  children's 

Carriages  and  wagons  and  materials 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 

steam-railroad  companies 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 

street-railroad  companies 

Cars,  steam-railroad,  not  including  operations  of 

railroad  companies 

Cars,  street-railroad,  not  including  operations  of 

railroad  companies 

Cash  registers  and  calculating  machines 

Cement 

Charcoal .  . 

Chemicals 

China  decorating 

Chocolate  and  cocoa  products 

Clocks  and  watches,  including  cases  and  materials 

Cloth,  sponging  and  refinishing 

Clothing,  horse 

Clothing,  men's,  including  shirts 

Clothing,  men's,  buttonholes 

Clothing,  women's 

Coffee  and  spice,  roasting  and  grinding 

Coffins,  burial  cases,  and  undertakers'  goods. . . 

Coke 

Confectionery 


134 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES:  BY  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES.  1909.  —  Continued 


INDUSTRY. 


Persons 
Engaged. 


Primary 
Horse- 
Power. 


Value  of 
Products. 


Cooperage  and  wooden  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Copper,  tin  and  sheet-iron  products 

Cordage  and  twine,  jute  and  linen  goods 

Cordials  and  syrups ' 

Cork,  cutting ., 

Corsets 

Cotton  goods,  including  cotton  small  wares 

Crucibles 

Cutlery  and  tools,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Dairymen's,  poulterers',  and  apiarists'  supplies.  . 

Dentists'  materials 

Drug  grinding . 

Dyeing  and  finishing  textiles 

Dyestuffs  and  extracts 

Electrical  machinery,  apparatus  and  supplies.  .  .  . 

Electroplating 

Emery  and  other  abrasive  wheels 

Enameling  and  japanning 

Engravers'  materials 

Engraving  and  dyesinking 

Engraving,  wood 

Explosives 

Fancy  articles,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Fertilizers 

Files 

Firearms  and  ammunition 

Fire  extinguishers,  chemical 

Fireworks 

Flags,  banners,  regalia,  society  badges  and  emblems 

Flavoring  extracts 

Flax  and  hemp,  dres.sed 

Four-mill  and  gristmill  products 

Food  preparations 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products 

Foundry  supplies 

Fuel,  manufactured 

Fur  goods 

Furnishing  goods,  men's! 

Furniture  and  refrigerators 

Furs,  dressed 

Galvanizing 

Gas  and  electric  fixtures  and  lamps  and  reflectors.  . 

Gas,  illuminating  and  heating 

Glass 

Glass,  cutting,  staining,  and  ornamenting 

Gloves  and  mittens,  leather " 

Glucose  and  starch 

Glue 

Gold  and  silver,  leaf  and  foil 

Gold  and  silver,  reducing  and  refining,  not  from 

the  ore 

Graphite  and  graphite  refining 

Grease  and  tallow 

Grindstones 

Haircloth 

Hairwork 

Hammocks 

Hand  stamps  and  stencils  and  brands 

Hat  and  cap  materials 

Hats  and  caps,  other  than  felt,  straw,  and  wool. . . 

Hats,  fur  felt 

Hats,  straw 

Hones  and  whetstones 

Horseshoes,  not  made  in  steel  works  or  rolling  mills 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods 

House-furnishing  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Ice,  manufactured 

Ink,  printing 

Ink.  writing 

Instruments,  professional  and  scientific 


29,717 

86,934 

27,214 

1,638 

3,376 

19,611 

387,771 

398 

37,161 

6,431 

1,982 

1,152 

47,303 

3,015 

105,600 

3,558 

2,446 

2,418 

189 

1,782 

480 

7,058 

14,194 

21,950 

4,521 

16,042 

300 

1,567 

4,522 

2,634 

216 

66,054 

20,965 

615,485 

710 

112 

16,152 

43,935 

144,140 

1,472 

1,689 

22,906 

51,007 

72,573 

11,090 

12,950 

5,827 

3,840 

1,553 

690 

262 
5,504 
1,485 

621 
4,383 

325 
2,539 
2,618 
7,609 
27,091 
9,704 

173 

360 

136,130 

5,916 

21,107 

1,854 

824 
6,175 


65,108 

62,366 

78,549 

1,154 

3,746 

4,581 

1,296,517 

816 

68,294 

6,89  8 

865 

3,322 

107,746 

22,213 

158,768 

4,461 

4,005 

1,695 

549 

768 

39 

28,601 

8,310 

64,711 

7,383 

17,840 

215 

517 

1,173 

1,060 

1,147 

853,584 

55,166 

869,305 

4,995 

1,290 

2,120 

12,116 

221,451 

2,103 

1,367 

15,862 

128,350 

128,532 

4,897 

2,889 

28,257 

15,596 

259 

1,735 

1,472 
14,613 

5,700 
995 
218 
157 
903 

2,922 

990 

19,245 

3,482 
677 

1,045 
103,709 

9,328 
317,789 

5,857 
169 

4,856 


60,248,  000 

199,824,000 

61,020,000 

9,662,000 

5,940,000 

33,257,000 

628,392,000 

1,849,000 

53,266,000 

15,463,000 

10,836,000 

6,007,000 

83,556,000 

15,955,000 

221,309,000 

4,510,000 

6,711,000 

3,316,000 

921,000 

2,250,000 

711,000 

40,140,000 

22,632,000 

103,960,000 

5,691,000 

34,112,000 

754,000 

2,269,000 

8,li4,000 

8,828,000 

467,000 

883,584,000 

125,331,000 

1,228,4^5,000 

2,298,000 

311,000 

55,938,000 

87,710,000 

239,886,000 

2,391,000 

7,338,000 

45,057,000 

166,814,000 

92,095,000 

16,101,000 

23,631,000 

48,799,000 

13,718,000 

2,630.000 

23,612,000 

1,140,000 

23,419,000 

1,688,000 

2,230,000 

5,135,000 

578,000 

3,673,000 

8,236,000 

13,689,000 

47,865,000 

21,424,000 

268,000 

1,015,000 

200,143,000 

18,509,000 

42,953,000 

8,865,000 

2,505,000 

10,504,000 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


135 


SUMMARY  OF   MANUFACTURES  :   BY  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  1909.— Continued. 


INDUSTRY. 


Persons 

Primary 
Horse- 

Value  of 

ngaged. 

Power. 

Products. 

43,061 

1,173,422 

391,429,000 

200,762 

2,100,978 

985,723,000 

12,395 

22,113 

24,485.000 

1,816 

1,997 

3.006,000 

9,193 

27,803 

20,293,000 

3,239 

7,723 

8,192,000 

7,309 

20,656 

30,886,000 

36,992 

11,204 

80.350.000 

2,441 

527 

3.116.000 

2,351 

20,920 

4,681,000 

2,880 

1,589 

4,670,000 

886 

679 

9,173,000 

515 

723 

10,326,000 

2,029 

3,386 

4,159,000 

1,044 

3,179 

9,145,000 

43,525 

28,148 

104,719,000 

67,100 

148,140 

327,874,000 

15,659 

27,671 

17,952,000 

8,328 

46,120 

204,699,000 

66,725 

347,726 

374.730.000 

2,726 

6,771 

13,121,000 

16,945 

35,102 

31,582,000 

7,470 

5,330 

13,475,000 

784,989 

2,840,082 

1,156,129,000 

2,237 

26,441 

38,252,000 

77,275 

187,686 

113,093,000 

4,220 

6,224 

11,353,000 

1,040 

1,433 

2,432,000 

14,109 

17,689 

35,783,000 

46,301 

7,918 

85,894,000 

22,060 

19,392 

43,508,000 

3,509 

3,862 

9,571,000 

5,450 

5,486 

8,868,000 

718 

486 

4,206,000 

901 

2,335 

4,918,000 

2,269 

1,423 

3,228,000 

41,882 

41,623 

89,790,000 

4,978 

4,542 

6,694,000 

129 

289 

338,000 

70 

385 

905,000 

21,273 

192,342 

147,868,000 

408 

1,218 

1,737,000 

1,753 

13,211 

36,739,000 

3,144 

5,772 

30,865,000 

5,557 

16,125 

23,339,000 

773 

2,408 

8,148,000 

7,809 

5.725 

11,735,000 

21,896 

56,162 

124,889,000 

81,473 

1,304.255 

267,657,000 

22,385 

27,067 

55,171,000 

1,755 

751 

2,611,000 

41,101 

25,659 

141,942.000 

1,731 

5,757 

6.229,000 

2,177 

2.827 

9,737,000 

4,513 

3,448 

7,379,000 

1,820 

569 

4,739,000 

755 

244 

577,000 

16,640 

90,268 

236.998.000 

5,928 

6,371 

11.726,000 

6,596 

8,637 

22,561,000 

7,277 

2,638 

11.624.000 

3,090 

1,506 

5,312,000 

61,022 

110,017 

76,119,000 

388.466 

297,763 

737,876.000 

Iron  and  steel,  blast  furnaces 

Iron  and  steel,  steel  works  and  rolling  mills.  .  .  . 

Iron  and  steel,  bolts,  nuts,  washers,  and  rivets,  not 
made  in  steel  works  or  rolling  mills 

Iron  and  steel,  doors  and  shutters 

Iron  and  steel  forgings 

Iron  and  steel,  nails  and  spikes,  cut  and  wrought, 
including  wire  nails,  not  made  in  steel  works  or 
rolling  mills 

Iron  and  steel  pipe,  wrought 

Jewelry 

Jewelry  and  instrument  cases 

Kaolin  and  ground  earths 

Labels  and  tags 

Lapidary  work 

Lard,  refined,  not  made  in  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing establishments 

Lasts 

Lead,  bar,  pipe,  and  sheet 

Leather  goods 

Leather,  tanned,  curried  and  finished 

Lime 

Liquors,  distilled 

Liquors,  malt 

Liquors,  vinous 

Locomotives,  not  made  by  railroad  companies  .  . 

Looking-glass  and  picture  frames 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Malt 

Marble  and  stone  work 

Matches 

Mats  and  matting 

Mattresses  and  spring  beds 

Millinery  and  lace  goods 

Mineral  and  soda  waters 

Mirrors 

Models  and  patterns,  not  including  paper  patterns 

Moving  pictures 

Mucilage  and  paste 

Musical  instruments  and  materials  not  specified. . 

Musical  instruments,  pianos  and  organs,  and 
materials 

Needles,  pins  and  hooks  and  eyes 

Oakum 

Oil,  castor 

Oil,  cotton  seed  and  cake 

Oil,  essential 

Oil,  linseed 

Oil,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Oilcloth  and  linoleum 

Oleomargarine 

Optical  goods 

Paint  and  varnish 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

Paper  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Paper  patterns 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds  and  druggists' 
preparations 

Paving  materials 

Peanuts,  grading,  roa.sting,  cleaning  and  shelling .  . 

Pencils,  lead 

Pens,  fountain,  stylographic  and  gold 

Pens,  steel , 

Petroleum,  refining 

Phonographs  and  graphophones 

Photographic  apparatus  and  materials 

Photo-engraving 

Pipes,  tobacco 

Pottery,  terra-cotta  and  fire-clay  products .• 

Printing  and  publishing 


136 


SCIENTIFIC. AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES:  BY  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  1909.  —  Continued. 


INDUSTRY. 


Pulp  goods 

Pumps,  not  including  steam  pumps.  .  . 

Rice,  cleaning  and  polishing 

Roofing  materials .  .  .  . 

Rubber  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified. 

Rules,  ivory  and  wood 

Safes  and  vaults 

Salt 


Sand  and  emery  paper  and  clotb 

Saws 

Scales  and  balances . 

Screws,  machine 

Screws,  wood 

Sewing  machines,  cases  and  attachments. 

Shipbuilding,  including  boatbuilding 

Shoddy 

Show  cases 

Signs  and  advertising  novelties 

Silk  and  silk  goods,  including  throwsters. 

Silverware  and  plated  ware. 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing 

Smelting  and  refining,  copper 

Smelting  and  refining,  lead 

Smelting  and  refining,  zinc 

Smelting  and  refining,  not  from  the  ore . . 
Soap. 


Soda-water  apparatus 

Sporting  and  athletic  goods 

Springs,  steel,  car  and  carriage 

Stationery  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified 

Statuary  and  art  goods 

Steam  packing 

Stereotyping  and  electroty ping 

Stoves  and  furnaces,  including  gas  and  oil  stoves . 
Sugar  and  molasses,  not  including  beet  sugar.  .  . 

Sulphuric,  nitric  and  mixed  acids 

Surgical  appUances  and  artificial  limbs 

Tin  plate  and  terneplate 

Tin  foil 

Tobacco  manufactures 

Toys  and  games .  .  .^ 

Turpentine  and  resin 

Type-founding  and  printing  materials 

Typewriters  and  supplies 

Umbrellas  and  canes 

Upholstering  materials 

Vault  lights  and  ventilators 

Vinegar  and  cider 

Wall  paper 

Wall  plaster 

Washing  machines  and  clothes  wringers 

Waste 

Wheelbarrows 

Whips 

Windmills 

Window  shades  and  fixtures 

Wire 


Wirework,  including  wire  rope  and  cable 

Wood  distillation,  not  including  turpentine  and  resin 

Wood  carpet. 

Wood  preserving 

Wood,  turned  and  carved 

Wood  pulling 

Wool  scouring 

Woolen,  worsted,  and  felt  goods,  and  wool  hats. 
All  other  industries* 


Total. 7,678,578 


Persons 
Engaged. 


882 

2,623 

1,777 

3,530 

31,284 

127 

4.060 

5,580 

779 

5,757 

4,275 

1,863 

3,758 

20,556 

44,949 

2,320 

3,943 

7,277 

105,238 

18,774 

108,716 

16,832 

8,059 

7,156 

2,596 

18,393 

2,399 

5,993 

3,573 

7,938 

2,172 

4,968 

3,661 

42,921 

15,658 

2,582 

5,805 

5,846 

762 

197,637 

6,072 

44,524 

2,597 

12,101 

6,505 

4,777 

453 

3,073 

4,746 

5,624 

2,294 

2,129 

775 

1,946 

2,742 

4,770 

19,945 

14,994 

3,095 

221 

2,875 

16,243 

759 

1,262 

175,176 

132 


Primary 
Horse- 
Power. 


3,125 

4,214 

19,519 

9,431 

79,062 

167 

5,546 

27,263 

3,351 

11,852 

6,183 

3,319 

5,618 

19,426 

88,063 

13,820 

4,746 

3,790 

97,947 

15,183 

208,707 

158,126 

26,954 

21,457 

10,705 

28,360 

2,894 

3,243 

7,349 

6,842 

462 

11,129 

4,076 

45,524 

160,603 

6,494 

5,752 

8,154 

1,699 

28,514 

5,323 

4,129 

1,948 

6,845 

2,413 

17,456 

234 

16,681 

5,680 

25,892 

3,351 

4,286 

1,486 

1,321 

3,301 

5,737 

71,959 

20,131 

9,854 

269 

10,647 

48,447 

1,366 

6,785 

362,209 

136 


18,680.776 


Value  of 
Products. 


1,770,000 

5,583,000 

22,371,000 

19,204,000 

128,436,000 

144,000 

8.491,000 
11,328  000 

4,358,000 
11,536,000 

8,786,000 

3,014,000 

6,199.000 
28,262,000 
73,360,000 

7,446,000 

7,167,000 

13,546,000 

196,912,000 

42,229,000 

1,370,568,000 

378,806,000 

167,406,000 

34,206,000 

28,072,000 

111,358,000 

6,556,000 
11,052,000 

9,005,000 
16,647,000 

3,442,000 
12,160,000 

6,384,000 

78,853,000 

279,249,000 

9,884.000 
12,399.000 
47,970,000 

3,419,000 
416,695,000 

8,264,000 
25,295,000 

4,703,000 

19,719,000 

15,864,000 

13,054,000 

957,000 

8,448,000 
14,449,000 
12,804,000 

5,825,000 
11,398,000 

1,525,000 

3,949,000 

6,677,000 
18,571,000 
84,486,000 
41,938,000 

9,737,000 

490,000 

14,099,000 

22,199,000 

5,181,000 

3,289,000 

435,979,000 

390,000 


$20,672,052,000 


*  Includes  the  following  industries:    Millstones;    ordnance  and  accessories;    pulp,  from 
fibre  other  than  wood;   straw  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified:    and  whalebone  cutting. 


CHAPTER  V, 


COMMERCE, 


PRINCIPAL  TRADE  ROUTES  ON  THE  ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 


AREA  OF  THE  LARGEST  LAKES. 


Square 
Miles. 
Caspian  Sea  (85  feet  below  the  level  of 

the  Black  Sea) 169,890 

Lake  Superior  (N.  Am.) 32,430 

Victoria  Nyanza  (Afr.) 28,960 

Lake  Aral  (As.) 26.260 

Lake  Huron  (N.  Am.) 23,940 

Lake  Michigan  (N.  Am.) 23,940 

Tanganyika  (Afr.) 13.740 

Lake  Baikal  (As.) 13,130 

Nyassa  (Afr.) 10.230 


Square 
Miles. 

Lake  Tsad  (Afr.) 9,800 

Lake  Erie  (N.  Am.) 9,650 

Lake  Winnipeg  (N.  Am.) 9,270 

Great  Slave  Lake  (N.  Am.) 8.110 

Great  Bear  Lake  (N.  Am.) 8,110 

Lake  Balkash  (As.) 8  110 

Lake  Ontario  (N.  Am.) 7,720 

Lake  Ladoga  (Russia) 6.950 

Maracaibo  Lake 6,490 

Great  Salt  Lake  (N.  Am.) 5,000 


137 


138 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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147 


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148 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


FOREIGN  CARRYING  TRADE   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES,    1821-1912. 


Total  imports  and  exports. 

Year 

In  cars  and 

other  land 

vehicles. 

By  sea. 

Per  cent. 

In  American 
vessels. 

In  foreign 
vessels. 

Total. 

American 
vessels. 

1821 

$113,201,462 
129,918,458 
198,424,609 
239,272,084 
507,247,757 
352,969,401 
258,346,577 
202,451,086 
195,084,192 
260,837,147 
280,206,464 
322,451,565 

$14,358,235 

14,447,970 

40,802,856 

90,764,954 

255,040,793 

638,927,488 

1,224,265,434 

1,371,116,744 

1,894,444,424 

2,721,962,475 

2,930,436,506 

3,109,018,858 

$127,559,697 

144,366,428 

239,227,465 

330,037,038 

762,288,550 

991,896,889 

1,482,612,011 

1,573,567,830 

2,089,528,616 

2,982,799,622 

3,210,642,970 

3,431,470,423 

88.7 

1830   

89.9 

1840        

82  9 

1850                     .    . 

72  5 

I860 

66.5 

1870 

35.6 

1880 

$20,981,393 
73,571,263 
154,895,650 
319,132,528 
365,903,334 
426,116,920 

17.4 

1890 

12.9 

1900   

9.3 

1910 

8.7 

1911 

1912 

8.7 
9.4 

Comparison  of  the  area  of  all  states  of  the  world  in  English  square  miles. 

EUROPE= 


3,952,846  square  miles. 
Spain  Sweden        Norway 

191,963         172,876        124,130 

Dan 


W 


Belgium  Montenegr 

a  o 

11.373      3,630 


Russian 

DoPfiinions. 

Siberia,  Turkestan, 

Khiva  and  Bol<hara 

6,536,728 

square  miles 


China 

with  its 

Dependencies 

4,277,170 


3,365 

ASIA=16,905,82I  square  miles, 
Pers 


Crel»    Uuxembura    Andorra 
175 


't»'y  Turkey 

110^59  6530. 

Liechten- 
stein S.  Marino 


Rumania 

50,720 

D 

058 


Dutch 
Possess. 
584,610 

D 


French  Possessions 
and  Dependencies 

Cochin-China 

Cambodia  and  Uos    Afghanistan 
310,176  250,000 

D     D 


Slam  Japan 

□  (UnitStatofAmerJ       g     j 

240,000  I      1 175.540     Q  127,853     Q  86,000      □82,000 

AFRICA=11,952,211  square  miles. 


Philippine  Is. 
.  Stat,  c 

127,{ 


□  74.000 


Egypt  Arabia      Portug. 

--        Peninsula)    possess. 


French 
Possessions 

Colonies 
and  Protectorates 


British 
Possessions 

nd  Protectorate: 

2,206,181 


Egypt 


Congo 

Portug. 
Possess 

909,65- 

re3.98d 

D  22,780         o  8,972  ■  200 

AUSTRALASIA  and  OCEANIA 
=  3,458,542 
square  miles. 

Dutch  German 
Possess.  Possess. 
151,789        96,160 


British 
Possessions 
3,190,168 
square  miles 


0 


Abyssinia     Tripolis     .,  Ital.  Possess. 

4.'T9  4.^9     aQRQOO    Morocco        "D"  Span. 

4di4d.^     dya.aw    219,000  "T^S^'^S^X"  Possess. 


D    ff 


86.220 


Liberia 

40,000 

D 


'  region  (inhabited) 
.  Possessions 
Greenland 
46,740 

a 


French 
Possess. 
8,744 


British 
Possessions 
(Canada  etc.) 
4,009,001 
square  miles 


AIV)ERICA=15,485,535  square  mifes. 


Argentine 
Republic 
.135,840 


[  '      '     I  J§i2Q5        695.733 


Possess,  of 

the  Unit.  Stat,  independ. 

of  America  Oceania 
6,449  5,232 


Colombia     Venezuela 
470.000        393,976 


D 


Paraguay   Ecuador  Uruguay 
ip204     iiRooo     72^10 


Guatemala  Possess.  Honduras 
48,290      46463      46^50 


French 

Cuba      Possess.  Panama  Costa  Rica  Danish 

44.000      35,222  31,500      18,400  Salvador     Possess. 

U              □  D              D  o   7,225    '    138 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


149 


Trade   With   the    Non-Contiguous 

Territories    of   the 

United  States. 

The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  its 
non-contiguous  territories  continued  to  ex- 
pand, the  figures  of  1912  showing  a  larger 
amount  than  ever  before.  The  value  of  the 
merchandise  forwarded  to  the  non-contiguous 
territories  was:  To  Alaska,  193^  million  dol- 
lars, against  16  million  in  1911:  to  Porto  Rico, 
38J^  million  in  1912,  against  34J^  million  in 
1911;  to  Hawaii,  24  J/^  milUon,  against  22 
million  in  1911;  to  the  Philippine  Islands, 
203^  million,  against  19H  million  in  the  pre- 
ceding year.  This  makes  the  total  value  of 
the  merchandise  shipped  to  the  non-contigu- 
ous territories  of  the  United  States  103  million 
dollars  in  1912,  against  923^  million  in  1911, 
and  83  million  in  1910.  The  merchandise 
entering  the  United  States  from  its  non-con- 
tiguous territories  shows  in  most  cases  larger 
totals  in  1912  than  in  the  preceding  years. 
From  Alaska  the  value  of  such  shipments  was 
21 5i  million  dollars  in  1912,  against  14  million 
in  the  preceding  year;  from  Porto  Rico,  42^ 
million,  against  34^  million  in  1911;  from 
Hawaii,  55  million,  against  41  million  in  1911 ; 
and  from  the  Philippine  Islands,  213^  million, 
against  IQ^  million  in  the  preceding  year. 
This  makes  the  total  value  of  the  merchandise 
shipped  to  the  United  States  from  its  non- 
contiguous territories  141  milUon  dollars  in 
1912,  against  1073^  million  in  1911,  108 
million  in  1910,  and  893^  million  in  1909. 


INDIA 
£48,020,398 


CHI  MA 
214,683,333 
(EXPORTS  onvf) 


CEYLOM 
179,834.46Z 


JAVA 
26,127,110 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


151 


C;opyright,  1913,  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

The  Ambrose  Channel  ia  one-third  the  size  of  the  Panama  Canal;  it  has  been  excavated 
with  one  hundred  and  fifteenth  of  the  number  of  men;  it  is  now'accommodating  more  shipping 
than  will  the  Panama  Canal  in  many  years  to  come. 

THE  AMBROSE  CHANNEL  AS  MEASURED  BY  THE  PANAMA 

CANAL. 


MILESTONES  OF  MARITIME  PROGRESS. 


1833 — Sails  to  wooden  paddles. 
1843— AVood  to  iron  hulls. 
1850 — Paddles  to  screw-propellers. 
1856 — Simple  to  compound  engines. 


1879— Iron  to  steel  hulls. 

1889 — Simple  to  twin-screw. 

1906 — Triple-expansion  to  turbine  engines. 

1907 — Quadruple-screw  propellers. 


152 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


153 


PRINCIPAL  PORTS  OF  THE  WORLD:  Foreign  Commerce  During 
THE  Latest  Year  for  v^^hich  Data  are  Available. 


[Sources:  Official  reports  of  the  respective  countries.) 


Country  and  port. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Total  commerce. 


EUROPE. 

United  Kingdom: 

London  2 , 

Liverpool , 

Hull 

Manchester « 

Southampton 

Glasgow 

Harwich 

Grimsby 

Leith 

Tyne  ports* 

Cardiff. 

Bristol 

Belfast 

Germany: 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Belgium:  Antwerp 

France: 

Marseille 

Havre 

Dunkirk. 

Bordeaux 

Italy:  Genoa 

A  ustria-  Hungary : 

Trieste 

Fiume 

Russia: 

St.  Petersburg 

Riga 

Odessa 

Reval 

Novorossisk 

Vladivostok 

Spain: 

Barcelona 

Bilbao 

AMERICA 

United  Stales: » 

New  York 

New  Orleans 

Galveston 

Boston*.., 

Philadelphia 

Baltimore 

San  Francisco 

Savannah 

Puget  Sound.. 

Canada:  Montreal ' 

Mexico:  5 

Tampico 

Vera  Cruz 

Cuba:  Habana  & 

Argentina:  Buenos  Aires. 
Brazil: 

Santos 

Rio  Janeiro 

Chile: 

Valparaiso 

Iquique 

Uruguay:  Montevideo. . . 


1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 

1911 
1911 
1911 

1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1910 

1911 
1910 

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 

1910 
1910 


1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 

1912 
1912 
1911 
1912 

1911 
1910 

1911 
1911 
1911 


Dollars. 
1,119,238,957 
778, 229, 287 
199,926,677 
158,175,626 
101,052,736 
76,068,987 
109,192,590 
65,912,484 
73,261,366 
47,616,717 
29,280,621 
75,710,603 
39,620,551 

962,925,352 
323,090,469 
594,472,069 

363,669,100 
316,944,400 
182, 808. 600 
95,918,900 
174,837,600 

141,795,166 
25,387,000 

77,154,500 
46,575,482 
28,562,305 
34,086,511 
5,684,472 
24,664,556 

57,688,833 
15, 561, 498 


976,744,320 
75,089,887 
4,309,758 

129,293,016 
85, 038, 185 
26,438,400 
59,235.471 
5,129,979 
39,011,250 

138,291,851 

19,037,493 

36,309,552 

71,219,293 

304,131,043 

64,353.972 
87,257,063 

59,377,274 
10, 209, 782 
43,587.073 


Dollars. 
672, 618, 684 
859,051,189 
147, 799,  722 
105,313,585 
12s, 728, 445 
153,318,323 
38,221,199 
98,540,279 
35,393,539 
50,083,799 
61,648,009 
19.548,419 
6, 250, 986 

711,261,824 
178,056,071 
527, 182, 730 

314,762,200 
214. 152, 200 
30,280.200 
92, 404, 200 
86,249,414 

124  710, 102 
28, 439, 500 

58,783,218 
91,715,878 
41,390.953 
12,899,359 
35, 522. 800 
896, 292 

26,774,964 
10,901,903 


817,945,803 
149,160,910 
218. 146, 097 
69,692,171 
69, 069,  730 
92,210.877 
49, 249, 734 
104,286,925 
63, 745, 572 
74,944,869 

46.192,692 
43.614,581 
43.996.135 
175,405,198 

160. 589. 521 
38, 068, 876 

5,547,320 
23,669.957 
31,430,794 


Dollars. 
1,791,857,641 
1,637,280,476 
347,726,399 
263,489,211 
229, 781, 181 
229,387,310 
147,413,789 
164, 452, 763 
108,654,905 
97,700,516 
90,928,630 
95,259,022 
45,871,537 

1,674,187,176 

501,146,540 

1,121,654,799 

678,431,300 
531,096,600 
213,088,800 
188,323,100 
261,087,014 

206,505,268 
53,826,500 

135,937,718 
138,291,360 
69, 953, 258 
46,985,870 
41,207,272 
25,560,848 

84,463,797 
26,463,401 


,  793, 690, 123 
224, 250, 797 
222, 455, 85^ 
198.985,187 
154,107.915 
118,649.277 
108,485,205 
109,416,904 
102,756.822 
213,236,720 

65,230,185 
79,924,133 
115,215,428 
479,536,241 

224.943,493 
125,325,939 

64,924,594 
33,879,739 
75,017,867 


1  Calendar  years  unless  otherwise  specified  by  nolo. 

2  Including  Queenborough. 
2  Including  Runcorn. 

<  Tyne  ports  comprise  Newcastle,  North  ShieldSj  and  South  Shields. 
6  Years  ended  June  30. 
c  Including  Charlestown. 
f  Years  ended  Mar.  31. 


154 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  PORTS  OF  THE  WORLD:  Vessel  Tonnage  Movement  in 

THE  Foreign  Trade,  during  the  Latest  Year  por  which 

Data  are  Available. 


•[Sources:  Official  reports  of  the  respective  countries.] 


Country  and 
port. 


EUROPE. 

Great  Britain: 

Cardiff 

Hull 

Li\'crpool 

London 

Tyne  ports 

GLispow 

Malta-Valetta2.. 

Gibraltar 

Germany: 

Hamburg 

Bremen 

Bremerliaven , . . 
Denmark:  Copcn- 

liagen 

France: 

Havre 

Cherbourg 

Bordeaux 

Boulogne 

Marseille 

Austria:  Trieste... 
Belgium:  Antwerp 
Netherlands:  Rot- 
terdam  

Italy: 

Genoa 

Naples 

Greece:  Pirieus  ... 
Portugal:  Lisbon. . 
Russia: 

Cronstadt-St. 
Petersburg 

Odessa 

Riga 

Taganrog 

Vladivostok 

Spain: 

Barcelona 

Bilbao  (Vizcaya) 
Turkey:  Constan- 
tinople  


AMERICA. 

United  States:  < 

New  York 

Boston       and 

Cloarlestown  . 

Pliiladelphia... 

Baltimore 

Galveston 

New  Orleans... 


Year. 


1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1912 
1911 

1911 
1911 

1911 

1910 

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1911 
1911 

1911 

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 


1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 

1910 
1910 

1912 


1912 

1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 
1912 


Entered. 


Nri  tons. 
5,520,426 
3,534.964 
7,SS7;719 
H,97.'^,249 
5,954.498 
2,146,512 
4,  119,221 
5,9a5,529 

11,830,949 
1,485,4S7 
1,69(3,538 

3,135,006 

4,028.037 
4,034.061 
2,0(12.188 
2.52:5.146 
8,161,344 
2,031,995 
13, 330, 609 

11,052,186 

4.562,082 
3,303,898 
3,778.371 
4,739,383 


1,897,517 
1,413,157 
1,683,826 
1,189,742 
895,417 

2,464.111 
2, 148, 286 


Cleared. 


Net  tons. 
8,328.047 
3, 185, 290 
6, 880, 271 
9, 004, 974 
6,842,199 
3,418,771 
4,121,509 
5, 800, 634 

11.945,239 
1,437,371 

1,608,388 

3,239,021 

4, 138, 172 
4,031,007 
2, 194, 755 
2.510,454 
S;  186, 315 
2,021,034 
13,325,781 

10, 800. 490 

4,025,097 
3, 296*,  836 
3,776,056 
4,635,960 


1.894,810 
1,354,952 
1,744,846 
1,190,894 
826, 250 

1,615,045 
1,609,378 


3  20,171,06.5 


13,673,765 

2, 948, 244 
2,  700, 193 
1,192,037 
1,025,257 
2,214,681 


13,549,138 

1,872,493 
2, 187, 408 
1,489,406 
1,349,347 
2,360,043 


Country  and 
port. 


A.MER1CA— contd. 

United  States- 
Continued. 

Puget  Sound... 

San  Francisco.. 
Canada: 2 

Montreal 

Vancouver 

Victoria 

Mexico:  *>'•• 

Vera  Cruz 

Tampico 

Argentina:  Bue- 
nos Aires 

Brazil: 

Santos 

Riode  .Janeiro.. 
Cuba:  Habana^.. 

ASIA. 

British  India:  2 

Bombav 

Calcutta 

British  Colonies: 

Hongkong-Vic- 
toria « 

Singapore^* 

Colombo* 

Aden  2,9 

China:  Shanghai  loj 
Japan: 

Yokohama — 

Nagasaki 

Kobe 

Moji 

AFRIC.\. 

Egypt:  Alexan- 
dria  

Union  of  South 
Africa: 

Capo  Town 

Port  Natal 

OCEANl.V. 

Australia:  " 
Melbourne.... 

Sydney 

Fremantlc.... 
Adelaide 


Year.' 


1912 
1912 

1912 
1912 
1912 

1911 
1911 

1908 

1911 
1911 
1911 


1911 
1911 


1911 
1911 
1911 
1912 
1911 

1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 


1911 


1911 
1911 


1911 
1911 
1011 
1911 


Entered. 


Net  tons. 

2, 498. 1.50 
928, 289 

1,702,690 

1.884,846 
1, 874, 102 

925,086 
551,698 

6,981,477 

3, 440. 880 
4.541.820 
3,117,313 


1,829,997 
2,059,652 


10, 246, 622 
7,  737,  785 
7,074,152 
3,594,888 
9,170,309 

3,645,102 
2,418,310 
5,640,946 
4,036,431 


3,443,705 


2,195,902 
3, 078, 7-i5 


550, 259 
991.706 

802,  s*;o 

6S1,3S5 


'  Calendar  years  unless  otherwise  specified  by  note. 

2  Year  ended  Mar.  31. 

3  Total  movement  of  shipping,  excluding  sailing  and  small  coasting  vessels, 
and  clearances  not  available.    Year  ended  Feb.  28. 

■I  Year  ended  June  30. 

'^  Gross  tons. 

«  Excluding  Chinese  junks  engaged  in  the  foreign  trade. 


Separate  data  for  entrances 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


155 


le 

-■■■ 559 

1 

■*66 
oo            19*C«nturu                          i     ... 

The  accompanying  chart  shows  graphically 
the  world's  production  of  gold,  from  the  dis- 
covery  of  America  to   the  close  of   the  year 
1911.     The  horizontal  divisions  of  the  chart 
measure  the  lapse  of  time  by  ten-year  periods. 
The  vertical  divisions  represent  the  value  of 
the  production  in  American  money,  each  divi- 
sion representing  ten  million  dollars.    The  pro- 
duction of  silver  until  its  demonetization  in 
1873  is  also  shown,  superimposed  on  the  gold 
production. 

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THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


NOTES  TO  PRECEDING  PAGE— Continued. 

'  Excluding  warships,  transports,  yachts,  native  craft  and  steam  and  sailing  vessels  under  50  tons,  but 
including  vessels  engaged  in  intersettlement  trade. 

8  Excluding  the  tonnage  of  vessels  that  called  for  the  purpose  of  coaling  and  for  orders  only. 

» Including  native  craft. 

10  Tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared  at  tUe  maritime  customs. 

"  Figures  of  direct  entrances  and  clearances  from  and  to  places  outside  the  Commonwealth. 


156 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PmNCiPAL  Ports  OP  the  World:   Foreign  Commerce  during  the  Latest 
Year  for  which  Data  are  Available— Continued. 


Country  and  port. 


Year. 


Imports. 


Exports. 


Total  commerce. 


China:  Shanghai 
Japan: 

Yokohama... 

Kobe 

British  Colonies: 

Singapore  2. . . 

Calcutta  3.* . 

Bombay  3»  ♦. 


AFRICA. 

Egypt:  Alexandria 

OCEANIA. 


Australia:  & 

Sydney 

Melbourne . 


1911 
1911 

1911 
1911 
1911 


1911 
1911 


Dollars. 
137,571,828 

87,439.734 
127,605,203 

148,556,462 
157.482.211 
153.590,789 


107,698,158 


128.352,288 
101,682,907 


Dollars. 
104, 414, 266 

112,673,238 
69,288,935 

120,944,052 
252,646,619 
204,509.066 


138,477.779 


149.380,512 
87,158,450 


Dollars. 
241,986,094 

200,112.972 
186, 894, 138 

269, 500, 504 
410,128.830 
858,099,855 


146,175,937 


277,732,800 
191,841,357 


1  Direct  foreign  trade,  exclusive  of  reexports. 

2  Exclusive  of  intersettlement  trade. 

3  Years  ended  Mar.  31. 

4  Merchandise  only,  exclusive  of  Govornment  stores. 
*  Exclusive  of  interstate  commerce. 


FRANCE 
1^31,500.000 


ITALY  3PAIM 

340,890.000    416.(16.000 


BRAZIL 
3^,270 


ECUADOR 
31.142 


ST.THOMAS  TRINIDAD 
Cw.AFRicA)  23.260 
30,094 


ALGERIA  AOiTRIA 

181.031,000  HUNGARY 

174.282,000 


PORTtfQAL 
113,300,000 


qERMAMY  „ 

68.931.000  BRIT  W.AFRICA     VENEZUFLA    S.OOMIMijO     QRENAW 
ZZ,&30  17.160  15.057  6,4.62 


WINE, 
(in  gallons.) 


ONE  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 


COCOA. 
(in  tons.) 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


157 


GOLD: 


Values    of    Imports    and    Exports    and     Annual    Excess    of 
Imports  or  Exports,  1862  to  1912.^ 


Year 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Excess  of — 

June 
30— 

Domestic.2 

Foreign. 

Total. 

Exports  over 
imports. 

Imports  over 
exports. 

1862  .  . 

Dollars. 
31,044,651. 
28,580,609 
1,775,039 
13,403,632 
46,693,893 
114,569,714 
21,810,820 
53,495,479 

Dollars. 
4,395,252 
5,055,353 
1,863,986 
3,870,859 
1,572,866 
3,993,501 
698,833 
3,832,869 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 
13,907,011 
12,056,950 
80,758,396 
12,943,342 
44,573,184 
43,339,905 
73,607,013 
48.936,500 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

1870..  . 

33,635,962 
3,639,025 
17,274,491 
48,266,759 
118,563,215 
22,509,653 
57.328,348 

21,579,012 

1880..  . 

77,119.371 

1890  .  . 

4,331.149 

3,693,575 

75,223,310 

1900 

1910..  . 

1911  .    . 

51,097,360 

1912. 

8,391,848 

^The  figures  relate  to  coin  and  bullion  only  prior  to  1895;  subsequently  they  include  ore  also. 

^Gold  and  silver  cannot  be  separately  stated  in  domestic  exports  prior  to  1864,  but  it  is 
probable  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  exports  was  gold,  under  which  head  the  silver  in  question 
is  included. 


BRITISH  UU5      I2I,3S0  5Q.« 
BRITISH  tHFIht  11,908.376  ■• 


Mii\A  m  CUROrf  t.U(,743S4Jt 
RUSSIAH  ItiFmi  d.647,«57   " 


BRITISH   EMPlRf     RUJJIAM   IMP.    UMITfD  STATES 
S9A.9tA.905  IS2.009.300    I.  POSSESSIOriS 

BRITISH    ISLBS      KVSSIA  mruROPE    100,  |M, 059 
■AS,Zie,,7-AI  111,279.500      UninDSTXTfS 

91,272,266 


fRAtiCt  ZOIOSA        '.mMl.5il.^Z0Xn.     UMITCD  STATED 

WITH  roSJEiJIONi       CHINESE  EMPIRE        2.970.250  SQ.M. 

4,383.160  Sft.M.       4.277. I70  S,M.         WITH  POJJeJJIoni 

3,639.130  S^.M 


ss 

32 

T- 

o^ 

tS2 

a>*^ 

fij 

s;i 

om' 

ic 

>*▼ 

O  M 

1 

1 

Hi 

Sir 

£^ 

«< 

2  o: 

iJr 

£u. 

tsvr 

II 

•fir  s«  '•)"  2^  «"S'^'^, 


S3  Is  5i  11  llli 

Qx     b:k   --   ns)  «ninS£ 


"     f 


Q   H 


TIUKty  65^,550      ^fHflAHY  BfUlWM  POftn/aAU 

TURKISH  CTri«      208.730  11.373  35.430 

1,565,020  S.«        «.£HPI«E  WITH  COItW  P0RTO«UESE 

).236.600  J2I.027  fl3d.W 


H    S     B    i^ 


a 


NOLIAHO 

ITALY 

SPAirt 

JAPAN 

OEHMAKK 

12.648 

110.659 

194.783 

147:655 

15.592 

DUTCH 

ITAtlAfl 

SPAni5H 

JAFAnae 

OAHISH 

795,311 

32V53 

27^.363 

161.  SAO 

102.230 

HOME  AND  COLONIAL  POPULATIONS  AND  AREAS  OF  THE 
WORLD'S  EMPIRES. 


158 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SILVER:  Values  of  Imports  and  Exports  and  Annual  Excess  Exports 
OVER  Imports,  1862  to  1912.^ 


Year  ended 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Excess  of 

June  30 — 

Domestic.2 

Foreign. 

Total. 

imports. 

1862 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 
1,447.737 
9,216.511 
5,931,040 
12,495,372 
4,247,930 
2,192,294 
4,681.033 
6,368,297 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

2.508.041 
14,362.229 
12.257.914 
21.032,984 
35,256,302 
45,217,194 
45,937,249 
47,050,219 

Dollars. 

1870 

15,303,193 
7,572,854 
22,378,557 
52,464,345 
53,094,567 
60,068,925 
58,522.368 

24,519.704 
13,503,894 
34.873,929 
56.712.275 
55,286,861 
64,749,958 
64.890.665 

10,157,475 

1880 

1,227,980 

1890 

13,840.945 

1900 

21.455,973 

1910 .    . 

10,069.667 

1911 

18,812,709 

1912 

17,840.446 

'The  figures  relate  to  coin  and  bullion  only  prior  to  1895;  subsequently  they  include  ore  also. 

^Gold  and  silver  can  not  be  separately  stated  in  domestic  exports  prior  to  1864,  but  it  is 
probable  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  exports  was  gold,  under  which  head  the  silver  in  question 
is  included. 


CopyrlgM,  1913,  bv  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


159 


FAILURES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


MANUFACTURERS. 


Number 


Liabilities 


1911. 


1912. 


1911. 


1912. 


Iron,  Foundries  and  Nails 

Machinery  and  Tools 

Woolens,  Carpets  and  Knit  Goods 

Cottons,  Lace  and  Hosiery 

Lumber,  Carpenters  and  Coopers . . 

Clothing  and  Millinery 

Hats,  Gloves  and  Furs 

Chemicals  and  Drugs 

Paints  and  Oils 

Printing  and  Engraving 

Milling  and  Bakers 

Leather,  Shoes  and  Harness 

Liquors  and  Tobacco 

Glass,  Earthenware  and  Bricks. . . 
All  Other 

Total  Manufacturing 

TRADERS. 

General  Stores 

Groceries,  Meat  and  Fish 

Hotels  and  Restaurants 

Liquors  and  Tobacco 

Clothing  and  Furnishings 

Dry  Goods  and  Carpets 

Shoes,  Rubbers  and  Trunks 

Furniture  and  Crockery 

Hardware,  Stoves  and  Tools 

Chemicals  and  Drugs 

Paints  and  Oils 

Jewelry  and  Clocks 

Books  and  Papers 

Hats,  Furs  and  Gloves 

All  Other 

Total  Trading 

Brokers  and  Transporters 

Total  Commercial 

Banking 


61 

173 

53 

36 

416 

497 

68 

15 

26 

172 

218 

79 

105 

127 

1,455 


3,502 


1,380 

2,134 
486 
747 

1,036 

671 

349 

287 

302 

361 

57 

296 

90 

62 

1,222 


9,480 
459 


13,441 
107 


80 

233 

35 

33 

421 

647 

98 

37 

13 

173 

292 

113 

115 

121 

,428 


3,839 


1,777 

2,597 
501 
819 

1,121 

786 

411 

316 

287 

430 

62 

385 

99 

75 

1,345 


[1,011 
602 


15,452 
79 


$5,056,635 
6,689,566 
4,329,758 
3,590,816 

16,000,205 
4,509,586 
978,002 
105,623 
1,051,212 
2,448,366 
1,264,511 
1,577,919 
2,451,589 
3,972,382 

33,345,453 


$87,371,623 


$10,977,030 

9,543,008 

3,762,792 

4,268,965 

10,015,849 

11,320,606 

2,461,699 

2,877,533 

3,401,792 

1,943,546 

438,667 

3,270,182 

951,147 

886,204 

18,117,659 


$84,239,679 
19,450,363 


$6,995,098 
9,960,268 
1,690,099 
1,057,689 

12,971,002 
8,375,053 
2,025,258 
625,684 
286,158 
1,788.198 
1,578,773 
2,779,922 
3,224,162 
6,531,-565 

26,830,903 


$86,719,832 


$12,760,623 

13,162,922 

5,399,706 

5,234,609 

9,790,491 

9,443,253 

3,330,470 

2,535,861 

3.459,410 

2,664,716 

386,435 

4,080,816 

865,880 

693,260 

17,971,513 

$91,779,965 
24,617,594 


$191,061,665 
25,511,606 


$203,117,391 
24,219,522 


Year. 

No. 

Liabilities. 

Year. 

No. 

Liabilities. 

Year. 

No. 

Liabilities. 

1870 

3,546 

$88,242,000 

1885 

10,637 

124,220,321 

1900 

10,774 

$138,495,673 

1871 

2,915 

85,252,000 

1886 

9,834 

114,644,119 

1901 

11,002 

113,092,376 

1872 

4,069 

121,056,000 

1887 

9,634 

167,560,944 

1902 

11,615 

117,476.769 

1873 

5,183 

228,499,900 

1888 

10,679 

123,829,973 

1903 

12,069 

155,444,185 

1874 

5,830 

155,239,000 

1889 

10,882 

148,784,337 

1904 

12,199 

144,202,311 

1875 

7,740 

201,000,000 

1890 

10,907 

189,856,964 

1905 

11,520 

102,676,172 

1876 

9,092 

191,117,000 

1891 

12,273 

189,868,638 

1906 

10,682 

119,201,515 

1877 

8,872 

190,669,936 

1892 

10,344 

114,044,167 

1907 

11,725 

197,385,225 

1878 

10,478 

234,383,132 

1893 

15,242 

346,779,889 

1908 

15,690 

222,315,684 

1879 

6,658 

98,149,053 

1894 

13,885 

172,992,856 

1909 

15.924 

154,603,465 

1880 

4,735 

65,752,000 

1895 

13,197 

173,196,060 

1910 

12,652 

201,757,097 

1881 

5,582 

81,155,932 

1896 

15,088 

226,096,834 

1911 

13,441 

191,061,665 

1882 

6,738 

101,547,564 

1897 

13,351 

154,332,071 

1912 

15,452 

203,117,391 

1883 

9,184 

172,874,172 

1898 

12,186 

130.662,899 

1884 

10.968 

226.343,427 

1899 

9,337 

90,879,889 

Courtesy  of  Dun's  Review. 


COINAGE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  MINTS. 


The  total  coinage  of  gold  in  the  United 
States  mints  for  the  year  ending  December 
31,  1912  was  $17,498,522.50;  the  total  coin- 
age of  silver  for  the  same  period  amounted  to 


$7,340,995.00  and  the  total  coinage  of  minor 
metals  to  $2,577,386.30.  Thus  the  total 
coinage  of  the  United  States  Mints  amounted 
to  $27,416,903.80. 


160 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRICES  OF  THE  LEADING  ARTICLES  OF  GRAIN,  GROCERIES  AND 

PROVISIONS  IN  NEW  YORK  MARKET. 

other  figures,  Mr. 


[Sources: 


Coffee,  Mr.  Louis  Seligsberg,  New  York ;  Sugar,  Messrs.  Willett  &  Gray; 
Henry  Heinzer,  statistician.  New  York  Produce  ExcJiangc] 


of  S 
d  u 

II 

a" 

8 

8 

8^ 

1 
i 

1 

1 
I- 

M 

1 

1 

1 

Coffee. 

Sugar. 

Calendar 
year. 

2S 

All 

it 
=11 

1 
1 

ST3 

11 
"1 

It 

< 

ll 

tt 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894.. 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901....... 

1902 

1903....... 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

19r2 

DoUs. 

1.094 
.908 
.739 
.611 
.669 
.781 
.954 
.952 
.794 
.804 
.803 
.836 
.853 

1.107 

1.028 
,865 
.963 

l:^ 

1.118 

.963 

1.091 

Cents. 
70.4 
54.0 
49.9 
60.9 
47.7 
S4.0 
31.9 
37.6 
41.8 
46.3 
56.7 
68.4 
57.2 
59.4 
59.8 
56.0 
64.0 
78.6 
76.7 
66.8 
71.1 
(») 

Cents. 
46.0 
36.3 
85.9 
37.2 
28.9 
23.3 
23.2 
29.7 
80.7 
27.3 
36.6 
44.9 
41.1 
42.0 
85.0 
88.0 
49.6 
64.5 
61.4 

V4.5.'7" 
66.4 

Cents. 
6.59 
7.69 

10.34 
7:75 
6.50 
4.67 
4.42 
6.53 
6.57 
7.05 
8.87 

10.59 
8.81 
7.32 
7.44 
8.88 
9.20 
9.08 

11.68 

12.52 
9.11 

10.51 

Dolls. 
8.35 
6.86 
8.17 
S.16 
8.09 
7.51 
7.71 
9.16 
9.26 
9.73 
9.32 
11.75 
9.03 
8.82 
10.02 
8.85 
9.83 
13.20 
11.09 
14.64 
12.92 
15.80 

Dolls. 
11.38 
11.52 
18.35 
14.13 
11.91 
8.95 
8.86 
9.82 
9.35 
12.48 
15.62 
17.94 
16.50 
14.01 
14.43 
17. 55 
17.61 
15.93 
21.34 
23.72 
19.12 
19.33 

Cents. 
4.81 
4.62 
5.44 
4.81 
4.33 
8.44 
8.31 
3.56 
4.54 
4.84 
6.25 
B  31 
6.06 
4.60 
4.50 
5.31 
6.25 
6.60 
6.00 
7.25 
6.60 
6.13 

Cents. 
17.80 
15.83 
18.82 
17.81 
17.80 
15.05 
11.96 
8.00 
7.45 
9.60 
8.60 
6.75 
6. 75 
8.80 
9.15 
9.25 
8.85 
7.85 
8.75 
10.15 
14.85 
16.60 

Cents. 
16.40 
14.43 
17.42 
16.41 
15.80 
12.15 
9.80 
6.80 
6.25 
8.30 
7.38 
6.66 
6.50 
7.70 
8.25 
8.10 
6.60 
6.25 
7.85 
9.60 
13.25 
14.45 

Cents. 
24.50 
26.37 
24.23 
23.25 
26.60 
23.44 
24.00 
24.00 
24.00 
22.00 

n.oo 

16.00 
15.75 
15.00 
15.00 
14.50 
16.50 
18.60 
18.00 
18.00 
18.75 
18.75 

Cents. 
3.92 
3.32 
3.69 
3.24 
3.23 
3.62 
3.56 
4.24 
4.42 
4.57 
4.05 
3.64 
3.72 
3.97 
4.28 
3.69 
3.76 
4.07 
4.00 
4.19 
4.453 
4.162 

Cents. 
4.47 
4.21 
4.72 
4.00 
4.00 
4.41 
4.88 
4.84 
4.80 
6.12 
4.85 
4.27 
4.48 
4.62 
6.11 
4.37 
4,46 
4.76 
4.56 
4.77 
6.145 
4.891 

Cents. 
4.65 
4.35 
4.84 
4.12 
4.12 
4.53 
4.60 
4.97 
4.92 
6.32 
6.05 
4.46 
4.64 
4.77 
5.26 
4.52 
4.65 
4.96 
4.76 
4-97 
6.345 
5.041 

No.  3,  Exchange  standard. 


*No.2Avhiteoats. 


«  Nominal. 


ESTIMATED  STOCK  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  June  30,  1912, 
the  population  of  the  United  States  was 
95,656,000,  against  76,891,000  in  1900, 
62,622,250  in  1890,  50,155,783  in  1880,  and 
41,677,000  in  1873.  The  total  stock  of  gold 
coin  and  bullion  in  1912  was  $1,812,856,241 
against  $1,034,439,264  in  1900,  $695,563,029 
in  1890,  $351,841,206  in  1880,  and  $135,000,- 
000  in  1873.  The  total  stock  of  silver  coin 
and  bullion  in  1912  amounted  to  $741,184,095 


against  $647,371,030  in  1900,  $463,211,919 
in  1890,  $148,522,678  in  1880,  and  $6,149,305 
in  1873.  The  amount  of  gold  per  capita  in 
the  United  States  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year 
June  30,  1912,  was  $18.95,  against  $13.45  in 
1900,  $11.10  in  1890,  $7.01  in  1880,  and 
$3.23  in  1873.  At  the  end  of  this  same  period 
the  supply  of  silver  per  capita  was  $7.75, 
against  $8.42  in  1900,  $7.39  in  1890,  $2.96  in 
1880,  and  $0.15  in  1873. 


RESOURCES  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  NATIONAL  BANKS  IN   1912. 


The  resources  of  the  7,397  National  Banks 
in  the  United  States  on  September  4,  1912, 
which  amounted  to  a  grand  total  of  10,963.4 
milUon  dollars,  were  derived  from  the  follow- 
ing sources:  Loans  and  discounts,  including 
overdrafts,  6,061.0  miUion  dollars;  bonds  for 
circulation  724.0  milUons;  other  United 
States  bonds  and  other  bonds  for  deposits 
78.7  millions;  bonds,  securities,  etc.,  1,039.9 
millions;  due  from  banks  and  reserve  agents 
1,453.0  millions;  real  estate,  banking  house, 
etc.,  268.5  millions;  specie,  713.4  miUions; 
legal-tender  notes  182.5  millions;  bills  of  other 


banks,  48.5  millions;  clearing-house  ex- 
changes 296.0  millions;  due  from  United 
States  Treasurer  41.9  millions;  other  resources 
56.0  millions. 

Their  liabilities  for  the  same  period, 
totaling  10,963.4  million  dollars,  were  as 
follows:  Capital  stock  1,046.0  millions;  sur- 
plus  fund    701.0   millions;    undivided   profits 

242.7  millions;     national     bank     circulation 

713.8  millions;  individual  deposits  5,891.6 
millions;  due  to  banks  and  reserve  agents 
2,177.4  millions;  other  liabilities  190.0  millions. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


161 


Relative  Prices  of  Commodities,  1890  to  1911,  by  Groups 


Relative  Price 

in.lSOO  to  1899-100 

Year  or 
Month 

Farm 
Products 

Food, 
etc. 

Cloths 

and 
Clothing 

Fuel 

and 

Lighting 

Metals 
and  Im- 
plements 

Lumber 

and 
Building 
Material 

House 
Furnish- 
ng  Goods 

Miscel- 
laneous 

1890 

110.0 
121.5 
111.7 
107.9 
95.9 
93.3 
78.3 
85.2 
96.1 
100.0 
109.5 
116.9 
130.5 
118.8 
126.2 
124.2 
123.6 
137.1 
133.1 
•153.1 
164.6 
162.0 

112.4 
115.7 
103.6 
110.2 
99.8 
94.6 
83.8 
87.7 
94.4 
98.3 
104.2 
105.9 
111.3 
107.1 
107.2 
108.7 
112.6 
117.8 
120.6 
124.7 
128.7 
131.3 

113.5 
111.3 

109.0 
107.2 
96.1 
92.7 
91.3 
91.1 
93.4 
96.7 
106.8 
101.0 
102.0 
106.6 
109.8 
112.0 
120.0 
126.7 
116.9 
119.6 
123.7 
119.6 

104.7 
102.7 
101.1 
100.0 
92.4 
98.1 
104.3 
96.4 
95.4 
105.0 
120.9 
119.5 
134.3 
149.3 
132.6 
128.8 
131.9 
135.0 
130.8 
129.3 
125.4 
122.4 

119.2 
111.7 
106.0 
100.7 
90.7 
92.0 
93.7 
86.6 
86.4 
114.7 
120.5 
111.9 
117.2 
117.6 
109.6 
122.5 
135.2 
143.4 
125.4 
124.8 
128.5 
119.4 

111.0 
108.4 
.102.8 
101.9 
96.3 
94.1 
93.4 
90.4 
95.8 
105.8 
115.7 
116.7 
118.8 
121.4 
122.7 
127.7 
140.1 
146.9 
133.1 
138.4 
153.2 
151.9 

111.1 
110.2 
106.5 
104.9 
100.1 
96.5 
94.0 
89.8 
92.0 
95.1 
106.1 
110.9 
112.2 
113.0 
111.7 
109.1 
111.0 
-  118.5 
114.0 
111.7 
111.6 
111.1 

110.3 

1891 

109.4 

1892 

106  2 

1893 

105.9 

1894 

99.8 

1895 

94  5 

1896 

91.4 

1897 

92.1 

1898 

92.4 

1899 

97  7 

1900 

109.8 

1901 

107.4 

1902 

114.1 

1903 

113.6 

1904 

111.7 

1905 

112.8 

1906 

121.1 

1907     ...     . 

127.1 

1908 

119.9 

1909 

125.9 

1910  

133.1 

19U 

131.2 

CASUALTY  AND  SURETY  INSURANCE 
BUSINESS  IN  1911. 

The  Dusiness  of  Companies  doing  a  miscel- 
laneoas  insurance  business  in  the  United 
States  during  the  year  1911  was  divided  as 
follows:  Automobile  business,  $2,676,767 
received  from  premiums,  $1,129,193  paid  for 
losses;  burglary,  $2,850,344  received  from 
premiums,  $1,110,978  paid  for  losses;  credit, 
$1,752,582  received  from  premiums,  $1,056,- 
133  paid  for  losses;  fidelity  and  surety, 
$16,958,051  received  from  premiums,  $4,980,- 
430  paid  for  losses;  health,  $7,101,666  re- 
ceived from  premiums,  $3,314,301  paid  for 
losses;  liability,  $35,201,753  received  from 
premiums,  $20,341,029  paid  for  losses; 
personal  accident,  $27,351,626  received  from 
premiums,  $11,837,347  paid  for  losses;  plate 
glass,  $3,960,546  received  from  premiums, 
$1,714,236  paid  for  losses;  steam  boiler, 
$2,246,225  received  from  premiums,  $282,338 
paid  for  losses;  sprinkler  business,  $178,016 
received  from  premiums,  $73,438  paid  for 
losses;  flywheel,  $184,514  received  from 
premiums,  $75,704  paid  for  losses;  live  stock, 
$572,564  received  from  premiums,  $267,315 
paid  for  losses;  workmen's  collective,  $711,726 
received  from  premiums,  $306,433  paid  for 
Courtesy  Spectator  Ins.  Year  Book. 


The  first  fire  insurance  company  in  the 
United  States  was  established  in  Bo.ston,  Mass. 
by  the  Sun  Insurance  Company  j(English)  in 
1728.  The  first  fire  insurance  policy  was  issued 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  1794.  First  accident  in- 
surance company  established  at  Hartford, 
C5onn.,  1863. 


Gold   and    Silver    Currency    and 

Total  Money  in  the  Treasury 

AND  IN  Circulation. 

At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1912  the  gold 
in  the  United  States  was  divided  as  follows: 
Coin  and  bulUon  in  the  Treasury  $264,028,- 
646,  and  in  circulation  $610,724,154;  certifi- 
cates in  circulation  $943,435,618.  Thus  the 
total  amount  of  gold  coin,  bulUon  and  certifi- 
cates in  the  United  States  was  $1,818,188,418. 

The  silver  of  the  United  States,  for  the  same 
year,  was  divided  as  follows:  Standard  dollars 
in  the  Treasury  $25,785,046,  and  in  circula- 
tion $70,339,574;  certificates  in  circulation 
$469,224,400;  subsidiary  coin  in  the  Treasury 
$25,554,007  and  in  circulation  $145,034,198. 
Thus  the  total  standard  dollars  and  certifi- 
cates in  the  Treasury  and  in  circulation 
amounted  to  $565,349,020,  and  the  amount 
of  subsidiary  coin  to  $170,588,205. 

Aggregate  Savings  Deposits  of 
Savings  Banks,  Number  of  De- 
positors, AND  Average  Amount 
Due  to  Each  Depositor:  Year 
Ended  June  30,  1912. 

At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1912  there  were 
1,922  Savings  Banks  in  the  United  States. 
(This  includes  only  mutual  and  stock  savings 
banks  transacting  chiefly  a  savings  bank 
business)  and  thev  had  depositors  to  the 
number  of  10,010,304.  The  total  amount  of 
the  deposits  for  the  year  was  $4,451,818,522.- 
88  or  an  average  deposit  to  each  depositor  of 
$444.72. 


162 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  NORTH  AMERICA, 


HIGHEST  AND  LOWEST  CONTINENTAL  ALTITUDES. 

In  order  to  compare  the.elevations  in  the  United  States  with  those  in  foreign  countries  the  following' 
list  is  given,  hut  many  of  the  figures  must  be  considered  as  approximate  only: 


HIGHEST  POINT. 

LOWEST  POINT. 

N*M». 

<r*iT). 

Namx. 

Biiow  Sea 
Level 

(MET). 

North  America 

South  America 

20,800 
23, 080 
15, 782 
29,002 
19, 320 
7,328 

Death  Valley,  California 

276 

Mount  Aconcagua,  Chile- Argentina 

Sea  level 

Caapian  Sea,  Russia 

86 

1,290 

150 

26 

Asia 

Africa 

Kibo  Peak,  German  East  Africa 

Mount  Kosciusko,  New  South  Wales  ... 

Desert  of  Sahara  ... 

Australia 

Lake  Torrens,  South  Australia  — 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


163 


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SCIBNTIFIO  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


165 


so  80 


60  )*:o-        ■f'O  30  X.0  M 


130        no        110        fOO        00         so       70        60       SOmO^O        30        /lO        iO  O  ffBMKff 

PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


Ocean  Makine  Insurance. 

Twenty-nine  marine  insurance  companies 
reporting  to  the  New  York  State  Insurance 
Department  had  on  January  1,  1913  assets 
of  $37,742,590,  surplus  of  $17,634,538,  and 
premiums  earned  in  preceding  year  $15,849,- 
322,  losses  incurred  $8,496,570,  risks  written 
to  policy  holders  $12,226,276,614. 


The  first  savings  banks  in  the  United  States 
were  established  at  Boston  and  Philadelphia 
in  1816  and  in  New  York  in  1819.  The  postal 
savings  bank  system  was  established  by  an 
Act  of  Congress  June  25,  1910,  and  on  Jan.  3, 
1911  one  city  in  each  state  was  selected  for 
the  opening  of  the  first  postal  savings  banks.. 


166 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NOTABLE  CONFLAGRATIONS  IN  THE  WORLD'S  HISTORY. 

From  "The  Insurance  Year  Book,"  reprinted  by  permission  of  "The  Spectator  Company," 

New  York  and  Chicago. 

Eveh  before  man  began  to  congregate  and  build  cities,  there  existed  the  danger  of  prairie 
and  forest  fires;  but  these,  except  in  a  minor  way,  were  not  especially  destructive  oi^other 
property.  When  cities  had  been  built  and  many  thousands  of  people  came  to  be  housed  within 
a  small  area,  the  danger  of  fire  and  its  capacity  for  doing  harm  to  men  and  their  property  were 
greatly  augmented;  and  as  cities  increased  in  size,  the  fire  hazard  and  the  accumulated  values 
subject  to  destruction  were  both  correspondingly  multipUed.  During  the  last  four  thousand 
years  many  cities  have  been  swept  by  fire,  some  of  them  several  times;  and  some  have  been 
practically  obliterated.  Below  will  be  found  a  list,  compiled  from  various  sources,  of  some 
of  the  more  important  fires  of  history,  comprising  those  most  notable  because  of  the  values  or 
lives  destroyed,  or  for  some  peculiar  reason: 


Year. 

Location. 

Year. 

Location. 

Year. 

Location. 

B.C. 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

1897 

Sodom    and    Gomorrah 

1123 

Lincoln 

1737 

Moscow 

1400 

Jerusalem 

1130 

Rochester 

1737 

Jaroslaw 

1141 

Ephesus 

1135 

London 

1738 

Martinique 

586 

Jerusalem 

1137 

York 

1742 

Smyrna 

480 

Plataea 

1137 

Bath 

1744 

Brest 

497 

Athens 

1140 

Nottingham 

1745 

Constantinople 

390 

Rome 

1171 

Canterbury 

1748 

Moscow 

241 

Rome 

1171 

Cairo 

1749 

Constantinople 

215 

Rome 

1189 

Carlisle 

1750 

Constantinople 

212 

Rome 

1190 

Dublin 

1750 

Moscow 

146 

Corinth 

1203 

Constantinople 

1751 

Constantinople 

50 

Rome 

1204 

Doncaster 

1752 

Moscow 

48 

Alexandria 

1215 

Bruges 

1753 

Smyrna 

13-14 

Rome 

1283 

Dublin 

1753 

Archangel 

12 

Rome 

1292 

Carlisle 

1756 

Berghen 

A.  D. 

1299 

Westminster 

1756 

Constantinople 

59 

Lyons 

1321 

Geneva 

1758 

Savannah 

64 

Rome 

1327 

Munich 

1759 

Salonica 

70 

Jerusalem 

1333 

Geneva 

1760 

Boston 

80 

Rome 

1349 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne 

1764 

Konigsberg 

154 

Rome 

1385 

Edinburgh 

1765 

Belgrade 

154 

Antioch 

1388 

Dunkirk 

1769 

Konigsberg 

188 

Rome 

1401 

Edinburgh 

1769 

Constantinople 

197 

Lyons 

1405 

Berne 

1769 

St.     John's 

260 

Bordeaux 

1405 

Brussels 

1771 

Constantinople 

273 

Alexandria 

1430 

Geneva 

1771 

St.    Petersburg 

393 

Constantinople 

1471 

Chester 

1772 

Smyrna 

465 

Constantinople 

1491 

Dresden 

1773 

Moscow 

532 

Constantinople 

1507 

Norwich 

1775 

Limehouse 

558 

Paris 

1512 

Brest 

1775 

St.    George 

640 

Alexandria 

1542 

Edinburgh 

1776 

St.     Kitts 

667 

Rochester 

1544 

Edinburgh 

1776 

New    York 

741 

York    Minster 

1570 

Moscow 

1777 

New    Orleans 

781 

Constantinople 

1576 

Antwerp 

1778 

Charleston 

798 

London 

1612 

Cork 

1778 

New    York 

802-7 

Constantinople 

1631 

Magdeburg 

1778 

Constantinople 

807 

Peterborough 

1633 

Constantinople 

1780 

St.    Petersburg 

893 

London 

1656 

Jeddo 

1780 

St.    Petersburg 

917 

Cordova 

1666 

London 

1782 

Constantinople 

978 

Cork 

1667 

Archangel 

1782 

Constantinople 

982 

London 

1675 

Northampton 

1784 

Port-au-Prince 

1004 

Norwich 

1676 

Southwark 

1784 

Brest 

1010 

Northampton 

1682 

Wapping,    London 

1784 

Constantinople 

1013 

Cork 

1689 

Prague 

1784 

Rokitzan,     Bohemia 

1069 

York 

1692 

Salem 

1790 

Carlscrona 

1086 

London 

1694 

Warwick 

1791 

Constantinople 

1087 

London 

1694 

Dieppe 

1792 

Constantinople 

1092 

London 

1700 

Charleston 

1793 

Archange) 

1102 

Winchester 

1702 

Bergen 

1794 

Copenhagen 

1106 

Venice 

1728 

Copenhagen 

1794 

Wapping,     London 

1113 

Mons 

1729 

Constantinople 

1795 

Copenhagen 

1113 

Worcester 

1731 

Baireuth 

1795 

Constantinople 

1116 

Bath 

1736 

Peasmore 

1796 

Smyrna 

1118 

Nantes 

1737 

Panama 

1796 

Barbados 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


167 


Year 

Location. 

Year. 

Location. 

Year. 

Location. 

A.  D 

A.  D 

A.  D 

1796 

Baltimore 

1862 

St.    Petersburg 

1897 

London 

1797 

Scutari 

1862 

Marseilles 

1897 

Paris 

1798 

Wilmington 

1862 

Constantinople 

1898 

Nijni- Novgorod 

1799 

Peru 

1863 

Monastir 

1899 

Philadelphia 

1799 

Constantinople 

1864 

Georgetown 

1900 

Hoboken 

1799 

Manila 

1864 

Hankow 

1900 

Bayonne 

1802 

Liverpool 

1865 

Port-au-Prince 

1900 

Ottawa-Hull,     Canada 

1803 

Bombay 

1865 

New    York 

1901 

Jacksonville 

1805 

St.     Thomas 

1865 

Constantinople 

1901 

Antwerp 

1808 

Spanish     T'n,     Trinidad 

1865 

Manila 

1901 

Montreal 

1811 

Smyrna 

1866 

London 

1902 

Paterson 

1812 

Moscow 

1866 

Portland,    Me. 

1902 

Waterbury 

1814 

Rangoon 

1866 

Quebec 

1904 

Baltimore 

1816 

Constantinople 

1866 

Yokahama 

1904 

Aesland,     Norway 

1817 

Pt.     Louis,     Mauritius 

1868 

Charleston,    S.    C. 

1904 

Toronto 

1818 

Constantinople 

1868 

Albany,    N.    Y. 

1904 

Halifax 

1820 

Canton 

1869 

Philadelphia 

1904 

Rochester 

1820 

Savannah,    Ga. 

1870 

Constantinople 

1905 

New    Orleans 

1820 

Paris 

1870 

Pera,     Turkey 

1906 

San    Francisco 

1820 

Port-au-Prince 

1870 

Sam-Sun,     Turkey 

1906 

Valparaiso,     Chile 

1821 

Paramaribo 

1870 

Chicago 

1906 

Wellington,    N.    Z. 

1822 

Canton 

1871 

Chicago 

1907 

Iquique,     Chile 

1824 

Cairo 

1872 

Constantinople 

1907 

Hakodate,     Japan 

1825 

New    Brunswick 

1872 

Boston 

1907 

Kingston,    Jamaica 

1826 

St.    John's,    N.    F. 

1873 

Alexandra    Palace,     Lon- 

1908 

Chelsea,    Mass. 

1826 

Constantinople 

don 

1908 

Noda    Soy,    Japan 

1827 

Abo,     Finland 

1873 

Havana 

1908 

Niigata,    Japan 

1831 

Constantinople 

1874 

Constantinople 

1908 

Chisholm,    Minn. 

1831 

Bristol 

1874 

Pimlico,     London 

1908 

Port-au-Prince,    Haytl 

1831 

St.     Thomas,     W.     I. 

1874 

Chicago 

1908 

Paris,     France 

1838 

Manila 

1875 

Oshkosh 

1908 

El    Oro,    Mexico 

1833 

Constantinople 

1875 

Virginia   City 

1908 

Rostov-on-Don,     Russia 

1834 

Houses      of      Parliament, 

1875 

Iquique 

1909 

Acapulco,     Mexico 

London 

1876 

St.     John's 

1909 

Osaka,    Japan 

1835 

New    York 

1876 

Soderhamn,    Sweden 

1909 

Valdivia,  Chile 

1836 

Constantinople 

1876 

Quebec 

1909 

London,     England 

1837 

Surat 

1876 

St.    Hyacinth 

1910 

Campbellton,    N.    B. 

1837 

St.    Petersburg 

1877 

St.    John,    N.    B. 

1910 

Wajima,    Japan 

1837 

Naples 

1877 

Pittsburgh 

1910 

Brussels,     Belgium 

1838 

Charlestown 

1879 

Irkutsk,    Siberia 

1910 

U.    S.    and    Canada    for- 

1839 

New   York 

1879 

New    York 

est    fires 

1841 

Smyrna 

1879 

Boston 

1911 

Santiago,    Chile 

1842 

Hamburg 

1882 

Kingston,    Jamaica 

1911 

Aux    Cayes,    Hayti 

1842 

Liverpool 

1882 

Leadville,  Colorado 

1911 

Tokio,     Japan 

1845 

Quebec 

1882 

Wood     Street,     London 

1911 

Yamagata,     Japan 

1845 
1845 
1846 

Smyrna 

New    York 

St.    John's,    N.    F. 

1883 
1884 
1885 

Vienna 

Bayswater.    London 

Aspinwall 

1911 
1911 

Bangor,    Me. 

N.    Y.,    "Triangle" 

1846 

Albany 

1887 

Paris 

1911 

Albany,    N.    Y. 

1848 

Orel,    Russia 

1887 

Exeter,    England 

1911 

Kirin,    Manchuria 

1848 

Constantinople 

1888 

SundsvalJ 

1911 

Constantinople 

1848 

Albany,    N.    Y. 

1889 

Seattle 

1911 

Hankow,    China 

1849 

St.    Louis 

1889 

New    York 

1911 

Nanking,    China 

1851 

San     Francisco 

1889 

Spokane 

1912 

Peking,    China 

1853 

Montreal 

1889 

Boston 

1912 

Osaka,  Japan 

1852 

Sacramento  City 

1889 

Lynn 

1912 

N.     Y.,     "Equitable" 

1853. 

Constantinople 

1890 

Fort    de    France, 

1912 

Valdivia,  Ctile 

1854 

Gateshead 

Martinique 

1912 

Tien-Tsin,     China 

1858 

Astrakan 

1890 

Sydney 

1912 

Pao    Ting    Fu,    China 

1858 
1858 
1859 
1859 

Valparaiso 
Auckland 
Key    West 
St.    Louis 

1892 
1892 
1892 

New    Orleans 
New   Orleans 
Tokio 

1912 
1912 
1912 

Tokio,    Japan 
Damascus,    Syria 
Constantinople 

1859 
1860 

Constantinople 
Barbadoes 

1892 
1892 

Milwaukee 

St.    John's,    N.    F. 

1912 
1912 

Castellon,    Spain 
Chorlu,  Turkey 

1861 

Mendoza,    S.    A. 

1893 

Boston 

1912 

Adrianople,  Turkey 

1861 

Limoges 

1894 

Shanghai 

1912 

Houston,  Texas 

1861 

London 

1894 

Canton,    China 

1913 

Tokio,  Japan 

1861 

Charleston 

1896 

Guayaquil 

1913 

Numadza,  Japan 

1862 

Enschede,     Holland 

1897 

Melbourne 

1913 

Scutari,,  Turkey 

1862 

Troy 

1897 

London 

1913 

Adrianople,  Turkey 

168 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  EUROPE. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


169 


FIRES,  URBAN  AND  RURAL,  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES:    NUMBER, 

LOSS  ON  BUILDINGS  AND  CONTENTS,  BY  KINDS  OF 

BUILDINGS,   AND  LOSS  PER  CAPITA, 

CALENDAR  YEAR  1907. 


[Source:  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey,  Department  of  the  Interior.] 

Urban. 

Rural. 

Total. 

Fire  loss: 

Brick,  etc.,  buildings- 
Buildings  ; 

Dollars. 

19,816,474 

29,092,270 

Dollars. 
11,276,213 
8,240,310 

Dollars. 
31,092,087 

P.nntpnts                                                                    .    • 

37,332,580 

Total 

48,908,744 

19,516,523 

68,425,207 

Frame  buildings— 

Buildings            ...................................... 

30,357,151 

27,827,388 

47,707,056 
40,767,847 

78,064,207 

68,595,235 

Total 

58,184,539 

88,474,903 

146,659,442 

Totals: 

■RnnfHrnT«?                                                 .    .    ...... 

50,173,625 
56,919,658 

68,983,269 
49,008,157 

109, 156, 894 

P.nntpnts                                                   ....... 

105,927,815 

Grand  total 

107,093,283 

107,991,426 

215,084,709 

Number  of  fires: 

25,297 
80, 109 

10,843 
49,008 

36, 140 

129, 117 

Total 

105, 406 

69,851 

165,257 

T -.*»<;<?  npr  rimita                           

2.54 

2.49 

2.51 

FIRES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES :  POPULATION,  LOSS  AND  PER  CAPITA 
LOSS,  BY  GEOGRAPHIC  DIVISIONS,  CALENDAR  YEAR  1907. 

[Source:  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey,"  Department  of  the  Interior.] 


Geographic  division. 


Total  popu- 
lation. 


Total  fire 


Fire  loss 

per 
capita. 


North  Atlantic: 

Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Is- 
land, Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania. . . 
South  Atlantic: 

DelawaBC,  Maryland.  District  of  Columbia,  Virginia,  West  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida 

North  Central: 

Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Mirmesota,  Iowa, 
Missouri,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas. . 
South  Central: 

Kentucky ,  Tennessee ,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas, 

Oklahoma,  Arkansas 

Western: 

Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah, 
Nevada,  Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon;  and  California 


23,779,013 
11,674,988 
29,026,645 
16,368,558 
4,783,657 


Dollars. 
69,447,632 


25,349,223 
68,793,148 
69,908,922 
12,676,426 


Dollars. 
2.5 


2.19 
2.37 
3.66 
2.65 


TOTAL  WATER  SURFACE. 


48  p.  c. 
24  p.  c. 
21  p.  c. 

3  p.  c. 

4  p.  c. 

Sq.  Miles. 
67,570,000 
34,700,000 
28,900,000 
4,470,000 
5,610.000 

Fathoms  Depth. 

The  Pacific  Ocean 

Max. 
5,350 
4,730 
3,830 
2,650 
3,130 

Average. 
2,100 
1,800 

2,000 

"     Arctic  Sea        .             

1,500 

"     Antarctic  Sea 

1,600 

170 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ANNUAL    FIRE    LOSSES    IN    THE 


UNITED     STATES    FOR    THIRTY-EIGHT 
1875-1912 


YEARS- 


From   " 

The  Insurance   Year  Book,''  reprinted  by  permission  of  "  The  Spectator  Company,'' 

New  York 

ind  Chicago. 

Aggregate 

Aggregate 

Aggregate 

Aggregate 

Year. 

Property 

Insurance 

Year. 

Propertj' 

Insurance 

Loss. 

Loss. 

Loss. 

Loss. 

1875 

$78,102,285 

$39,327,400 

1894 

$140,006,484 

$89,574,699 

1876 

64,630.600 

34,374,500 

1895 

142,110,233 

84,689,030 

1877 

68,265,800 

37,398,900 

1896 

118,737,420 

73,903,800 

1878 

64,315,900 

36,575.900 

1897 

116,354,575 

66,722,145 

1879 

77,703,700 

44,464,700 

1898 

130,593,905 

73,796,080 

1880 

74,643,400 

42,525,000 

1899 

153.597,830 

92,683,715 

1881 

81,280,900 

44,641,900 

1900 

160,929,805 

95,403.650 

1882 

84,505,024 

48,875,131 

1901 

165,817,810 

100,798,645 

1883 

100,149,228 

54,808,664 

1902 

161,488,355 

94,775,045 

1884 

110.008,611 

60,679,818 

1903 

145,302,155 

*1 04,000,000 

1885 

102,818,796 

57,430,709 

1904 

t229,198,050 

*144,000,000 

1886 

104,924,750 

60,506,564 

1905 

tl65,221,650 

*1 16,000,009 

1887 

120,283,055 

69,659,508 

1906 

t518,611,800 

*292,000,000 

1888 

110,885,665 

63,965,724 

1907 

t215,084,709 

+127,000,000 

1889 

123,046,833 

73,679,465 

1908 

t217,885.850 

*1 57, 000,000 

1890 

108,993,792 

65,015,465 

1909 

tl88.705,150 

*143,000,000 

1891 

143.764,967 

90,576,918 

1910 

1214.003,300 

*175,000.000 

1892 

151,516,098 

93,511,936 

1911 

t217.004,575 

*190,000,000 

1893 

167,544.370 

105,994.577 

1912 

Totals. . 

t206,438,900 

*194,000,000 

$5,543,654,695 

$3,539,359,583 

Figures  for  years  prior  to  1004  are  from  Chronicle  Fire  Tables. 
♦Estimated  by  publishers  of  the  Insurance  Year  Book. 
tFrom  National  Board  Tables. 


FINANCIAL  STANDING  OF  LIFE  INSURANCE  COMPANIES. 


The  combined  aggregates  of  the  Financial 
Standing,  etc.,  of  the  224  principal  insurance 
companies  show  that  the  capital  stock  in. 1912 
was  $44,329,379.  The  principal  sources  of 
income  of  these  companies  for  the  same  period 
were  as  follows:  New  premiums,  $70,382,387; 
renewed  premiums,  $395,627,108;  received  for 
annuities,  $6,053,215;  dividends,  interest,  etc., 
$156,288,333;  received  for  rents,  $7,027,280; 
and  all  other  receipts,  $20,015,381;  thus  mak- 
ing the  total  income,  $655,393,704.  The  ex- 
penditures of  these  same  companies  for  the 
same  period  were  as  follows:  Paid  for  death 
losses,  $151,176,491;  paid  for  matured  en- 
dowments, $52,607,566;  annuities  paid, 
$7,287,767;  paid  for  surrendered,  lapsed  and 
purchased  policies,  $77,219,329;  dividends  to 
poUcyholders,  $78,716,564;  dividends  to 
stockholders,  $1,573,517;  commissions,  .sala- 
ries and  traveling  expenses  of  agents,  $61,- 
693,343;  medical  fees,  salaries  and  other 
charges  of  employees,  $19,854,072;  and  all 
other  expendittires,  $33,219,833;  thus  making 
the  total  expenditures  of  the  companies, 
$483,348,282.  The  excess  of  the  incomes  over 
the  expenditures  for  the  year  1912  amounted 
to  $172,045,422. 

The    assets    amounting    to    $3,597,659,447 


At  the  end  of  the  calendar  year  1911  there 
were  6,113  Building  and  Loan  As.sociations 
in  the  United  States  having  assets  to  the 
sum  of  $1,040,307,713  and  a  membership  of 
2,355,066. 


of  admitted  assets  and  $21,988,858  of  assets 
not  admitted,  were  as  follows:  Real  estate 
owned,  $127,684,405;  bond  and  mortgage 
loans,  $1,197,781,579;  bonds  owned,  $1,493,- 
506.968;  stocks  owned,  $81,677,178;  collateral 
loans,  $15,191,616;  premium  notes  and  loans, 
$539,245,042;  cash  in  office  and  bank,  $50,- 
017,640;  net  deferred  and  unpaid  premiums, 
$42,606,061;  all  other  assets,  $49,948,958. 
The  liabilities  of  these  same  companies 
amounting  to  $3,168,194,661  were  divided  aa 
follows:  Reserve,  $2,988,642,224;  losses  and 
claims  not  paid,  $16,987,072;  claims  re- 
sisted, $1,689,163;  dividends  unpaid,  $87,202,- 
774;  all  other  liabilities,  $73,673,428.  The 
total  surplus  paid  to  policyholders  (including 
capital)  amounted  to  $429,464,786. 

The  policy  account  of  these  companies  was 
as  follows:  New  business  actually  paid  for, 
$2,240,434,665;  whole  life  policies  in  force, 
$10,163,447,058;  endowment  policies  in  force, 
$3,260,245,355;  all  other  policies  in  force, 
$2,132,208,758;  total  insurance  in  force, 
$15,555,901,171;  total  industrial  business 
written,  $842,041,252;  total  industrial  busi- 
ness in  force,  $3,708,892,514. 

From  the  "Insurance  Year  Book;"  re- 
printed by  perm,ission  of  "The  Spectator  Com- 
pany," New  York  and  Chicago. 


The  first  steam  fire  engine  was  invented  by 
Braithwaite,  1829;  Ericsson,  in  New  York, 
produced  a  similar  one  in  1840.  They  were 
not  generally  used  until  1860.  Fire  engines 
driven  by  motor  power  first  used  in  1905. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


171 


FIRE,  MARINE  AND  CASUALTY   INSURANCE. 

FIRE  AND  MARINE  CASUAJ.TY  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  INSURANCE  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  IN  1890,  AND  FROM  1895  TO  1910  TOTAL  INCOME 
OF  COMPANIES  AND  PAYMENTS  TO  POLICY  HOLDERS. 

Data  from  Insurance  Year  Book,  published  by  permission  o    The  Spectator  Company, 
New  York  and  Chicago. 

Fire  and  Marine  Insurance. 


Stock  and  Mutual  Companies. 

Calendar  Year. 

Number 

of 

Companies. 

Total  Income 

Payments  to  PoUcy  Holders. 

Losses. 

Dividends. 

Total. 

1890  

580 
555 
541 
530 
504 
484 
493 
482 
489 
526 
515 
575 
597 
618 
598 
598 
597 
593 
595 

$157,857,983 
176.300.042 
172.945.625 
176.751.124 
178.320.217 
184.142.217 
198,312,577 
216,452,381 
239.468.206 
258.340,036 
278,340.036 
293.224,649 
350,285.740 
338.232,409 
334,490,040 
360,545,341 
381,545.814 
388.462.193 
406,336,104 

$75,334,517 

89.673.663 

83,355.538 

79.440,595 

90,051,512 

106.726.658 

108.307.171 

112.008,998 

113,147,727 

112,817,357 

151,264,900 

125,074.600 

276,795,627 

145,597,362 

165,489,578 

154,430,781 

166.789.763 

183.476.741 

188.081.546 

$5,433,495 

7.705.363 

6.547.922 

7,724.657 

7,923,170 

7,892,714 

8,446,110 

9,011,926 

10,184,285 

11,559,470 

12,855,153 

14,379,174 

15,412.212 

16,223,261 

17,808,367 

19,091,596 

20,709,261 

18.771.959 

17.841.956 

$80,768,012 

97.379.026 

89,903.460 

87,165.252 

97.974.682 

114.679.372 

116.753.281 

121  020  924 

1895                       

1896 

1897                      

1898   

1899                           

1900     

1901 

1902   

123  302  012 

1903 

124,376,827 
164,120.053 
139.453.774 
292,207.839 
161,820.623 
183.297.945 
173.522.377 
187,499.024 
202.248.700 
205.923.502 

1904        

1905 

1906     

1907                             .... 

1908 

1909                        

1910 

1911                    

1912 

Calendar 

Lloyd's  and  Interinsurance 
Associations. 

Total. 

Year. 

Number 
of  Asso- 
ciations. 

Total 
Income. 

Losses 
Paid. 

Number 
of  Com- 
panies. 

Total 
Income. 

Payments 
to  Policy 
Holders. 

1890 

580 

583 

541 

530 

504 

484 

493 

482 

489 

563 

550    . 

612 

632 

654 

636 

636 

628 

621 

621 

$157,857,983 
176,300.042 
172.945,625 
176,751,124 
178.320.217 
184.142.217 
198.312.577 
216.452.381 
239.468.206 
261,431.401 
281.228,402 
296,562,588 
353,922.994 
342,531,049 
.339,068,915 
365.264,413 
385,657,028 
392,966,986 
410,760.353 

$80  768  012 

1895 

97,379,026 

1896 

89  903  460 

1897 

87.165,252 

1898                  i    

97  974  682 

1899 S 



114.619,372 

1900 ! 

116,753.281 

1901 1 

121,020,924 

1902 

123,332,012 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910.... 

1911 

1912 

37 
35 
37 
35 
36 
38 
38 
31 
28 
26 

$2,972,800 
2.888.366 
3.337.939 
3.637.254 
4.298.640 
4.579.875 
4.719,072 
4.111.214 
4.504.793 
4.424.249 

$1,057,238 
1.538,505 
1.371.417 
1.441.353 
1.616.001 
1,865.181 
1.938,834 
1.644.002 
1.440.809 
1.991.618 

125,434,065 
165,658,558 
140,825,191 
293,649,192 
163,436,624 
185,163,126 
175,461,211 
189,143.026 
203.689.509 
207.915.120 

Cuba's  exports  of  sugar  cane  and  its  products  were  valued  in  1910  at  $101,500,000 — 
70.28  per  cent,  of  the  total  export. 


172 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CORPORATIONS,  JOINT-STOCK  COMPANIES  OR  ASSOCIATIONS,  AND 
INSURANCE  COMPANIES:    YEAR  ENDED  JUNE  30,  1912. 

cultural  implements,  and  other  articles  manu- 
factured wholly  or  in  part  from  metal,  wood, 
or  other  material  ;_manufacturers  or  refiners  of 
sugar,  molasses,  syrups,  or  other  products; 
ice  or  refrigerating  companies;  slaughter- 
house, tannery,  packing,  or  canning  com- 
panies, have  a  capital  stock  of  $27,288,587,- 
679.17;  an  indebtedness,  bonded  and  other- 
wise amounting  to  $8,525,627,890.64;  and  a 
total  income  of  $1,309,819,271.81.  This  re- 
port was  based  on  the  92,737  returns  received. 
The  62,270  reports  received  from  the  mer- 
cantile class,  including  all  dealers  (not  other- 
wise classed  as  producers  or  manufacturers), 
in  coal,  lumber,  grain,  produce,  and  all  goods, 
wares,  and  merchandise,  show  a  capital  stock 
of  $3,584,309,070.14;  an  indebtedness,  bonded 
and  otherwise,  of  $2,092,664,389.92;  and  a 
net  income  of  $363,306,165.42.  The  last,  or 
miscellaneous  class,  such  as  architects,  con- 
tractors, hotels,  the  theatres,  or  other  com- 
panies or  associations  not  otherwise  classed, 
had  a  capital  stock  of  $6,988,462,356.42;  an 
indebtedness,  bonded  and  otherwise  amount- 
ing to  $3,392,570,198.24;  and  a  net  income  of 
$277,165,076.67.  This  report  was  based  on 
75,674  returns  received. 


At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30,  1912,  a  report  based  on  32,347  financial 
and  commercial  companies  and  corporations, 
including  banks,  banking  associations,  trust 
companies,  guaranty  and  surety  companies, 
title  insurance  companies,  building  associa- 
tions (if  for  profit),  and  insurance  companies 
not  specially  exempt,  showed  that  the  amount 
of  the  capital  stock  of  these  companies  totaled 
$2,885,662,855.46;  that  the  amount  of  bonded 
and  other  indebtedness  was  $621,183,231:34; 
and  that  the  net  income  amounted  to  $451,- 
092,434.64.  For  the  same  period,  the  public  ser- 
vice, such  as  railroad,  steamboat,  ferryboat  and 
stageline  companies ;  pipe-line,  gas  and  electric- 
light  companies;  transportation  and  storage 
companies,  telegraph  and  telephone  com- 
panies, basing  the  figures  on  the  24,924  re- 
ports received,  had  a  capital  stock  of  $19,320,- 
116,964.23;  an  indebtedness,  bonded  and 
otherwise  of  $17,531,492,251.26;  and  a  net 
income  of  $806,324,299.38.  The  third  class, 
industrial  and  manufacturing,  such  as  mining, 
lumber  and  coke  companies;  rolling  mills; 
foundry  and  machine  shops;  sawmills;  flour, 
woolen,  cotton,  and  other  mills;  manufac- 
turers  of  cars,   automobiles,  elevators,   agri- 


Table  Showing  Rate  of  In««me  on  Stocks 

Purchased  at  the  Following  Prices  (Par  Value  Being  SlOOl  and 
Bearing  Interest  at  the  Following  Rates 


Paid 

4% 

6% 

6% 

7% 

8% 

»% 

10% 

180 

6. 

6.25 

7.50 

8.75 

10. 

11.25 

12.60 

00 

4.44 

5.55 

6.66 

7.77 

8.88 

10. 

11.11 

95 

4.21 

5.26 

6.31 

7.36 

8.42 

9.47 

10.52 

105 

3.80 

4.76 

5.71 

6.66 

7.61 

8.57 

9.52 

110 

3.63 

4.64 

5.45 

6.36 

7.27 

8.18 

9.09 

115 

3.47 

4.34 

5.21 

6.08 

6.95 

7.82 

8.69 

120 

3.33 

4.16 

5. 

5.83 

6.66 

7.50 

8.33 

125 

3.20 

4. 

4.80 

5.60 

6.40 

7.20 

8. 

126 

3.17 

3.96 

4.76 

5.55 

6.34 

7.14 

7.93 

127 

3.14 

3.93 

4.72 

5.51 

6.29 

7.08 

7.87 

128 

3.12 

3.90 

4.6« 

5.46 

6.25 

7.03 

7.81 

129 

3.10 

3.87 

4.65 

5.42 

6.20 

6.97 

7.75 

130 

3.07 

3.84 

4.61 

5.38 

6.15 

6.92 

7.69 

131 

3.05 

3.81 

4.58 

5.34 

6.10 

6.87 

7.63 

i32 

3.03 

3.78 

4.54 

5.30 

6.06 

6.81 

7.57 

133 

3. 

3.75 

4.51 

5.26 

6.01 

6.76 

7.51 

134 

2.98 

3.73 

4.47 

5.22 

6.97 

6.71 

7.46 

135 

2.96 

3.70 

4.44 

5.18 

5.92 

6.66 

7.40 

136 

2.94 

3.67 

4.41 

5.14 

5.88 

6.61 

7.35 

137 

2.91 

3.63 

4.37 

5.10 

5.83 

6.56 

7.29 

138 

2.89 

3.62 

4.34 

5.07 

5.79 

6.52 

7.24 

139 

2.87 

3.59 

4.31 

5.03 

5.76 

6.47 

7.19 

140 

2.85 

3.57 

4.28 

5. 

6.71 

6.42 

7.14 

141 

2.83 

3.54 

4.25 

4.96 

5.67 

6.38 

7.09 

142 

2.81 

3.52 

4.22 

4.92 

5.63 

6.33 

7.04 

143 

2.79 

3.49 

4.19 

4.89 

5.59 

6.29 

6.99 

144 

2.77 

3.47 

4.16 

4.86 

5.55 

6.25 

6.94 

145 

2.75 

3.44 

4.13 

4.82 

5.51 

6.20 

6.89 

146 

2.73 

3.42 

4.10 

4.79 

5.47 

6.16 

6.84 

147 

2.72 

3.40 

4.08 

4.76 

5.44 

6.12 

6.80 

148 

2.70 

3.37 

4.05 

4.72 

5.40 

6.08 

6.75 

149 

2.68 

3.35 

4.02 

4.69 

5.36 

6.04 

6.71 

150 

2.66 

3.33 

4. 

4.66 

5.33 

6. 

6.66 

2.58 

3.22 

3.87 

4.51 

5.16 

5.80 

6.45 

2.50 

3.12 

3.75 

4.37 

6.62 

6.25 

2.42 

3.03 

3.63 

4.24 

4.84 

5.45 

6.06 

2.35 

2.94 

3.62 

4.11 

•  4.70 

6.29 

5.88 

Quick  Method  for  Calculating  Interest 
Where  the  Time  is  for  Days  Only 

Rule.— To  find  the  interest  on  any  given  sum  for  any  number  of  day* 
multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of  days,  and  divide  as  follows:  At 
5%,  divide  by  72;  at  6%,  divide  by  60;  at  7%,  divide  by  52;  at  8%, 
divide  by  45;  at  9%,  divide  by  40. 


Table  of  Days  for  Computing  Interest 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Days  irom  any  Day  of  any  one  Month 

to  the  same  Day  of  nay  other  Month 


From 

i 

1 

1 
S 

1 

S 

1 

3 

1 

i 

1 

^ 

To  January . 

365 

334 

306 

275 

245 

214 

184 

153 

122 

92 

61 

3 

February 

31 

365 

337 

306 

276 

245 

215 

184 

153 

123 

92 

March... 

69 

28 

365 

334 

304 

273 

243 

212 

181 

151 

120 

9 

April.... 

90 

59 

31 

365 

335 

304 

274 

243 

212 

182 

151 

12 

May 

120 

89 

61 

30 

365 

334 

304 

273 

242 

212 

181 

15 

June..., 

151 

120 

92 

61 

31 

365 

335 

304 

273 

243 

212 

18 

J"iy 

181 

ISO 

122 

91 

61 

30 

365 

334 

303 

273 

242 

21 

August.. 

212 

181 

153 

122 

92 

61 

31 

365 

334 

304 

273 

24 

Septem'r 

243 

212 

184 

153 

123 

92 

62 

31 

365 

335 

304 

27 

October.. 

273 

242 

214 

183 

153 

122 

92 

61 

30 

365 

334 

30 

Nove-ber 

304 

273 

245 

214 

184 

153 

123 

92 

61 
~9l 

31 
61 

365 
30 

33 

Dece'ber 

334 

303 

275 

244 

214 

183 

153 

122 

365 

N.B. — In  leap  year,  if  the  last  day  of  February  comes  between, 
one  day  to  the  number  in  the  table. 

EXAUPLB. — How  many  days  from  May  10th  to  Sept.  13th?  Prom 
above  table  we  get  123;  add  3  for  difference  between  10  and  13,  and 
get  126,  the  number  of  days  required. 


] 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


173 


COMPARATIVE  NON-PARTICIPATING  PREMIUM  RATES  OF  AMERICAN  LIFE  INSURANCE 
COMPANIES,  1860.  1870,  1880,  1890,  1900,  1910— WHOLE  LIFE  PLAN  * 

AVERAGE  PREMIUM  RATES  PER  $1,000  INSURANCE. 


I860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1900. 

1910. 

Age. 

Num. 

Num- 

Nmn- 

Num- 

Num- 

Num- 

berof 

Average 

ber  of 

Average 

berof 

Aver- 

ber of 

Aver- 

ber of 

Aver- 

ber of 

Average 

Com- 

Rate. 

Com- 

Rate. 

Com- 

age 

Com- 

age 

Com- 

age 

Com- 

Rate. 

panies. 

panies. 

panies. 

Rate.. 

panies. 

Rate. 

pames. 

Kate. 

panies. 

20 

6 

$15.27 

28 

$13.57 

$14.61 

5 

$14.38 

50 

$15.23 

21 

fi 

15.68 

28 

13.88 

14.«1 

5 

14.72 

76 

15.65 

22 

6 

16.11 

28 

14.19 

15.07 

5 

15.08 

76 

16.00 

23 

fi 

16.58 

28 

14.49 

15.28 

5 

15.45 

76 

16.37 

24 

6 

17.03 

28 

14:80 

15.62 

5 

15.85 

76 

16.75 

25 

6 

17.55 

29 

15.20 

$i5.64 

15.93 

5 

16.27 

76 

17.16 

26 

6 

18.08 

29 

15.63 

16.04 

16.36 

5 

16.72 

76 

17.58 

27 

6 

18.63 

29 

16.08 

16.46 

16.79 

5 

17.17 

76 

18.03 

28 

6 

19.19 

29 

16.55 

16.91 

17.26 

5 

17.66 

76 

18.49 

29 

6 

19.76 

29 

17.06 

4 

17.37 

17.74 

5 

18.17 

76 

19.00 

30 

6 

20.29 

29 

17.52 

4 

17.87 

18.26 

5 

18.70 

76 

19.51 

31 

6 

20.87 

29 

18.02 

18.38 

18.81 

5 

19.27 

76 

20.07 

32 

6 

21.48 

29 

18.59 

18.94 

19.38 

5 

19.87 

76 

20.64 

33 

6 

22.13 

29 

19.16 

19.51 

19.97 

5 

20.50 

76 

21.26 

34 

6 

22.81 

29 

19:79 

20.15 

20.62 

5 

21.17 

76 

21.90 

35 

6 

23.53 

29 

20.44 

20.81 

21.3C 

5 

21.-88 

76 

22.59 

36 

24.30 

29 

21.14 

21.51 

22.02 

5 

22.62 

76 

23.31 

37 

25.07 

29 

21.86 

22.23 

22.78 

5 

23.41 

76 

24.07 

38 

25.93 

29 

22.64 

23.03 

23. 6C 

5 

24.25 

76 

24.88 

39 

26.83 

29 

23.46 

23.85 

24.45 

5 

25.14 

76 

25.74 

40 

27.75 

29 

24.33 

24.76 

25.38 

5 

26.09 

76 

26.65 

41 

28.70 

29 

25.24 

25.71 

26.35 

5 

27.  OS 

76 

27.62 

42 

29.64 

29 

26.20 

26.72 

27.37 

5 

28.17 

76 

28.64 

43 

30.66 

29 

27.21 

27.79 

28.46 

5 

29.31 

76 

29.74 

44 

31.74 

29 

28.30 

28.94 

29.64 

5 

30.53 

76 

30.91 

45 

32.89 

29 

29.46 

30.16 

30.89 

5 

31.83 

76 

32.14 

46 

34.12 

29 

30.70 

31.46 

32.21 

5 

33.20 

76 

33.46 

47 

35.43 

29 

32.19 

32.86 

33.63 

5 

34.66 

76 

34.87 

48 

36.87 

29 

33.41 

34.34 

35.11 

6 

36.22 

76 

36.37 

49 

6 

38.46 

'    29 

34.98 

35.94 

36.74 

5 

37.86 

76 

37.97 

50 

g 

40.20 

29 

36.63 

37.65 

38.48 

5 

39.62 

76 

39.69 

51 

6 

42.09 

29 

38.45 

39.46 

40.28 

5 

41.48 

76 

41.49 

52 

44.10 

29 

40.35 

41.38 

42.22 

5 

43.46 

76 

43.43 

53 

46.25 

29 

42.38 

43.45 

44.32 

5 

45.57 

76 

45.49 

54 

48.59 

29 

44.55 

45.68 

46.53 

5 

47.81 

76 

47.69 

55 

51.12 

29 

46.88 

48.10 

48.92 

5 

50.20 

76 

60.04 

56 

54.29 

27 

49.37 

50.72 

51.49 

5 

52.74 

75 

52.53 

57 

57.14 

27 

62.39 

53.54 

54.27 

5 

55.45 

75 

55.22 

58 

5 

60.18 

27 

54.88 

56.54 

57.21 

5 

58.34 

75 

58.08 

59 

5 

63.29 

27 

57.85 

59.75 

60.36 

5 

61.42 

75 

61.16 

60 

5 

66.19 

27 

60.92 

63.18 

63.73 

5 

64.71 

75 

64.44 

*  The  premium  rates  for  1860  and  1870  are  compiled  from  the  Reports  of  the  New  York  Insurance  De- 
partment of  1861  and  1869,  respectively.  The  rates  for  1880  and  1890  are  compiled  from  the  Spectator 
Year  Books  of  1881  and  1891,  and  the  rates  for  1900  and  1910  are  from  the  Spectator  Handy  Guides  for 
those  years. 


AREA  OF  THE  LARGEST  ISLANDS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Sq.  Miles. 

Greenland 837,760 

New  Guinea..  .303,500 

Borneo 284,840 

Madagascar 228,600 

Sumatra 161,610 

New  Zealand....  104,400 


Sq.  Miles. 
Great  Britain... 88,000 

Hondo 87,490 

Celebes 71,470 

Java 49,0.30 

Cuba 46,000 

Newfoundland  40,200 


Sq.  Miles. 

Luzon 40,930 

Iceland 39,756 

Mindanao 37,180 

Yezo 36,300 

Novaya  Zemlya35,520 
Ireland :  .32,530 


Sq.  MUes. 

Haiti 29,810 

SakhaUn 29,114 

Tasmania 26,215 

Ceylon 25,330 

Kuishiu. ... 16,840 

Formosa 13,460 


174 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ORDINARY  AND  INDUSTRIAL  INSURANCE  IN  FORCE  BY  STATES,  DECEMBER  31.  1910.' 


State. 

Total 

Population 

1910. 

Ordinary 

Insurance  in 

Force. 

Industrial 

Insurance  m 

Force. 

Total 

Insurance  in 

Force. 

Insur- 
ance in 
Force  per 
Capita. 

Alabama. . . . 

2,138.093 

204,354 
1,574,449 
2,377.549 

799,024 
1.114,756 

202.322 

331.069 

752,619 
2,609,121 

325,594 
5,638,591 
2.700.876 
2.224,771 
1,690,949 
2,289,905 
1,656,388 

742,371 
1,295,346 
3,366,416 
2,810,173 
2,075,708 
1.797.114 
3.293.335 

376.053 

1,192,214 

81,875 

430,572 
2,537,167 

327,301 
9.113,614 
2.206.287 

577,056 
4,767,121 

672,765 
7.665.111 

542.610 
1,515,400 

583,888 
2,184,789 
3,896,542 

373,351 

355,956 
2,061,612 
1.141,990 
1,221,119 
2,333,860 

145,965 

8160,000,997 

17.706.369 

91,092,866 
391,875,291 
131,533,563 
168,463,959 

24,247,892 

79,258,009 

79,091,347 
282,704,932 

27,892,642 
1,007,271,561 
321,111,088 
221,095,910 
146,186,246 
223,247.521 
149,288,555 

97,241,628 
177,268,672 
635,619,342 
304,015,961 
240.918,006 
116,706,215 
423,090,516 

54,149,564 
124,556,740 

11,983,559 

53,151,854 
394.358,783 

22,159,552 

1,859,488,827 

156,137,868 

55,203,241 
691,213,034 

76,010,451 
1,241,865,748 

85,064,017 
114.622,829 

63,579,694 
171,632.371 
262,708.661 

42,606.638 

57.606.582 
180.205.741 
126.583.116 

94,853,455 
224,237,069 

16,871.048 

.  $8,953,990 

$168,954,987 

17,706,369 

94,020,527 
431,916,233 
139,749,835 
253,005,791 

41,473,831 
112,410,215 

79,091,347 
,306,724,648 

27,892,642 
1,111,045,573 
416,914,833 
226,031,973 
166,149,002 
286,544,781 
179,260,392 
113,750,648 
273,184,106 
892,920,179 
351,818,196 
257,743,512 
116,706,215 
545,513,620 

55,914,609 
132,009,026 

11,983,559 

67,511,780 
673,250,500 

22.159.552 

2,564,749,541 

165,217.793 

55,203,241 
888,285,521 

79,621,951 

1,706,970,460 

137.687.701 

129.739,483 

63,579,694 
209,127,718 
263,685,197 

46,941,448 

64,651,177 
219,474,931 
135,385,528 
109,414,604 
259,825,952 

16,871,048 

$79 
87 

Arizona 

Arkansas . 

2,927,661 
40,040,942 

8,216,272 
84,541,832 
17,225,939 
33.152,206 

60 

182 

Colorado 

175 

227 

Delaware 

205 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

340 
105 

Georgia 

Idaho 

24.019.716 

118 
86 

103.774.012 
95,803,745 
16.620,410 
19,962,756 
63,297,260 
29,971,837 
16,509,020 
95,915,434 

257,300,837 
47,802,235 
16,825,506 

197 

Indiana 

154 

102 

Kansas 

98 

125 

Louisiana 

108 

153 

Maryland 

211 

Massachusetts. .  •        . 

265 

125 

124 

Mississippi 

Missouri  .                   . 

65 

122,423,104 
1,765,045 
7,452.286 

166 

149 

Nebraska                  

111 

Nevada 

146 

New  Hampshire 

14.359.926 
278,891,717 

157 

265 

68 

New  York 

705,266,714 
9.079.925 

281 

North  Carolina 

75 

North  Dakota. . 

96 

Ohio 

197,072,487 
3,611,500 

465,104,712 
52.623.684 
15.116.654 

186 

Oregon 

118 

223 

•Rhode  Island 

254 

South  Carolina          • . 

86 

South  Dakota 

109 

Tennessee  ...       >          . 

37.495.347 

976.536 

4,334.810 

7,044,595 

39,269,190 
8,802,412 

14,561,149 

35,588,883 

96 

Texas 

68 

Utah 

126 

182 

Virginia 

106 

Washington 

West  Virginia. , 

119 
90 

111 

Wyoming 

116 

♦Compiled  from  Spectator  Year  Book,  1911,  p.  366. 


F.  L.  Hoffman 


HIGHEST  MOUNTAINS  IN  THE  WORLD. 

(Exceeding  20,000  feet.) 


Mountain. 

Feet. 

Mountain.           Feet. 

Mountain. 

Feet. 

Asia — Mt.Everest.29,002 

Nanda  Devi... 25,600 

Anconhuma. 

.21,490 

Godwin-Austen 

.28,278 

Mustagata....  24,400 

Sorata 

.21,470 

Kunchinginga.. 

..28,156 

Chumalari....23,946 

Illampu 

.21,490 

Gusherbrum.... 

.26,378 

Huandoy 

.21,089 

Dhawalagiri . .  . 

.26,826 

South  America — 

Sajama 

.21,047 

Masherbrum. .  . 

.25,600 

Aconcagua . . . 22,860 

Illimani 

.21,030 

Kakapushi .... 

.25,560 

Mercedario..  .22,315 

Paniri 

..20,735 

ICutha  Kangir. 

.24,740 

Huascan 22.051 

Chimborazo. 

.20,498 

Mountain.  Feet. 

Tupungota..  .20,286 

Cacaca 20,250 

Haina 20,171 

San  Jose 20,020 

Misti 20,013 

North  America — 
McKinley 20,290 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


175 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  AFRICA. 


Length  of  the  Equator ■ , 

"         "      "    Meridian ,'. 

"         "     a    Tropic ., 

"         "     "    Polar  Circle I 

"         "  the  Great  Axis  (diameter  of  the  Equator) 

"         "     "    Little  Axis  (diameter  through  the  Poles) 

"         "     "    Parallel  Degree  on  the  Equator 

"        in  the  Tropics 

"        in  the  Polar  Circle 

"        at  the  Pole 

The  solid  contents  of  the  Globe  amounts  to  260,000,000,000  cubic  miles. 


Miles. 
24,900 
24,858 
22,853 
9,940 
7,926 
7,400 
69.2 
63.5 
27.7 
0 


176 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copper  and 
Nickel  Coins 

and 
Approximate 
Equivalent  in 
U.  S.  Money. 

m        g         °.     9 

1    s 

o        o 

05  00  CO  CO  CO 
rH  CO  05  05  00 
OOO-HCO 

^oooco 

$ 

.002 
.004 
.010 

£ 

Far- 
thing. 

Half 
Penny. 

Penny. 

Sou  or 
5c. 

2  Sou  or 
10c. 

-^^li 

Ih 

a                6  6  6 

a                              r+NrHHN 

8 

Sliver  Coins 

and 
Approximate 
Equivalent  in 
U.  S.  Money. 

COrHfO        CO       QOCO        CD 
aaO'N'*       CO       Ot^       'H 
^     .T-t(N        Tj<        COOS        (N 

aaOSOCOCO 
'^O'HCOOS 

^^O-JCOOS 

OOOrH(NlO 

^            OC2-h(Nt}ho 

£ 

3d. 

6d. 

Is. 

Florin 

or  2s. 

i  Crown 

or  2s.  6d. 

4s. 
5s.  or 
Crown 

1^'^^ 

§^c5«o 

Gold  Coins 

and 

Approximate 

Equivalent  in 

U.  S.  Money. 

$ 
2.433 
4.866 

^        050500 
'r^CO 

»  s  s 

r-l          CO 

«      3      S 

CM             ^ 

£ 

Half 
Sov'gn 

fl     »ooo 
P^ 

Francs. 
10 
20 

2        "^        o 

o 

Bank  Notes 

and 
Approximate 
Equivalent  in 

U.  S.  Money. 

wo     >o 

CO  CO  CO  <N  kO  O  lO  O 
COCOCOCOCOCOINiO 

*®       Tt<  00 1^  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

(NTt< 

$ 

9.65 

19.30 

96.50 

193.00 

$ 

3.86 

9.65 

19.30 

96.50 

193.00 

^■^OCOO-^OOO—KN 
r-i  ,-i(M  CM  ■*  00  (N  O  O 

^  "'sggiiii 

Francs. 

50 

100 

500 

1,000 

Francs. 

20 

50 

100 

500 

1,000 

Standard 

Monetary 

Unit,  and 

Approximate 

Value  in  U.  S. 

Gold. 

Gold. 

Pound 
SterHng: 
$4.866i 

Gold. 
Franc:    $0,193 

Gold. 
Franc:  $0,193 

Gold. 
Gulden:  $0,402 

COUNTRY. 

MONEY    TABLE. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 
4  Farthings  =  1  Penny. 

12  Pence  =  1  Shilling. 

20  Shillings  =  £1. 

FRANCE. 

100  Centimes  =  1  Franc. 
(See  Note,  page  25.) 

BELGIUM. 

100  Centimes  =  1  Franc. 

NETHERLANDS. 

(HOLLAND.) 

100  Cents  =  1  Gulden. 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


177 


Copper  and 
Nickel  Coins 

and 
Approximate 
Equivalent  in 
U.  S.  Money. 

$ 

.002 
.005 

.012 
.024 

$ 

.002 

.004 

.020 
.040 

$ 

.0096 

.0193 

.0386 
.0482 

.  im 

copper. 
Ip. 
2p. 

nickel. 

5 

10 

bronze. 
Ih. 
2h. 

nickel. 
lOh. 
20h. 

copper. 

lO^c. 

nickel. 

20c. 

25c. 

q3 
eg 

go    -^^'^ 

Silver  Coins 

and 
Approximate 
Equivalent  in 
U.  S.  Money. 

$ 

.119 
.238 
.476 
.714 
1.19 

$ 

.203 

.406 

1.015 

CO     CO      ic 

^2    ^    § 

^  ^^^   ii 

daaaae 

^HNr-KNCOO 

iO 

1  kr.  or 

Ifl. 
5kr. 

1  lira. 

2  lira. 
5  lira. 

g       OiOO        C^(N 

o    -^^"5    g 

Gold  Coins 

and 
Approximate 
Equivalent  in 
U.  S.  Money 

00       CO 
(N       'I* 

$ 
1.62 

2.03 
3.24 

4.06 

$ 
.965 

1.93 

3.86 

$ 

1.34 
2.68 
5.36 

2.24 

1            °       ° 

s 

4fl. 
lOkr.  or 

5fl. 

8fl. 
20kr.  or 

lOfl. 

•J"^    2    S 

Kroner. 

5 

10 
20 

Ducat. 

Bank  Notes 

and 
Approximate 
Equivalent  in 
U.  S.  Money. 

$ 

1.19 

4.76 

11.90 

23.80 

238.00 

S 

2.03 

4.06 

10.15 

20.30 

203.00 

$ 

.965 

1.93 

9.65 

19.30 

96.50 

193.00 

$ 

0.268 

1.34 

2.68 

13.40 

26.80 

134.00 

268.00 

1   ^°°^s 

Kronen. 

10 

20 

50 

100 

1,000 

g'^2§888 

Kroner. 

1 

5 

10 

50 

100^ 

500  • 

1,000 

Standard 

Monetary 

Unit,  and 

Approximate 

Value  in  U.  S. 

Gold. 

Gold. 
Mark:  $0,238 

Gold. 
Krone:  $0,203 

Gold. 
Lira:  $0,193 

Gold. 
Krone:  $0,268 

COUNTRY 

MONEY     TABLE 

GERMANY. 
100  Pfennige  =  1  Mark. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
100  Hellers  =  1  Krone. 

ITALY. 
100  Centesimi  =  1  Lira. 

NORWAY,  SWEDEN  AND  DENMARK. 
100  Ore  =  1  Krone. 

178 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


W5        10 

^5  ^ii 

»o     iC 

t^iOI^ 

8o§ 

«« 

2^^111 

Copp( 
Nicke 
ai 
Appro 
Equiv 
U.S.] 

8| 

1 

m      ^.S>. 

m     ^     tn 

•*00                  1^ 

^SSfeSSSS   s§ 

©& 

t^Ttt^         j^OO 

C        cj^  <u 

■5       gCg 

"ttki 

Silve 

a 

Apprc 

Equiv 

U.S. 

3     .    ^^ 

•i 

1 

i 

r^    0  10    <N 

IC          10 

0,  C    . 

IC       QO     rH       t^ 

I00f0»00       <©COCO<N 
j^OSOSOOt^'O        OJO5Q000 

*^      (N     CC   10     t>^ 

MU 

0- 

HCOt^lO               tHCO-* 

-c  §  2.>   . 

v_^,_-      ^^/-^ 

Gol 

App 
Equ 
U.S 

1  -rtaii 

3^                 CO     ^(N<^^ 

<S 

Ah 

lOiCiO      10 

»c 

>-i  Tf<  1^  iC  t^  »0  0  0 

10  »0  >0  1-1  CO  I^  Tji  10 

CO«OCC»CO 

otes 

mate 
nt  in 
oney 

«» 

Cv) 

rHOJO) 

BankN 

and 

Approxi 

Equivale 

U.  S.  M 

J       .ICO'OO'OOOO 

i 

»coooo 

3                           r^MlOOO 

1 

(N»0000 

p^ 

PLH 

'"' 

©JB 

«o 

o> 

Standard 
Monetary 
Unit,  and 
pproxima 
alue  in  U. 
Gold. 

2      i 

0 

0        « 

3 

0 

i 

0 

«■ 

^ 

>^  i 

g  ^ 

<i         fl5 

i^i 

s 

g  s 

0 

1 

8    1 

CQ 

Ah 

a 

V 

0 

\ 

8 

8 

fl  to 


S3 

2oS3 


".2  oj 

135 

H  S  "^  a 

JJ-iJ  oj  "  a).Si-2  a 


bo«^  0  5-J2   - 

W"  a  o  ^  o     *: 

OQ^  gOOH  o^ 
o  -d.a 

d  e3  S 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


179 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  ASIA. 


BRAZIL 
34,900 


WEST  COAST 
OF  AFRICA 
14.800 


MEXICO 
8.000 


FURTHER  INDIA      CONGO  & 
&E.  INDIES  5UDAN 

6,800  6,000 


BOLIVIA 
2.900 


PERU 
2,700 

RUBBER. 

A  year's  production. 

(in  tons.) 


CEYLON 
&  INDIA 
1.43  O 


HAITI 
.53,800,000 


P^  Mexico 

^^^56.000,000 


SALVADOR 
A5,000,000 


W^!"^   DUTCH    E.IMDICS 
fej,   loi.aoo.ooo 


t/^mff    QUATEMAL.A 
^ij^     81,000,000 


f?"^   COLOMBIA 
V^^^    70,000,000 


COFFEE. 

ONE   year's    production. 

(in  lbs.) 


180 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


^i-^B 


I    I      I 


222 
0C90 


CO* 


•otsts-b-o 


>o     OOOO 


2222 
"3  "3  "o  "o 
SCO 


222222 
OOOOOO 


««2 


Uni 


£3     2^Q<-2      ®o*o§S 


2S 


01  2  o 


'S'S 


.'t:  b.  s  a 


leir-C  h-  t~ 


(3>        M  r-l 


r-f  t-(  00  OS  O  (M  .      tOOJOt- 


^1 


on  I 

a    I     •- i 


•<OOt>fa<M 


g  a  a 


S     "^.2 


£•0 

O  ei 


ofi 

nn 


i:  o  a 


B  <  5  a  u 
«  s  5  "^o 

"■2  2  ^  £ 
r  g  g  8  i 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


181 


HIGHEST  AND  LOWEST  ALTITUDES  IN  UNITED  STATES. 


IMUIIF.ST  )'UI^ 


Alabama  . 
Alaska  — 
Arizona  i. 


Arkansas-. 
California  : 
Colorado  -  - 


Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Culunibii 

Florida---^ ^-- 

Georgia --- 

Gnam.i-r - — 

Hawaii..,.- 

Idaho  .i,- 

Illinois- 

Indiana 

Iowa-- 

Kansas 

Kentucky — 

Louisiana — 

Maine— --- 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota  -- 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana-- 

Nebraska- 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire  --- 


New  Jersey 

New  Mexico  - 

New  York-— -- 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Ohio-^ 

OklahoRia  .-.....- 

Oregon- -.— 

Pennsylvania 

Philippine  Islands- 
Porto  Rico 

Rhode  Island-.— - 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota- ---- 

Tennessee - 

Texas——- 

Utah  — 

Vermont -• 

Virginia 

Washington  --- — 

West  Virginia 

Wisconrin ■ 

Wyoming 


(Mu'alia  Mountain  .. 
Mount  MoKinlcy  .-- 
San  Krancisco  Peak  . 

Bine  Mountain 

.Ma<t;izine  Mountain  - 
Mount  AVhitney---- 
f Mount  Massive 


\Mount  Elbert 

Bear  Mountain 

Centerville 

Tenley - 

Mount  Pleasant-  -  ------- 

Brasclown  BaUl     ..- 

Mount  JumuUorig  MangUi 

Mauna  Kea 

Ilyndman  Peak 

Charles  Mound -- 

Carlos 

Prinighar 

On  west  boundary 

Big  Black  Mountain 

Northwest  part  of  county 

Mount  Katahdin 

Backbone  Mountain  -:  — 

Mount  Greylock 

Porcupine  Mountains. 

Mesabi  Range ••v'Vi 

Holly  Springs .>.i»: 

TaumSauk  Mountain 

Granite  Peak . 
Southwest  part  of  fi)unty- 
W  heeler  Peak —"  — — 
Mount  Washington 


United  States  (exclusive 
of  Alaska). 


High  Point 

North  Truchas  Peak 

Mount  Marcy -. 

Mount  Mitchell 

Summit  of  county-- - 

NearMansfield 

West  end  of  county-. 
Mount  Hood  -- — --. 

Blue  Knob --- 

Mount  Xpo  --^-1. 

Lnquillo  MountainsJ. 

Durfee  Hill  - - 

Sassafras  Moiintnin  — 
Harney  Peak---..->- 

MountGuyot-. 

ElCapitan— 

Kings  Peaks  — 

Mount  Mansfield  .... 

Mount  Rogers 

Mount  Rainier  - 

Spruce  Knob— -— :  — 
Rib  Hill — .— — - 
Gannett  Peak  1 

Mount  Whitney ^ 


2,407 
20, 300 
12,(511 

2,  800 

2,  80t) 
14,501 
14,402 
14,402 

2,  ;?55 


420 

aoi 

4,768 
1,274 

13,  823 

12,  07S 

1,241 

1,210 

1,800 

4, 135 

4,100 

400 

5,200 

3,340 

3,505 

2,023 

1,920 

600 

.   1,750 

12,850 
5,350 

13, 058 
0,293 

1,809 
13,306 

5,344 
.6,711 

3,500 

1,479 

4,  750 
11,225 

3,136 
,8,  610 

3.532 
805 

3,548 
.  7,242 
'  6,636 

9, 020 
13,498 

4,364 

5,719 
14, 363 

4,860 

1,940 
13,785 


(^nlf  of  Mexico. 
Pacific  Ocean.-. 
Colorado  Itivvr. 

■OnaoliiUi  Kivfer. 

Di'ath  Valley— 

•-Arkansas  River. 


Ixing  Island  Sound 

Atlantic  Ocean 

Potomac  River 

Atlantic  Ocean 

-—do. .- 

Paitific  Ocean 

---do 

Snake  River 

Mississippi  River  -- 

Ohio  River -. 

Mississippi  River  .- 

Verdigris  River 

Mississippi  River  -. 
Gulf  of  Mexico  ---. 

Atlantic  Ocean 

-—do 


-do- 


Lake  Erie — 

Lake  Superior 

Gulf  of  Mexico 

St.  Francis  River  - 

Kootenai  River 

Southeast  corner  of  State 

Colorado  River 

Atlantic  Ocean --- 


Atlantic  Ocean  — 

.JEled  Bluff 

Atlantic  Ocean  .- 

do  — 

Pembina  - 

Ohio  River 

Red  River-.- 

Pacific  Ocean  -  -. 

Delaware  River 

Pacific  Ocean 

Atlantic  Ocean  — 

■Atlantic  Ocean  -- 

do 

Big  Stone  I.Ake- 

Mississippi  River- 

Gulf  of  Mexico— 

Beaverdam  Creek 

Ijake  Cham  plain 

Atlantic  Ocean 

Pacific  Ocean 

Potomac  River 

Lake  Michigan ,.. 

Belle  Fonrche  River 

Death  Vallej> 


Sea  lev.'l 

Sea  level 

100 


3,350 

Sea  level 
Sea  l(?vel 
Sea  level 
Sea  level 
Sea  l(^vel 
Sea  liwel 
§»•»  level 


279 

316 

477 

700 

257 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

573 

602 

Sea  level 

210 

1.800 

825 

470 

Sen  level 

Sea  level 

2,876 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

790 

425 

300 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

962 

182 

Sea  level 

2,000 

,  96 

Sea  level 

Sea  level 

240 

682 

^,100 

•276 


500 

4,100 
650 
2,900 
6,800 
600 
60 
160 
100 


600 

700 

1,100 

2,000 

750 

100 

600 

350 

500 

900 

1,200 

300 

800 

3,400 

2,600 

5,500 

1.000. 


5,700 

900, 

700 

1,900 

860 

1,300 

3,300 

1,100 


2,200 
900 
1,700 
6,100 
1,000 
950 
1,780 
1,500 
1,050 
6,700 
-2,600 


182 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Customs  and  Inteenal  Revenue 
Collected  on  Distilled  Spirits, 
Wines,  Malt  Liquors  and  Tobac- 
co WITH  Total  National  Revenue 
AND  Percentage. 

For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912, 
the  total  national  ordinary  receipts  from  all 
sources  amounted  to  $691,778,465,  and  the 
total  internal  revenue  and  customs  receipts 
from  alcoholic  beverages  and  tobacco  and 
the  manufactures  of  same  amounted  to  $332,- 
497,000,  or  in  other  words,  the  receipts  from 
alcoholic  beverages  and  tobacco  was  48.06 
per  cent,  of  the  total  revenue  of  the  United 
States. 

The  customs  revenue  from  alcoholic  bever- 
ages, amounting  to  $16,765,000  was  divided 
as  follows:  From  malt  liquors,  $2,014,000; 
from  wine,  $5,809,000;  from  distilled  spirits, 
$8,942,000.  The  customs  revenue  from  to- 
bacco and  the  manufactures  of  same  amounted 
to  $25,572,000.  The  internal  revenue  from 
alcoholic  beverages,  exclusive  of  license  duties, 
which  for  the  manufacture  of  malt  liquors 
and  distilled  spirits  amounted  to  $484,000, 
and  for  the  sale  of  malt  liquors  and  distilled 
spirits  to  $7,134,000,  totaling  $212,142,000, 
was  divided  as  follows:  From  malt  liquors, 
$62,108,000;  and  from  distilled  spirits,  $149,- 
934,000.  The  internal  revenue  from  tobacco 
amounted  to  $70,590,000.  Thus  for  the  year 
the  total  internal  revenue  and  customs  re- 
ceipts from  alcoholic  beverages  amounted  to 
$236,335,000,  and  from  tobacco  and  the 
manufacture  of  same  $96,162,000. 

Domestic  Express  Rates. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  space  allotted  to  the 
subject  to  give  an  accurate  idea  of  dornestic 
express  rates.  However,  the  matter  will  be 
greatly  simplified  if  the  rates  based  on  a  zone 
system,  as  advocated  by  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission,  are  put  into  effect.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  Parcels  Post  has  caused  a  ma- 
terial reduction  in  the  present  rates  and  tariffs. 

Foreign  Express  Rates. 

The  following  is  a  tariff  of  all  rates  for 
express  packages.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  rates  of  this  kind  are  subject  to  change 
without  notice,  and  they  are  pubhshed  solely 
in  the  interests  of  the  shipper.  These  rates 
may  be  considered  to  be  maximum.  Thus  we 
find  another  company  offering  shippings  to 
Italy  as  low  as  40  cents  a  single  pound  to 
Genoa,  60  cents  to  Rome,  and  65  cents  to 
other  railway  stations.  Also  a  rate  of  30 
cents  a  pound  to  Paris  and  25  cents  a  pound 
for  shipments  to  London,  via  Southampton. 
The  rates  on  say  a  hundred  pounds  do  not 
vary  in  quite  the  same  ratio.  It  is  believed 
that  with  this  tariff  of  rates  the  intending 
traveler  can  make  his  arrangements  as  to  ship- 
ping packages  of  guide  books,  etc.,  rather 
more  intelligently  than  without  it.  Rates  to 
South  Africa,  North  Africa,  Asia,  India,  Japan, 
Australia,  the  West  Indies,  Porto  Rico,  Cen- 
tral America  and  South  America  are  not  in- 
cluded, as  these  rates  vary  so  radically  that  it 
is  impossible  to  get  any  accurate  idea  of  what 
the  shipment  would  actually  cost  without  the 
publication  of  a  more  extensive  table  than 
space  will  permit. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


183 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  AUSTRALASIA. 


INTERNATIONAL  UNION  FOR  THE  PUBLICATION  OF  CUSTOMS  TARIFFS. 


The  International  Union  for  the  Publication 
of  Customs  Tariffs  was  founded  by  an  inter- 
nationfil  convention,  July  5,  1890,  and  con- 
cluded between  fifty-two  states  and  semi-inde- 
pendent colonies.  The  object  of  the  union  is 
to  publish  as  promptly  and  as  correctly  as 
possible  all  the  tariffs  of  the  world  in  five 


languages,  viz.,  English,  French,  German, 
Italian,  and  Spanish.  The  bureau  has  its  seat 
at  Brussels,  and  is  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  Government  of  Belgium.  The  members  of 
the  bureau  are  delegates  from  the  principal 
countries  whose  language  is  used  in  the  publi- 
cations. 


184 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Monetary  systems  and  approximate  stocks  of  money,  in  (he  aggregate  and 


Countries. 

Monetary 
standard. 

Monetary  unit. 

Population. 

Stock  of  gold. 

In  banks 
and  public 
treasuries. 

In  circula- 
tion. 

Total. 

1 

United  States 

Austria-Hungary... 

Gold.... 
....do.... 
....do.... 

Dollar 

Thousands. 
94,800 
49,400 
7,300 

4,400 

6,200 

45,000 

295,000 

7,800 
1,600 

4,000 
2,100 
2,700 
11,300 
2,900 
39,300 
64,900 
2,600 
1,500 
33,900 
62,200 
16,000 
6,900 
2,400 
5,400 
6,800 
160,100 
2,800 
7^000 

7,000 
2,300 
20,600 
3,600 
4,300 
1,500 

300 

100 

100 

800 

4,600 

1,100 

2,600 

19,700 

6,400 

3,300 

24,000 

5,300 

Thousands. 

1,429,800 

266,700 

36,600 

207,800 

138,200 

1375,000 

3  44,600 

50,400 
6,800 

7,700 

Thousands. 
369,800 
90,600 

Thousands. 

1,799,600 

356,300 

? 

Crown 

3 

Franc 

4 
6 

British  Empire: 

....do.... 

Pound  sterling 

Dollar  .    .  .      ... 

14,600 

222,400 

6 

Canada 

United    King- 
dom. 
India 

South  Africa... 

Straits    Settle- 
ments.* 

BulgaHa 

Cuba 

....do.... 
....do.... 

....do.... 

....do.... 
....do.... 

....do.... 
....do.... 

7 
8 

Pound  sterling 

Pound  sterling  and 
rupee. 

Pound  sterling 

Dollar 

336,800 

»  710,800 

9 
10 

16,000 

66,400 

11 

Lev 

1? 

Peseta 

42,000 

38,300 

« 182, 700 

10,600 

6  1,200,000 

13 

....do.... 

19,800 

8,200 

6,900 

636,000 

"205,700 

2,600 

1,300 

288,600 

117,000 

31,200 

66,400 

16,200 

6,500 

30,600 

611,700 

6,600 

100 

248,300 

7,800 

116,600 

600 

18,500 

174,500 

3,700 

665,000 

14 

Egypt          

....do  ... 

Piaster 

16 

Finland 

....do.... 

Markkaa 

16 

France 

..do    .. 

Franc 

17 

Germany 

....do.... 

Mark 

18 

Greece 

....do.... 

1,900 
2,100 

4,400 
3,400 

19 

Haiti 

....do.... 

Gourde. 

?n 

Italy 

:.::do:::: 

Lira 

21 

r? 

Japan 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

....do.... 

....do.... 

-do 

Yen 

Peso 

16,900 

133,900 

?i 

Florin 

Crown 

19,200 
4,600 
8,000 
2,100 
334,600 

75,600 
20,800 
14,500 
32,700 
946,300 

?4 

Norway 

...  do.... 

?6 

Portugal 

....do.... 

Milreis 

?fi 

Roumania 

Russia 

....do.... 
....do.... 

Lei 

?7 

Ruble ^ 

Dinar 

?8 

Servia 

do 

?9 

....do,... 

Tical 

30 
31 

South      American 
States: 

Argentina 

Bolivia.    . 

....do.... 
....do.... 

Peso 

3? 

83 

Brazil 

ChUe 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Guiana- 
British 

Dutch 

....do.... 
....do.... 
....do.... 
....do.,.. 

....do.... 
....do.... 

Mih«is 

34 

Peso 

kfi 

Dollar 

36 

Sucre 

3,300 

100 

200 

100 

15,200 

8,300 

15,200 

600 

74,900 

22,800 

31,000 

14,900 

1,300 

2,100 

5,400 

37 
38 

Pound  sterling.... 
Florin 

39 

40 

French 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Spain 

..-.do.... 
....do.... 
....do.... 
....do-... 
....do.— 
....do.... 

Franc         . 

41 

Peso 

4? 

Sol 

3,900 

12,200 

43 

Peso 

44 

2,600 

138,200 

3,200 

34,700 

127,500 

100 

3,100 
213,100 
26,000 
65,700 
142,400 
1,400 

4F> 

Peseta  . 

46 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey 

....do.... 
....do.... 
....do.... 

Crown 

47 

Franc 

48 

Piaster 

49 

Centrad    American 
States. 

Total 

Silver".. 

Peso 

1,040,600 

5,167,600 

Note.— The  blank  spaces  in  this  table  signify  that  no  satisfactory  information  is  available. 

»  Estimates  for  the  United  Kingdom  prior  to  that  for  1910  were  tot  coin  only;  these  figures  include 
$100,000,000  for  bullion  in  the  Bank  of  England;  also  $12,200,000  gold  belonging  to  Indian  gold-standard 
reserve. 

*  This  is  the  amount  in  the  currency  reserves.  Fred,  J.  Atkinson,  accountant  general  of  India,  in  1908, 
estimated  the  active  rupee  circulation  at  2,040,000,000  rupees;  small  silver  coin  at  140,000,000  rui)ees. 

» Includes  Straits  Settlements,  the  Malay  States,  and  Jonore, 

*  This  estimate  is  based  upon  a  calculation  made  by  Messrs.  P.  Arminjon  and  B.  Michel  in  1908,  who 
estimated  the  stock  of  gold  in  the  country  at  from  33,000,000  to  41i000.000  Egyptian  pounds.    The  mean 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


185 


per  capita,  in 

(he  principal  countries  of  the  worlds  Dec.  31  ^ 

1911. 

Stock  of  silver. 

Uncovered 

Per  capita. 

Full  tender. 

Limited 
tender. 

Total. 

paper. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Paper. 

Total. 

Thousands. 

Thousands. 

Thousands. 

Thousands. 

- 

508,300 

167,600 

735,900 

764,500 

$18.98 

r.76 

$8.07 

$34.81 

1 

Nil. 

122,900 

122,900 

197,600 

7.21 

2.49 

4.00 

13.70 

2 

8,700 

2,400 

11,100 

139,000 

6.00 

1.52 

19.04 

25.66 

3 
4 

5 

Nil 

10,000 
7,700 

10,000 
7,700 

60.54 

2.27 

.  ,* 

62.81 

Nil". 

79,'i66" 

22.29 

1.24 

12.76 

36.29 

6 

Nil. 

116,800 

116,800 

115,200 

16.80 

2.59 

2.56 

20.96 

7 

97,400 

45,000 

142,400 

45,400 

.14 

.48 

.16 

.78 

8 

Nil. 

20,000 

20,000 

8.38 

2.66 

10.94 

9 

Nil. 

19,000 

19,000 

""""7*566' 

4.26 

11.88 

4*68' 

20.81 

10 

Nil. 

4,800 

4,800 

9,900 

1.93 

1.20 

2.47 

6.60 

11 

NiL 

Nil. 

6,000 
7,900 

6,000 
7,900 

20.00 
14.19 

2.38 
2.92 

22.38 
23.52 

12 

i7,'366' 

6.'4i' 

13 

Nil. 

14,300 

14,300 

6,600 

16.17 

1.26 

.58 

18.01 

14 

Nil. 

500 

500 

14,900 

3.66 

.17 

6.13 

8.96 

16 

347,400 

63,700 

411,100 

245,900 

30.53 

10.46 

6.26 

47.25 

16 

kil. 

263,600 

253,600 

276,100 

3.16 

3.90 

4.24 

11.30 

n 

Nil. 

3,000 

3,000 

27,600 

1.69 

1.16 

10.62 

13.46 

18 

1,000 

1  500 

2,500 

8,200 

2.26 

1.67 

6.47 

9.40 

19 

22,700 
kil. 

1  400 

24,100 

182,300 

8.51 

.71 

6.38 

14.60 

20 

64,200 

64,200 

101,700 

2.67 

1.23 

1.95 

6.56 

21 

52,000 
kil. 

4,000 

56,000 

51,200 

2.08 

3.73 

3.41 

9.22 

22 

29,000 

29,000 

64,700 

12.81 

4.92 

10.97 

28.70 

23 

Nil. 

3,700 

3,700 

8,700 

8.67 

1.54 

3.62 

13.83 

24 

Nil. 

33,100 

33,100 

69,900 

2.69 

6.13 

12.94 

21.76 

26 

Nil. 

12,600 

12,600 

43,200 

4.81 

1.85 

6.35 

18.01 

26 

Nil 

78,800 
1,300 

78,800 
1,300 

6  91 

49 

6  40 

27 

Nil! 

4,'966' 

2.32 

.46 

i.'75' 

4.63 

28 

Nil. 

52,200 

62,200 

2,100 

.01 

7.46 

.30 

7.77 

29 
30 

Nil. 

9,400 

9,400 

T 692,200 

35.47 

1.34 

98.89 

135.70 

31 

Nil. 

700 

700 

2,000 

3.39 

.30 

.87 

4.66 

32 

Nil. 

25,000 

25,000 

777,900 

5,68 

1.22 

3.80 

10.70 

33 

Nil. 

8,500 

8,500 

19,000 

.14 

2.43 

5.43 

8.00 

34 

Nil. 
Nil. 

810,000 
1,700 

2.33 
1.13 

2.33 
5.60 

35 

i,'366' 

i,"366 

3.' 66" 

.'87' 

36 

37 
38 

Nil. 

400 

400 

100 

.33 

1.34 

.33 

2.00 

Nil. 

300 

300 

300 

2.00 

3.00 

3.00 

8.00 

39 

NU. 

100 

100 

600 

1.00 

1.00 

6.00 

8.00 

40 

Nil. 
Nil. 

42,900 

19.00 
2.71 

63.63 

72.63 
3.24 

41 

2,"466' 



2,400 

.'53' 

42 

NU. 

4,300 

4,300 

8,'666' 

13.82 

3.90 

7."  28* 

25.00 

43 

Nil. 

10,800 

10,800 

800 

1.19 

4.15 

.31 

6.65 

44 

Nil. 

256,800 

256,800 

76,000 

10.82 

13.04 

3.85 

27.71 

46 

Nil. 

8,600 

8,600 

34,700 

4.81 

1.59 

6.43 

12.83 

46 

Nil. 

13,500 

13,500 

27,900 

19.91 

4.09 

8.45 

32.45 

47 

Nil. 

26,400 

26,400 

5.93 

1.10 

7.03 

48 

Nil. 

9,200 

9,200 

89,' 966' 

.26 

1.74 

""i6.'96' 

18.96 

49 

1,097,500 

1,523,700 

2,621,200 

3,567,500 

1 

of  these  figures  was  adopted  in  this  table  last  year.  Since  their  estimate  was  made  the  net  imports  of 
gold  into  Egypt  to  Dee.  31, 1911,  have  amounted  to  $28,919,061,  but  as  there  is  said  to  te  a  considerable 
absorption  of  gold  for  ornaments,  no  change  in  the  estimate  of  the  monetary  stock  has  been  made. 

6  Estimate  of  A.  De  Foville,  1909. 

9  German  war  fund  and  Imperial  Bank  of  Germany.  No  definite  information  as  to  other  holdings. 
The  coinage  of  gold  since  the  establishment  of  the  Empire^  less  recoinage,  amounts  to  $1,125,023,299,  but 
the  exports  are  unknown,  and  there  has  been  an  industrial  consumption. 

1  Gold  conversion  value. 

8  This  amount  has  been  reduced  to  a  gold  basis;  that  Is,  100  pesos  equal  1  United  States  gold  dollar. 

•  Except  Costa  Rica  and  British  Honduras  (gold-standard  countries). 


186 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


INTEREST  TABLES. 

SIMPLE  INTEEEST.* 


Time. 

1 

1 

1 

CO 

t- 

1 

CO 

1 

i 

•a 
o 

S 

i 

§ 

a 

04 

i 

so 

i 

i 

to 

i 

i 

Amt. 
11 

Int. 
7 

} 

1 
1 

1 
2 

i 

2 
3 

i 

3 
4 

4 

i 

i 

5 

I 
1 

.... 

7 

f2 

1 

1 

1 

i 

3 

4 

2 
3 
4 
6 

3 
4 
6 
6 

I 

7 

10 

12 

14 

.. . . 

... . 

?3 

i 

i 

i 
t 

t 

6 

5 

1 
6 
7 

11 

12 

1 
1 

1R 

i 

1H 











21 

?4 

4 
S 

? 

1 
1 

1 
2 

i 

2 
2 

i 

4 
6 

4 

i 

7 

5 

6 
8 

IE 

12 
14 

16 

1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

H 





.... 

1 

15 

4 
5 
6 
7 



1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 

1 

1 

1 

3 

i 

5 
6 

1 

6 
8 

5E 

13 
.15 

10 

18 

20 

I 

1 

^B 

' 

1 

1 

1 
1 



.... 

35 

$10.... 

1 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
2 

i 
1 

3 

4 
6 
6 

10 
12 

IS 

16 
18 

11 

20 
23 

i 

29 

35 

40 

1 

ftO 

1 
1 

\ 

18 

f26.... 

4 
5 

? 

.... 

.... 

1 
1 

I 

1 

1 
2 

1 
2 
2 
2 

i 

3 
3 

i 

3 
3 

i 

3 

4 

3 
4 

f 

4 
5 

? 

8 
10 

if 

il 

29 

25 

U 

44 

33 

i 

-  4i 

i 

50 
63 

ii 

"Too 

1.25 
1.50 
1.75 

1.00 
1.25 

»50.... 

4 
5 
6 
7 

'"'i 

1 
1 

1 
1 

2 
2 

3 

4 

i 

4 
5 

1 

t 

4 
6 

I 

5 

6 

i 

11 
14 

\l 

16 

33 
42 

ii 

60 
63 

75 
88 

■      67 
83 

1:?? 

1.26 
1.46 

2.00 
2.50 
3.00 
3.50 

flOO... 

■^ 

1 

2 
3 
3 
4 

3 
4 
5 
6 

4 

6 

S 

6 
7 
8 
10 

6 

8 

iE 

8 
10 
12 
14 

9 
11 
13 
16 

10 
13 
15 
18 

11 
14 

17 
19 

ii 

33 
39 

ti 

50 
58 

l!l7 

1.50 
1.75 

1:1? 

2.00 
2.33 

2:92 

2.00 

IS 

3.50 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 

aoo 

10.50 

4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 

f200... 

4 
6 
6 
7 

2 
3 
3 
4 

4 
6 
7 

8 

S 

10 
12 

9 
11 
13 
16 

w 

17 
19 

1! 

23 

11 
23 
27 

31 

1 

39 

44 

67 
83 

i:?? 

1.33 
1.67 

i:§i 

2.00 
2.50 
3.00 
3.50 

2.66 
3.33 

J:§§ 

3.33 

il 

8.00 
10.00 
12.00 
14.00 

$300. . . 

! 

3 
6 

6 

8 

12 

10 
13 

ii 

13 
17 

1 

16 
21 

i 

20 
26 

23 
29 
35 
41 

26 
33 
40 
47 

30 
38 
45 
53 

i 

i:i7 

1.50 
1.75 

2.00 
2.50 
3.00 
3.50 

3.00 
3.75 
4.50 
5.25 

5!oo 

6.00 
7.00 

i;E§ 

7.50 
8.75 

li:§8 

18.00 
21.00 

1500... 

4 
5 

? 

7 
8 
10 

11 
14 
17 
19 

25 
29 

39 

42 
49 

58 

39 

68 

44 

1? 

78 

50 

i 

66 

iTll 
1.39 
1.67 
1.94 

1.11 
1.39 
1.67 
1.94 

1.66 
2.08 

112 

3.33 
4.17 

5.00 
6.25 

l:5§ 

6.66 
8.33 
10.00 
11.67 

8.33 
10.42 
12.50 
14.58 

10.00 
12.50 
15.00 
17.50 

20.00 
25.00 
30.00 
35.00 

11.000. 

7 

11 

1! 

22 

28 

33 
42 

44 
56 

?l 

55 
69 
83 
97 

66 

83 

1.00 

1.17 

78 

97 

1.17 

1.36 

89 
1.11 
1.33 
1.66 

1.00 
1.25 
1.50 
1.75 

3:89 

5.00 
5.83 

11.67 

10.00 
12.50 
15.00 
17.50 

20.00 
23.33 

25.00 
29.17 

20.00 

35.00 

40.00 
70.00 

*In  order  to  find  the  amount  of  Interest  at  1 1-2,  2  1-2,  3  1-2  per  cent ,  etc.,  divide  the  amount  given  at 
twice  the  Interest  (i.  e.,  3,  5,  7  per  cent ,  etc.)  by  2. 

^COHPOXnTD  INTEREST  TABLE  NO.  1. 
SHOWING  THE  RATE  AT  WHICH  $1  WILL  INCREASE   WHEN   AT  COMPOUND  INTEREST. 


Tears. 

n 

4% 

6% 

6% 

7% 

Years. 

3% 

4% 

6% 

6% 

7% 

1    

i.C§ 

1.0927 

IS 

1.1940 

1 

1.0600 
1.1025 
1.1576 
1.2155 
1.2763 
1.3401 
1.4071 
1.4774 
1.5513 
1.6289 

1.0600 
1,1236 
1.1910 
1.2624 
1.3382 
1.4185 
1.5036 
15938 
1.6984 
1.7908 

1.0700 
1.1449 
1.2250 
1.3108 
14025 

]:'& 

1.7182 

l:r6?t 

1.3842 
116047 

IS 

1.5394 

1.8730 
2.1068 

1.7103 

l!9799 

2.2928 
2.4060 
2.5269 

1.8983 

IS 
la 

2.5403 
2.6928 
2.8513 
2.0256 

2 ; 

12   

9  9.^^29 

2.4098 

14  '■;:.■  .■."."." 

2.5783 

2.7590 

2.9522 

7 

17    ... 

3.1588 

ig    

3.3790 

3.6166 

10 

20 

2.1911 

2.6533 

3.2071 

3.8697 

COMPOTTND  INTEREST  TABLE  NO.  2 
SHOWING  THE  INCiREASE  OF  $1  IP  INVESTED  AT  COMPOUND  INTEREST  FOR  100  YEARS. 


Invest- 
ment. 

Per 

Cent. 

Amt.   in 
100  yrs. 

Invest- 
ment. 

Per 

Cent. 

Amount  in 
100  years. 

Invest- 
ment. 

Per  lAmt.  in 
Cent.  1100  yrs. 

1 

Invest- 
ment. 

Per 

Cent. 

Amount  in 
100  years. 

•1;::;:;; 

I'.'.WW 

2 
3 

4 

»2.7K 

7.25 

19.26 

60.60 

»i::::;;; 

1....... 

1 

5 
6 
7 
8 

$131.25 
340.00 
868.00 

2,203.00 

1 

9 
1§ 

$5,5^.00 
84;675!00 

'1 

1 

15 
18 
24 

11,174,406.00 

15,146,000.00 

2,551,799.404.00 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


187 


YEARS  IN  WHICH  MONEY  WILL  DOUBLE  AT  SEVERAL  BATES  OF  INTEREST. 

■ffir' 

,  Simple  Interest. 

Compound  Interest. 

Rate  of 
Int. 

Simple  Interest. 

Compound  interest. 

2     %     , 

3%% 
4     % 
4%%_ 

100  years 

69  years  and  245  days. . . 

II 
7% 
8% 
9% 
10% 

20  years 

16  years  and  243  days. 
14  years  and  104  days. 
12  years  and  183  days. 
11  years  and  40  days.. 

11  years  and  327  days. 
10  years  and  89  days. 
9  years  and  2  days. 
8  years  and  16  days. 

40  years 

28  years  and  26  days 

23  years  and  184  days. . . 

20  years  and  54  days 

17  years  and  246  days. . . 
15  years  and  273  days... 

33  years  and  4  months 
28  years  and  208  days. 

22  years  and  81  days. 

TABLES  OF  WAGE. 

MONTHLY  WAGE  TABLE, 


Days 

110 

111 

$12 

1     ,.3 

114 

115 

$16 

»17 

$18 

$19 

$20 

J 

.38 

.42 

.46 

.50 

.54 

.58 

.62 

.65 

.69 

.73 

.77 

2 

.77 

.85 

.92 

1.00 

1.08 

1.15 

1.23 

1.46 

1.54 

3 

1.15 

1.2' 

1.3f 

1.50 

1.62 

1.73 

1.85 

1  96 

2  08 

2.31 

4 

1.54 

1.6J 

1.85 

2.00 

2.15 

2.31 

2.46 

2  62 

2  77 

2  92 

5 

1.92 

2.12 

2.3: 

2.50 

2.88 

3.08 

3.27 

3.46 

8  65 

3  85 

« 

2.31 

2.54 

2.77 

3.00 

3.23 

3.46 

3.92 

4.15 

4  38 

4  62 

7 

2  69 

2.96 

3.23 

3.50 

3.77 

4.04 

4  31 

4.85 

5.12 

5.38 

8 

3.08 

3.69 

4.00 

4.31 

4.82 

4  92 

5  23 

5.85 

9 

3.46 

3.81 

4.50 

5.19 

5  54 

5  88 

6  23 

6.58 

6  92 

10 

3.85 

4.23 

4.62 

5.00 

5.38 

5.77 

6.15 

6  54 

6  92 

7.31 

7  69 

11 

4.23 

4.65 

5.08 

5.50 

5.92 

6.35 

6.77 

7.19 

7.62 

8.04 

8  46- 

12 

4.62 

5.08 

5.44 

6.00 

-6.46 

6.92 

7.38 

7. 85 

8.31 

8.77 

9  23 

13 

5.00 

5.50 

6.00 

6.50 

7.00 

7.50 

8.00 

8.50 

9.60 

10.00 

14 

7.00 

8.08 

8.62 

9.15 

9  69 

10.23 

10.77 

15 

5.77 

6.35 

6.92 

7.5a 

8.08 

8.65 

9.23 

9.81 

10:38 

10.96 

11.54 

1  1 

6.15 

6.77 

7.38 

8.00    : 

8.62 

9.23 

9.85 

10.46 

11.08 

11.69 

12.31 

1' 

6.54 

7.19 

7.85 

8.50 

9.15 

9.81 

10.46 

11.12 

11.77 

12.42 

13.08 

1  ; 

6.92 

7.62 

8.31 

9.00 

9  69 

10.38 

11.08 

11.77 

12.46 

13.15 

13.85 

1  

7.31 

9.50 

10.23 

10.96 

11.69 

12.42 

13.15 

13.88 

14.62 
15.38 

20 

8.46 

9.23 

10.00 

10.77 

11.54 

12.31 

13.03 

13.85 

14.62 

21 

8.08 

8.88 

9.69 

10.50 

11.31 

12.12 

12.92 

13.73 

14.54 

15.35 

16.15 

22 

8.46 

9.31 

10.15 

11.00 

11.85 

12.69 

13.54 

14.38 

15.23 

16.08 

16.94 

8.85 

9.73 

10.62 

11.50 

12.38 

13.27 

14.15 

15.04 

15.92 

16.81 

17.69 

24 

9.23 

10.15 

11.08 

12.00 

12.92 

13.85 

14.77 

15.69 

16.82 

17.54 

18.46 

25 

9.62 

10.58 

11.54 

12.50 

13.46 

14.42 

15.38 

16.35 

17.31 

18.27 

19.23 

1  month . . 

10.00 

11.00 

12.00 

13.00 

14.00 

15.00 

16.00 

17.00 

19.00 

20.00 

.      20.00 
30.00 

tffi 

24.00 
36.00 

26.00 
39.00 

28.00 
42.00 

30.00 
45.00 

32.00 
48.00 

34.00 
51.00 

54:00 

§?« 

40  nn 

3 

60  00 

4 

40.00 

44.00 

48.00 

52.00 

56.00 

60.00 

64.00 

68.00 

72.00 

76.00 

80.00 

5 

60.00 

55.00 

60.00 

65.00 

70.00 

75.00 

80.00 

85.00 

90.00 

95.00 

100.00 

6 

60.00 

66.00 

72.00 

78.00 

84.00 

90.00 

96.00 

102.00 

108.00 

120.00 

7 

70.00 

77.00 

84.00 

91.00 

98.00 

105.00 

112.00 

119.00 

133.00 

140  00 

8 

80.00 

88.00 

96.00 

104.00 

112.00 

120.00 

128.00 

144:00 

152.00 

160.00 

9 

90.00 

99.00 

108.00 

117.00 

126.00 

135.00 

144.00 

153  1  )0 

162.00 

171.00 

180.00 

10 

100.00 

110.00 

J  20. 00 

130.00 

140.00 

150.00 

160.00 

170.  K) 

180.00 

190.00 

200.00 

11 

110.00 

121.00 

132.00 

143.00 

154.00 

165.00 

176.00 

187.00 

198.00 

209.00 

22000 

1  year . 

120.00 

132.00 

144.00 

156.00 

168.00 

180.00 

192.00 

204.00 

216.00 

228.00 

240.00 

YEARLY  WAGE  TABLE. 


Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Year. 

Month. 

Week. 

Day. 

Year. 

Month. 

Week. 

Day. 

Year. 

Month. 

Week. 

Day. 

$20  is 

$1.67 

$0.38 

$0.05 

$100  is 

$8.33 

$1.92 

$0.27 

$180  is 

$15.00 

$;;.45 

$0.49 

25 

2.08 

.48 

.07 

105 

8.75 

2.01 

.29 

185 

15.42 

:55 

51 

30 

2.50 

.08 

110 

9.17 

2.11 

190 

15.83 

;i.84 

.52 

35 

2.92 

.67 

.10 

115 

9.58 

2.21 

.32 

195 

16.25 

51.74 

.53 

40 

3.33 

77 

.11 

120 

10.00 

2.30 

33 

200 

18.57 

2;.84 

55 

3.75 

88 

,12 

125 

10.42 

2.40 

.34 

205 

17.08 

3.93 

.56 

50 

4.17 

.96 

.14 

130 

10.83 

2.49 

.36 

210 

17.50 

4.03 

.58 

65 

1.06 

.16 

135 

11.25 

2.59 

.37 

215 

17.92 

4.12 

60 

5.00 

1.15 

.16 

140 

11.67 

2.69 

.38 

4.22 

.60 

65 

5.42 

.18 

145 

2.78 

.40 

225 

18.75 

4.31 

.62 

70 

5.83 

1  34 

.19 

150 

12.50 

2.88 

.41 

230 

19  17 

4.41 

.63 

75 

6.25 

1.44 

.21 

155 

12.92 

.42 

235 

19.58 

4.51 

.64 

6.67 

1.53 

.22 

160 

13.33 

3.07 

.44 

240 

20.00 

4.60 

.66 

85 

7.08 

1.63 

.23 

165 

13.75 

3.16 

.45 

245 

20.42 

4.70 

.67 

90 

7.50 

1.73 

170 

14.17 

3.26 

.47 

250 

20.83 

4.79 

.69 

95 

7.92 

1.82 

.26 

175 

14.58 

3.36 

.48 

WEEKLY  WAGE  TABLE. 

Hours. 

$1.00 

$2.00 

$3.00 

$4.00 

$5.00 

$6.00 

$7.00 

$8.00 

$9.00 

$10.00 

$11.00 

$12.00 

$13.00 

$14.00 

% 

.01 

l« 

.06% 
.08% 
.10 

-1 

•r 

.15 
.20 
.25 
.30 
.35 
.40 

1! 

.20 

Ml 

.25 

•III 

.05 
.10 
.20 
.30 
.40 
.50 

.06 

:P 

IP 

..30 
.45 
.60 

1:20 

:5o 

.68% 

.73% 

.91% 

:58 

.40 
.60 
«.80 
1.00 
1.20 

!:JS 

.86% 

.12 

.93% 

5 

6 

7 

8 

1.16% 

Days. 
4::::!!::: 

ins 

1.00 

1:33% 

1.66% 
2.00 

.50 
1.00 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 

2:66% 
3.33% 
4.00 

2.50    • 
3.33% 
4.16% 
5.00 

1.00 
2.00 
3.00 

B 

1.16% 
2.33% 

133% 
2.66% 
4.00 

1.50 
3.00 
4.50 

9:00 

1.66% 
3.33% 
5.00 

5.60 
11.00 

2.00 
4.00 
6.00 
8.00 

!S:S8 

2.1T 

4..34 

III 
10:86 
13.00 

2.33% 

B 

11  66% 

6 

14.00 

188 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK, 


Trade  Discount  Table 

From  the  Business  Man's  Pocket  Book,  by  permission  of  the  owners  of  the  copyright. 

The  International  Text  Book  Company,  proprietors  of  the  International 

Correspondence  Schools  of  Scranton.  Pa. 


Rate  Per  Cent. 


2* 

2^and2i 

2*  and  5 

2f  5,  and  2i.... 

2*.  5,  and  5 

2i,  5,  5.  and  2^. 

2*  and  10 

2i,  10  and  2^  . . 
2*.  10,  and  5.  . 
2i.  10,  5,  and  2i 
2i.  10,  and  10... 

5 

Sand  2i 

5  and  5 

5,  5.  and  2i 

5,  5,  and  5 

5,  5,  5,  aEd2i.. 

10 

10  and  2i 

10  and  5 

10,  5,  and  2i.... 

10.  5,  and  5 

10.5,  5,  and2i. 

10  and  10 

10.  10,  and  2^... 
10,  10,  and  5.... 
10,  10,  5,  and  2J 
10,  10,  and  10... 

15 

15  and2i 

15  and  5. .....  ., 

15.  5,  and  2^.... 

15,  5,  and  5 

15,  5,  5,  and2J., 

15  and  10 

15,  10,  and  2i... 
15,  10,  and  5.... 
15,  10,  5,  and  2i 
15,  10,  and  10... 

20. 

20  and  2* 

20  and  5 

20,  5,  and  2J.... 

20,  5,  and  5 

20,  5.  5,  and  2^.. 

20  and  10 

20.  10,  and  2i... 
20.  10.  and  5.... 
20,  10,  5,  and  2i. 
20,  10  and  10.... 

25 

25and2i 

25,  2*.  and  2i... 

25  and  5 

25,  5,  and  2^..., 

25.  5,  and  5 

25  and  7J 

25,  7*  and  2J... 
25,  7i.  andS.... 
25,  7|,  and  7^... 


Equiv- 
alent 


.0250 
.0494 
.0738 
.0969 
.1201 
.1421 
.1225 
.1444 
.1660 
.1872 
.2103 
.0500 
.0738 
.0975 
.1201 
.1426 
.1640 
.1000 
.1225 
.1450 
.1664 
.1878 
.2081 
.1900 
.2103 
.2305 
.2497 
.2710 
.1500 
.1713 
.1925 
.2127 
.2329 
.2521 
.2350 
.2541 
.2733 
.2915 
.3115 
.2000 
.'2200 
.2400 
.2590 
.2780 
.2962 
.2800 
.2980 
.3160 
.3331 
.3520 
.2500 
.2688 
.2871 
.2875 
.3053 
.3231 
.3063 
.3236 
.3410 
.3583 


Net 


.9750 
.9506 
.9262 
.9031 
.8799 
.8579 
.8775 
.8556 
.8340 
.8128 
.7897 
.9500 
.9262 
.9025 
.8799 
.8574 
.8360 
.9000 
.8775 
.8550 
.8336 
.8122 
.7919 
.8100 
.7897 
.7695 
.7503 
.7290 
.8500 
.8287 
.8075 
.7873 
.7671 
.7479 
.7650 
.7459 
.7267 
.  7085 
.6885 
.8000 
.7800 
.7600 
.7410 
.7220 
.7038 
.7200 
.7020 
.6840 
.6669 
.6480 
.7500 
.7312 
.7129 
.7125 
.6947 
.6769 
.6937 
.6764 
.6590 
.6417 


Rate  Per  Cent. 


25  and  10 

25.  10  and  2^.... 

25,  10.  and  5 

25,.  10,  and  7*... 
25.  10,  and  10. . .  , 

27* 

27jand2i 

27i,  2i,  and2i.., 

27iand  5 

27i,  5.  and  2^... 

27*,  5,  and  5 

27*  and  7i 

27|,  7*,  and  2^.. 
27*,  7i,  and5... 
27*.  7i.  and  7^.., 

27*  and  10 

27i,  10,  and  2^.. 
27*,  10,  and  5... 
27*,  10,  and  7^.. 
27i,  JO,  and  10. . , 

30 , 

30  and  2i , 

30.  2i,  and  2^. . .  , 

30  and  5 , 

30,  5,  and  2i 

30,  5,  and  5 

30  and  7i , 

30,  7*.  and  2^..., 

30.  7*.  and  5 

30,  7i.  and  7^..., 

30  and  10 •.  . 

30,  10,  and  2^.... 

30,  10,  and  5 

30,  10,  and  7^.... 
30,  10,  and  10.... 

32i 

32*  and  2^ 

32i,  2i,  and  2^... 

32*  and  5 

32i,  5.  and  2^.... 

32|,  5,  and  5 

32*  and  7^....  .. 

32i,  7i,  and  2^... 
32^,  7i,  and  5.... 

32i,  7i.  and  7i... 

32iand  10 

32*.  10,  and  2^... 
324,  10.  and  5.... 
32i,  10,  and  7^... 
32i,  10,  and  10... 

35 

35  and  2i 

35,  2i.  and  2^ 

35  and  5.. .. .» .. 

35,  5,  and  2i 

35,  5.  and  5 

35  and  7  J 

35,  7i,  and  2^.... 

35,  7*,  and  5 . 

35,  7|,and  7J.... 


Equiv- 
alent 


.3250 
.3419 
.3588 
.3756 
.3925 
.2750 
.2931 
.3108 
.3113 
.3285 
.3457 
.3294 
.3462 
.3629 
.3797 
.3475 
.3638 
.3801 
.3964 
.4128 
.3000 
.3175 
.3346 
.3350 
.3516 
.3683 
.3525 
.3687 
.3849 
.4011 
.3700 
.3858 
.4015 
.4173 
.4330 
.3250 
.3419 
.3584 
.3588 
.3748 
.3909 
.3756 
.3912 
.4068 
.4224 
.3925 
.4077 
,4229 
.4381 
.4533 
.3500 
.3663 
.3821 
.3825 
.3979 
.4134 
.3988 
.4138 
.4288 
.4439 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Trade  Discount  Table— (Continued) 


189 


Rate  Per  Cent. 


35  and  10 

35,  10,  and  2J. 
35.  10,  and  5.. 
35,  10,  and  7*. 
35,  10,  and  10. 
37i. 


37iand  2i 

37f  2i.  and  2J. 

37<  and  5 

37 J.  5,  and  2J.. 
5,  and  5... 

and  7i 

■  and  2i. 
and  5.. 
and  7i, 


>  ana 


37*  and  10. 
37i,  10,  and  2^. 
37i,  10,  and  5.. 
37*.  10,  and  7^. 
37i,   10,  and  10. 

40 

40  and  2i 

40,  2 J,  and  2^.. 

40  and  5 

40,  5,  and  2 J... 
40,  5,  and  5...  . 

40  and  7i 

40,  7i,  and  2i.. 
40,  7*,  and  5... 
40,  7i.  and  7i.. 

40  and  10 

40,  10,  and  2^.. 
40,  10,  and  5... 
40,  10.  and  7^.. 
40,  10,  and  10. . 


42^ 
42J 
42 
42| 
421 
42 
42{ 
42J 
42{ 
421 


and  2i 

2^,  and  2i. 

and  5 

,  5.  and  2^.. 
5,  and  5... 

and  74 

and  2J. 
and  5.. 
and  7i. 

and  10 

10.  and  2^. 
10,  and  5.. 


uuu 


Equiv- 
alent 


,4150 
.4296 
.4443 
.4589 
.4735 
.3750 
.3906 
.4058 
.4063 
.4211 
.4360 
.4219 
.4364 
.4508 
.4654 
.4375 
.4516 
.4656 
.4797 
.4938 
.4000 
.4150 
.4296 
.4300 
.4443 
.4585 
.4450 
.4589 
.4728 
.4866 
.4600 
.4735 
.4870 
.5005 
.5140 
.4250 
.4394 
.4534 
.4538 
.4675 
.4811 
.4681 
.4814 
:4947 
.5080 
.4825 
.4954 
.5084 


Net 


.5850^ 
.5704 
.5557 
.5411 
.5265 
.6250 
6094 
.5942 
.5937 
.5789 
.5640 
.5781 
.5636 
.5492 
.5346 
.5625 
.5484 
.5344 
.5203 
.5062 
.6000 
.5850 
.5704 
.5700 
,5557 
.5415 
.5550 
.5411 
.5272 
.5134 
.5400 
,5265 
.5130 
.4995 
,4860 
.5750 
.5606 
.5466 
.546i 
.5325 
.5189 
,531$ 
.5186 
.5053 
.4920 
.5175 
.5046 
.4916 


Rate  Per  Cent. 


42*,  10,  and  7*. 
42i,  10  and  10.. 

45 

45  and  2i 

45,  2i,  and  2^.. 

45  and  5 

45,  5.  and  2^... 
45.  5,  and  5.. .  . 

45  and  7^.. 

45.  7*,  and  2^. . 
45.  7i,  and  5... 
45,  7i.  and  7J.. 

45  and  10 

45,  10.  and  2^.. 
45.  10.  and  5... 
45,  10,  and  7^. . 
45,  10,  and  10.. 

47* 

47*  and  2^ 

47*,  2i,  and  2^. 

47*  and  5 

47*,  5.  and  2^.. 
47i,  5  and  5.... 

47*  and  7^ 

47*.  7*.  and  2J. 
47*  7*,  and  5.. 
47i,  7i,  and  7i. 

47i  and  10 

47i,  10,  and  2^, 
47*.  10,  and  5.. 
47i,  10,  and  7^. 
47i,  10,  and  10. 

50 

50  and  2^ 

50,  2i.  and  2i.. 

50  and  5 

50,  5,  and  2^... 
50,  5,  and  5...  . 

50  and  7i 

50,  7*.  and  2^.. 
50,  7|,  andS... 
50,  7i,  and  7J.. 

50  and  10 

50.  10,  and  2i.. 
50,  10,  and  5... 
50,  10,  and  7^.. 
50,  10,  and  10.. 


Equiv- 
alent 


.5213 
.5343 
.4500 
.4638 
.4772 
.4775 
.4906 
.5036 
.4913 
.5040 
.5167 
.5295 
.5050 
.5174 
.5298 
.5421 
.5545 
.4750 
.4881 
.5009 
.5013 
.5138 
.5262 
.5144 
.5265 
.5387 
.5509 
.5275 
.5393 
.5511 
.5629 
.5748 
.5000 
.5125 
.5247 
.5250 
.5369 
.5488 
.5375 
.5491 
.5606 
.5722 
.5500 
.5613 
.5725 
.5838 
.5950 


Net 


.4787 
.4657 
.5500 
.5362 
.5228 
.5225 
.5094 
.4964 
.5087 
4960 
.4833 
.4705 
.4950 
.4826 
.4702 
.4579 
.4455 
.5250 
.5119 
.4991 
.4987 
.4862 
.4738 
.4856 
.4735 
.4613 
.4491 
.4725 
.4607 
.4489 
.4371 
.4252 
.5000 
.4875 
.4753 
.4750 
.4631 
.4512 
,4625 
.4509 
.4394 
.4278 
.4500 
.4387 
.4275 
.4162 
.4050 


THE  SEVEN  WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


The  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  so-called , 
or  rather  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  Ancient 
World,  were  as  follows:  The  Pharos  of 
Alexandria;  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes;  The 
Great  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus;  The 
Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon;  The  Pyramids; 
The  Tomb  of  Mausolus;  and  the  Great  Statue 
of  Jupiter  at  Olympia.  All  of  the  Seven 
Wonders  were  situated  on  the  shores  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean.  If  the 
Greek  writers  had  been  better  acquainted 
with  the  north  of  Europe  or  the  south  of 
Asia,  they  would  probably  have  made  a 
different  selection. 


MODERN 

The  Seven  Wonders  of  the  Modern  World» 
according  to  the  poll  of  a  thousand  scientists 
in  America  and  Europe,  are,  in  the  order  of 
importance,  with  the  votes  cast;  Wireless 
telegraphy,  244  votes;  telephone,  185;  aero- 
plane, 167;  radium,  165;  spectrum  analysis, 
126;  X-ray,  111.  The  Panama  Canal  was 
given  100  votes;  anesthesia,  94,  and  synthetic 
chemistry,  81.  Only  one  ballot,  bearing  the 
name  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  authori- 
ties on  chemistry  of  Munich,  Germany,  was 
checked  for  the  seven  titles,  while  six  ballots 
showed  the  selection  of  six  of  the  final  seven. 


190 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  PHAROS  OF  ALEXANDRIA. 


THE  GREAT  TEMPLE  OF  DIANA 
AT  EPHESUS. 


Courtesy  of   "The  Sphere, 


THE  COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


191 


THE  HANGING  GARDENS  OF  BABYLON. 


Courtesy  of   "The   Sphere." 
THE  STATUE  OF  JUPITER  AT  OLYMPIA 


THE  TOMB  OF  MATJSOLUS. 


192 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Courtesy  of   "The   Sphere." 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  EGYPT. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  exercises  per- 
sonal supervision  of  public  business  relating 
to  the  agricultural  industry.  He  appoints  all 
the  officers  and  emjiloyees  of  the  department 
with  the  exception  of  the  Assistant  Secretary 
and  the  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  who  are 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  directs  the 
management  of  all  the  bureaus,  divisions,  and 
offices  embraced  in  the  department.  He  exer- 
cises advisory  supervision  over  agricultural 
experiment  stations  which  receive  aid  from 
the  National  Treasurj'. 

BUREAU    OF   ANIMAL   INDUSTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  conducts 
the  inspection  of  animals,  meats,  and  meat- 
food  products  under  the  act  of  Congress  of 
June  30,  1906,  and  has  charge  of  the  inspection 
of  import  and  export  animals.  It  makes  special 
investigations  in  regard  to  dairy  subjects. 

FOREST   SERVICE. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  gives  practical  ad- 
vice in  the  conservative  handling  of  forest 
lands;  investigates  methods  of  forest  planting, 
and  gives  practical  advice  to  tree  planters: 
investigates  the  control  and  prevention  of 
forest  fires,  and  other  forest  problems. 

BUREAU    OF    CHEMISTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  makes  such  inves- 
tigations and  analyses  as  pertain  in  general  to 
the  interests  of  agriculture,  dealing  with  fertil- 
izers and  agricultural  products.  It  inspects 
the  conditions  of  manufacture,  transportation, 
and  sale  of  food  and  drug  products  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  whether  such  products 
are  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the 
meaning  of  the  Pure  Food  and  Drugs  Act  of 
June  30,  1906.  Also  inspects  imported  and 
exported  food  products. 


BUREAU   OF   SOILS. 

The  Bureau  of  Soils  has  for  its  object  the 
investigation  of  soils  in  their  relation  to  crops, 
the  mapping  of  soils,  and  the  investigation, 
mapping,  and  reclamation  of  alkali  lands. 

BUREAU    OF   PLANT    INDUSTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  studies  plant 
life  in  all  its  relations  to  agriculture.  It  in- 
cludes vegetable,  pathological  and  physiologi- 
cal, botanical,  pomological  and  grass  and 
forage  plant  investigations. 

BUREAU    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  Bureau  of  Entomology  obtains  and  dis- 
seminates information  regarding  injurious  in- 
sects affecting  field  crops,  fruits,  small  fruits, 
and  truck  crops,  forests  and  forest  products, 
and  stored  products. 

BUREAU    OF    BIOLOGICAL    SURVEY. 

The  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  investi- 
gates the  economic  relation  of  birds  and  mam- 
mals and  recommends  measures  for  the  preser- 
vation of  beneficial  and  the  destruction  of 
injurious  species.  It  also  studies  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  animals  and  plants 
and  maps  the  natural  life  zones  of  the  country. 

OFFICE    OF    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  repre- 
sents the  department  in  its  relations  with  the 
agricultural  colleges  and  expeiiment  stations, 
which  are  now  in  operation  in  all  the  States, 
and  directly  manages  the  exoeriment  stations 
in  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  Guam. 
It  seeks  to  promote  the  interest  of  agricultura  J 
education  and  investigation  throughout  the 
United  States. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


MERCHANT    MARINE. 


Number  and  Net  and  Gross  Tonnage  of  Steam  and  Sailing  Vessels  of 
Over  100  Tons,  of  the  Several  Countries  of  the  World,  as  Recorded 
in  Lloyd's  Register  for  1913-14. 


Flag. 

Steam. 

Sail. 

Total. 

British 

Number. 

Net  tons. 

Gross  tons. 

Number. 

N^et  tons. 

Number. 

Tonnage. 

United  King'm 

8.514 

11,109.560 

18,273,944 

700 

422,293 

9.214 

18,696.237 

Colonies 

1,495 

915.950 

1,575,223 

578 

160,083 

2.073 

1.735,306 

Total 

10,009 

12.025.510 

ia.a49.i67 

1.S78 

588.376 

11.287 

20,431.543 

American 

(United  States): 

Sea 

1,209 

1.280,9.')8 

1,971,903 

1,487 

1.026.554 

2,696 

2.998.457 

Northern  Lakes 

593 

1.724,566 

2.285.836 

34 

96,854 

627 

2.382.690 

Philippine 

Islands 

69 

27,080 

44.555 

8 

1,934 

77 

46.489 

Total 

1.871 

3.032,604 

4.302.294 

1,529 

1.125.342 

3.400 

5,427,636 

Argentinian 

236 

107,172 

180,576 

72 

34.259 

308 

214.835 

Austro- 

Hungarian 

419 

629,444 

1,010,.347 

8 

1.067 

427 

1.011,414 

Belgian 

164 

186,581 

296.196 

8 

8,190 

172 

304,386 

Brazilian 

402 

188,645 

313.416 

57 

16,221 

459 

329,637 

Chilian 

95 

68,834 

108.491 

36 

31.301 

131 

139,792 

66 
55 

5.52 

55.375 

37.902 

415.880 

86.690 

60.895 

711.094 

66 

59 

811 

86,690 

Cuban 

4 
259 

641 
50,960 

61,536 

Danish 

762,054 

Dutch 

662 

794.840 

1,286,742 

97 

23.107 

759 

1,309,849 

French 

987 
2,019 

1.029,113 

2,877,887 

1,793,310 
4,743,046 

565 
302 

407,854 
339,015 

1.552 
2.321 

2,201,164 

German 

5,082,061 

Greek 

365 

443,771 

705,897 

77 

16.885 

442 

722,782 

Haitian 

5 

2,017 

3,387 

5 

3,387 

Italian 

591 

773,848 

1,274.127 

523 

247.815 

1,114 

1,521.942 

Japanese 

1,037 

956,702 

1.500,014 

1,037 

1,500,014 

Mexican 

43 

22,838 

37,920 

9 

2.129 

52 

40,049 

Norwegian 

1,597 

1.122,577 

1,870.793 

594 

587,097 

2,191 

2.457.890 

Peruvian 

20 

13,352 

25,814 

40 

19,700 

60 

45.514 

Portuguese 

105 

55,903 

92,636 

103 

27,943 

208 

120,579 

Roumanian 

32 

25,011 

45,123 

1 

285 

.S3 

45.408 

Russian 

716 
12 

403,022 
7,955 

790,075 
12,936 

500 

184,103 

1,216 
12 

974.178 

Siamese 

12,936 

Spanish 

547 

506,073 

826,261 

60 

14,734 

007 

840.995 

Swedish 

1.043 

551.964 

943.926 

393 

103,344 

1,436 

1.047,270 

Turkish 

135 

65,402 

111,848 

137 

45,450 

272 

157,298 

Uruguayan 

50 

38,360 

62,215 

15 

13,310 

65 

75,531 

Venezuelan 

8 

2,420 

4,232 

5 

679 

13 

4.911 

Other     countries: 

Bulgaria,      Co- 

lombia,    Costa 

Rica,  Ecuador, 

Egypt.       Hon- 

duras,   Liberia, 

Montenegro, 

Nicaragua, 

Oman.Panama, 

Persia.Salvador 

Samos  Sarawak 

Tunis,       Zanz- 

ibar, etc 

54 

16.027 

29,709 

22 

7.123 

76 

36.832 

Total 

23,897 

26.517,029 

43,079,177 

6,694 

3,890.936 

30.591 

46.970.113 

For  valuable  information  relative  to  ocean  travel  the  reader  is  referred  to  "Scientific 
American  Handbook  of  Travel."  published  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc.,  and  compiled  and 
edited  by  Albert  A.  Hopkins.  It  is  the  standard  book  on  the  subject,  and  the  tables, 
«tc.,  in  this  Chapter  bring  it  up  to  date. 

193 


194 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MERCHANT  MARINE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


On  June  30,  1912,  the  merchant  marine  of 
the  United  States,  including  all  kinds  of 
documented  shipping,  comprised  26,528  ves- 
sels of  7,714,183  gross  tons.  Of  this  number 
16,874,  having  a  gross  tonnage  3,625,525, 
were  operating  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coasts;  4,254  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of 
963,319,  were  operating  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
The  power  and  material  of  the  total  number 
of  documented  vessels  were  as  follows:  Sail- 
ing vessels — Wood,  7,442,  gross  tonnage 
1,279,633;  metal,  140,  gross  tons  259,214; 
total,  7,562,  with  a  gross  tonnage  of  1,538,847. 


Of  steam  vessels,  12,192,  having  a  tonnage  of 
1,111,905,  were  made  of  wood,  and  2,073.  with 
a  tonnage  of  4,067,593,  were  built  of  metal, 
making  a  total  of  14,265  vessels,  with  a  gross 
tonnage  of  5,197,858.  There  are  also  665 
wooden  canal  boats  having  a  tonnage  of 
72,567,  and  3,842  wooden  and  174  metal 
barges,  having  a  tonnage  of  922,911  tons. 
During  the  year  1,505  vessels,  having  a  gross 
tonnage  of  232,669  were  constructed.  Of  this 
number  104  metal  vessels  had  a  tonnage  of 
135,881. 


OCEAN  STEAMERS,  i6  KNOTS  AND  OVER.     Number  belonging  to  each  Country. 


Country. 


Argentine 

Austria 

Belgium , 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Great  Britain . 

Greece 

Holland 

Italy 

Japan 

Peru 


Spain 

Sweden 

United  States . . 


20  knots 

&  above. 


3X 


19  knots. 


18I  kts. 


x8  knots.    i7i  kts. 


IS      I'      4« 


23 


17  knots.  16  knots. 


I 
9 
a 
5 
31 
»S 
13a* 


55 


286 


•  P.  &  O.,  28;  British  India,  14;  White  Star,  13;  Union  Castle,  13;  Can.  Pacific  R..  n  ;  Cunard,  9;  Orient,  0; 
Union  of  N.Z.,  6;  Allan,  a;  Atlantic  Transport,  4;  Anchor,  3;  Huddart  Parker,  3;  Canadian  Northern  S.S.  Co., 
.Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Coast  S.S.  Co..  Howard  Smith  &  Co.,  2  each ;  Adelaide  S.S.  Co.,  Anglo-Algerian  S.S.  Co.. 
Bermuda  Atlantic  S.S.  Co.,  International  Nav.  Co.',  Ltd.,  Khedivial  Mail  S.S.  Co.,  Quebec  S.S.  Co.,  Royal  Mail,  and 
Wilson  lane,  i  each. 

N.B.— There  were  on  June  30,  191a,  about  2,785  steamers  in  the  world  capable  of  a  sea-speed  of  at  least  la  knots 
per  hour,  of  which  about  1,573  were  British.    Of  the  total  number  about  two-thirds  are  ocean-going  steamers. 


LARGEST  STEAMERS  FITTED  FOR  LIQUID  FUEL. 

Built  in 

Name. 

Gro.ssTon8. 

Speed. 

Owners. 

1908 
X908 
1910 
1903 
1903 
1901 
1902 
1907 
1907 
X903 
1903 
1903 
X912 
19x1 
X902 
1903 
X910 
X903 

Tenyo  Maru  

13,454 
i3,43» 
9,287 

tif^ 

8,672 
8,61s 
8,580 
8,580 
7,914 
7.914 
7,446 
7-367 
7,367 
7,291 
7,29x 
7>oS9 
7,02s 

20 
20 

12 
12 
«3 
13 

»3 
*3 

t^ 

18 
18 

t 
t 

•I 

Toyo  Kisen  Kabushiki  Kaisha. 

Chiyo  Maru 

*Kiyo  Maru 

♦Narragansett 

Arizonan 

Alaskan  

Texan  

Columbian 

Mexican 

Missourian 

Virginian    

Anglo- American  dl  Co.,  Ltd. 
American-Hawaiian  S.S.  Co. 

>>              >>              )> 

*Qoldmouth 

Helouan 

Wien 

Anglo-Saxon  Petroleum  Co.,  Ltd. 
Lloyd  Austriaco. 

*Pectan 

Spondilus     .       ... 

Pectan  S.S.  Co.,  Ltd.  (Thomas  WoodsendV 
Anglo-Saxon  Petroleum  Co.,  Ltd. 
American-Hawaiian  S.S.  Co. 
Anglo-American  Oil  Co.,  Ltd. 

Ilonolulan 

•Ashtabula  

•  Fitted  for  the  carriage  of  petroleum  in  bulk. 


t  Under  iz  knots. 


River  Length 

North    America 
Mississippi- 
Missouri  ....4,194 

Yukon    2*,050 

Colorado  2,000 


LONGEST  RIVERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


River  Length 

South  America 

Amazon    3,300 

La    Plata 2,950 

Africa 

Nile    3,670 

Kongo    2,806 


River                   Length 
Niger     2,600 

Asia 

Obe   3,235 

Yangtsekiahg     3,000 

Lena     2,860 

Amur    2,700 


River 
Mekong     . . 
Yenisei    ... 
Hwangho   . 

Length 
....2,600 
....2',500 
....2,30U 
2.000 

Europe 
Volga    .... 

....2.325 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


195 


MERCANTILE  FLEETS— BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN. 


LiN'ES. 


Hamburg-American  

Nofddeutscher  Lloyd 

P.  &  0.  Steam  N.  Co 

British  India  Steam  N.  Co.... 

White  Star 

Pittsburgh  S.S.  Co.     , 

•'Blue  Funnel"  Line 

Farness,  Withy  &  Co.,  Ltd.... 

Ellerman  Lines,  Ltd 

Hansa 

Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha  

Compagnie  Gdn^rale  Trans.., 

Union-Castle  Line  

Leyland  

Messageries  Maritimes 

Harrison 

Cunard   

Elder,  Dempster  &  Co.,  Ltd. 
Hamburg-South  American  .. 

Clan 

Koyal  Mail  S.P.  Co 

Nederlaud  Line  

Austrian  Lloyd 

Deutsche-Australische 

Canadian  Pacific  Railway 

Allan 

Wilson 

Union  S.S.  Co.  of  N.  Zealand 

Kosmos  •••• 

Pacific  Steam  N.  Co 

Societh.   Anonima  Nazionale 

di  Servizi  Marittiral 

Lamport  &  Holt 

Maclay  «fe  Mclntyre  ... 
Torenede  Dampskibs  Selskab 

R.  Ropner  &  Co 

Osaka  S.K.,  Ltd 

Prince 

Bucknall  S.S.  Lines,  Ltd 

Andrew  Weir  &  Co 

John  Henry  Usmar 

Gilchrist  Transportation  Co. 

Wm.  Ruys&Sons  

New  Zealand  Shipping  Co.  .. 
Unione  Austriaca  di  Nav.    .. 

Burrell  «&:  Son  

Koninklijke  Paketvaart  M... 

Red  Star  Line  

Chargeurs  R6unis 

Deutsche  Levante  Linie  

Edward  Hain  &  Son  

Holland-American 

W.Wilhelmsen 

American-Hawaiian  S.S.  Co. 

Anchor  

China  Nav.  Co.,  Ltd 

Moor  Line ^. 

Russian  Steam  Nav.  Co,  ..... 

Booth 

Anglo-Saxon  Petroleum  Co. 

Hugh  &  W.  Nelson,  Ltd 

Woermann  Linie     

Deutsche         Araerikanische 

Petroleum  Co 

Deutsche  Ost  Afrika 

S.  A.  Tomlinson  

Thomas  (Evan)  Radcliffe&Co, 


Hamburg  

Bremen  , 

London   , 

London   

Liverpool   

Cleveland  , 

Liverpool   

West  Hartlepool 

Liverpool   

Bremen  

Tokio  

Paris 

London  

Liverpool   

Paris... 

Liverpool   

Liverpool   

Liverpool   

Hamburg   

Glasgow 

London   

Amsterdam  

Trieste 

Hamburg   

Montreal    

Glasgow 

Hull 

Dunedin 

Hamburg  

Liverpool  


He&d  O&c0« 


Total 
Tonnage. 


Over 

20 

knots 


Rome  

Liverpool  

Glasgow 

Copenhagen  

West  Hartlepool 

Osaka  

Newcastle-on-Tyue 

London  

Glasgow 

London  

Cleveland,  Ohio   ... 

Rotterdam 

London   

Trieste    

Glasgow 

Amsterdam 

Antwerp 

Paris 

Hamburg  

St.  Ives  

Rotterdam    

Tonsburg   

New  York 

Glasgow 

London   

Newcastle-on-  Tyne 

Odessa 

Liverpool   

London   

Liverpool   

Hamburg    


Hamburg 
Hamburg 

Duluth 

Cardiff    .. 


943,000 
775,000 
543.000 
490,000 
479,000 
464,000 

45».«>« 
420,000 
406,000 
362,000 
330,000 

32X.OOO 

309,000 
301,000 
300,000 
285,000 
259,000 
258,000 
251,000 
238,000 
238,000 
225,000 

221,000 
220,000 
219,000 
200,000 
199,000 
197,000 
190,000 
183,000 


109,000 
109,000 

xo6,ooo 
105,000 


Knots. 


ao  xo  18  17  xfl  15  14  13'jta 


»7   4 
9 

20 


knots. 


108 

50 

5 

50 

6 

9 
xzz 
46 

37 

35 

zo 

z8 

8 

z 

9 

58 

46 

27 

25 

8 
«3 
46 

1 
60 
33 


S3 
109 

5* 
xoo 

«7 
ao 
33 


s6 


57 


55 


Houlders  Bros. ;  Great  Lakes  Steamship  Co. ;  Russian  Volunteer  Fleet :  Soc.  G6n.  de 
yapeurs.  each  104.000  tons  ;  Lloyd  Brazileiro,  xoa.ooo  tons ;  C.  T.  Bowring  &  Co. ;  Nav.  Gen, 
Hail  S.S.  Co.,  each  xoo.ooo  tons. 


Transport  Maiitimes  <i 
.  Italiana;  and  Pacific 


196 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  "IMPERATOR." 


The  "  Imperator,"  the  largest  ship  in  the 
world,  was  built  for  the  Hamburg-American 
Line  by  the  Vulcan  Shipbuilding  Company. 
The  vessel  is  919  ft.  in  length,  98  ft.  in  beam, 
and  has  a  tonnage  of  50,000.  She  has  nine 
decks  above  the  water  line,   and  carries  83 


LARGEST  VESSEL  AFLOAT. 


life  boats,  including  two  motor  boats  equipped 
with  wireless  apparatus.  The  trucks  of  the 
masts  rise  to  a  height  of  246  ft.  above  the  keel, 
exceeding  those  of  the  loftiest  vessel  built. 
The  funnels  measure  69  ft.  in  length,  and  the 
oval  openings  measure  26'6"  x  18'.  The  rud- 
der alone  weighs  90  tons,  the  diameter  of  the 
rudder's  stock  being  2^-^  ft.  The  ship  is 
driven  by  quadruple  turbines  developing 
62,000  H.  P.  One  of  the  immense  roters  con- 
tains 50,000  blades,  weighs  135  tons,  and  is 
capable  of  developing  22,000  H.  P.  The  pro- 
pellers are  made  of  turbadium  bronze,  measure 
16'  6"  in  diameter,  and  may  be  driven  at  185 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  ve-ssel  has 
averaged  over  23  knots  throughout  a  day's 
run.  The  construction  of  the  "Imperator" 
has  been  carried  out  under  the  supervision  of 
the  Germanic  Lloyds  and  the  ImmignUion 
authority.  The  ship  is  divided  by  16  bulk- 
heads extending  two  decks  above  the  water 
line.  These  bulk-heads  aie  further  sub- 
divided, forming  in  all  36  separate  watr.r- 
dght  compartments.  The  "Imperator"  is 
constructed  with  an  inner  skin,  making  her 
a  ship  within  a  ship. 

The  most  careful  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  iSlavigating  Department  of  the  "Im- 
perator." The  vessel  is  commanded  by  a 
Commodore,  assisted  by  four  Captains,  one 
of  whom  is  constantly  on  duty  on  the  bridge. 
The  "Imperator"  is  equipped  with  every 
known  safe  device,  and  their  efficiency  is  as- 
sured by  frequent  drills  and  rigid  discipline. 
The  vessel  carries  3,600  passengers,  and  a 
crew  of  1,180.  The  "Imperator"  will  be 
followed  by  two  sister  ships  of  even  greater 
dimensions.  The  fjrst  of  these,  the  S.  S. 
Vaderland,  will  enter  the  North  Atlantic 
service  in  the  spring  of  1914. 


THE  NINE  DECKS  ABOVE  WATER  LINE  OF  THE  "IMPERATOR.' 


j  li^HH    ,__^_  Brali 


THE  BIGGEST  SHIP  PASSING   THE   BIGGEST   BUILDING 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


197 


Oopyright,  1913,  tjy  Munn  &  Co..  Inc. 

VIEW  FROM  AFTER-MAST  OF  THE  "OLYMPIC" 


LARGEST  FLOATING  DOCKS. 


Dock. 

Lifting 
Capacity. 

Length. 

Inside 
Width. 

Depth  over 
Keel  Blocks. 

Owners. 

Hamburg 

Kiel 

Medway           

Tons. 
46,000 
40,000 
32,000 
32,000 
30,000 
27,000 
25,000 
22,500 

22,000 
20,000 

Feet. 
728^ 

680 
558 
610 
600 

584K 
550   , 

Feet. 

"3 

154 

"3 

"3 

^^\ 
106 

100 

100 
97 

Feet. 

% 

30 
28 

27K 
37 

Bloehm  &  Voss 
German  Government. 
British  Admiralty. 

Buildyig. 

Vulcan  Co. 

Canadian  Vickei's,  Ltd. 

Portsmouth  

Nikolaieff  

Hamburg    

Montreal 

Pola 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

Hamburg    

Austro-Hungarian  Govt. 
Brazilian  Government. 
Reiherstieg  Co. 

198 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


The 


World's    Fastest    Merchant 
Ships  Now  in  Service. 

(Vessels  of  22  Knots  and  over) 


British  (24  Ships) : 

Ben-My-Chree  (turbine) 

Brighton  (turbine) 

Campania 

Connaught 

Dieppe  (turbine) 

Empress  (turbine) 

Empress  Queen  (pad.). . 

Inyicta  (turbine) 

Leinster 

Londonderry  (turbine) . 

Lusitania  (turbine) 

Manxman  (turbine) 

Mauretania  (turbine). . . 

Olympic 

Onward  (turbine) 

Riviera  (turbine) 

St.  Andrew  (turbine)  — 

St.  David  (turbine) 

St.  George  (turbine) ... 
St.  Patrick  (turbine)..  . 
The  Queen  (turbine) . . . 

Victoria  (turbine) 

Viking  (turbine) 

Viper  (turbine) 


Belgian  (6  Ships) : 
Jan  Breydel  (turbine). 

Leopold  II.  (pad.) 

Marie  Henriette  (pad.) 
Pieter  de  Coninck  (turb.) 
Princesse  Clementine 

(pad.) 

Princesse  Elisabeth 

(turbine) 

Dutch  (3  Ships) : 

Mecklenburg 

Oranje  Nassau 

Prinses  JuUana 


French  (3  Ships) : 

France 

La  Provence 

Newhaven  (turbine). 

German  (5  Ships) : 

Deutschland 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  II . . 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  der 


Kronprinzessin  Cecilie. 
Kronprinz  Wilhelm . . . 


Built 

Tons 
gross 

1908 

2,651 

1903 

1,129 

1893 

12,950 

1897 

2,641 

1905 

1,216 

1907 

1,695 

1897 

2,140 

1905 

1,680 

1897 

2,641 

1904 

1,95C 

1907 

31,550 

1904 

2,174 

1907 

31,937 

1911 

45,324 

1905 

1,671 

1911 

1,75C 

1908 

2,528 

19()H 

2,529 

1906 

2,456 

1906 

2,531 

1903 

1,676 

1907 

1,689 

1905 

1,951 

1906 

1,713 

1909 

1,750 

1892 

1,367 

1893 

1,451 

1910 

1,750 

1896 

1,474 

1905 

1,747 

1909 

2,885 

1909 

2,885 

1909 

2,885 

1910 

27,000 

1906 

13,753 

1911 

— 

1900 

16,502 

1902 

19,361 

1897 

14,349 

1907 

19,503 

1901 

14,908 

Speed 
knots 


25.34 

22 

22 

23.55 

22 

22 

22 

22.9 

23.5 

22.3 

25.88 

23.14 

26.06 

22.5 

22.9 

23.07 

22.50 

22.50 

22.50 

22.50 

22.25 

22 

23.53 

22 


22.50 
22.50 
22.50 


23 
23.25 

22.50 
23.50 
23 


Courtesy  of   "Shipping  World  Year  Book." 

A  Humiliating  News  Item. 
NO  U.  S.  FLAG  ON  THE  THAMES. 


NOT  A  VESSEL  FLYING  IT  ENTERED  THE  PORT 
OF  LONDON  LAST  YEAR. 

By  Marconi  Transatlantic  Wireless  Telegraph 
to  The  New  York  Times. 
LONDON,  May  8.— The  Pall  Mall  Gazette 
publishes  as  a  startling  fact  a  report  by  the 
Medical  Officer  for  the  Port  of  London  that 
no  vessel  flying  the  Stars  and  Stripes  arrived 
in  the  Thames  in  the  whole  of  last  year. 


Time  and  Watch  on  Board  Ship. 

Watch.  For  purposes  of  discipUne,  and 
to  divide  the  work  fairly,  the  crew  is  mus- 
tered in  two  divisions — the  Starboard  (right 
side,  looking  forward)  and  the  Port  (left). 
The  day  commences  at  noon,  and  is  thus 
divided: — 


Afternoon  Watch 

First  Dog 

Second  Dog 

First 

Middle 

Morning 

Forenoon 


noon  to  4  p.  m. 
4  p.m.  to  6  p.m. 
6  p.m.  to  8  p.m. 
8  p.m.  to  midnight. 
12  p.m.  to  4  a.m. 
4  a.m.  to  8  a.m. 
8  a.m.  to  noon. 


This  makes  seven  Watches,  which  enables 
the  crew  to  keep  them  alternatively,  as  the 
Watch  which  is  on  duty  in  the  forenoon  one 
day  has  the  afternoon  next  day,  and  the  men 
who  have  only  four  hours'  rest  one  night  have 
eight  hours  the  next.  This  is  the  reason  for 
having  Dog  Watches,  which  are  made  by  di- 
viding the  hours  between  4  p.m.  and  8  p.m. 
into  two  Watches. 

Time. — Time  is  kept  by  means  of  "Bells," 
although  there  is  but  one  bell  on  the  ship,  and 
to  strike  the  clapper  properly  against  the 
bell  requires  some  skill. 

First,  two  strokes  of  the  clapper  at  the  in- 
terval of  a  second,  then  an  interval  of  two 
seconds;  then  two  more  strokes  with  a  sec- 
ond's interval  apart,  then  a  rest  of  two  sec- 
onds, thus: — 

Bell,    one   second;  B.,   two   secs.;  B.   s.; 
B.  ss.;  B.  s.;  B.  ss.;  B. 

1.  Bellis  struck  at  12.30,  and  again  at  4.30 
6.30,    8.30  p.m.;  12.30,  4.30,  and  8.30  a.m. 

2  Bells  at  1  (struck  with  an  interval  of  a 
second  between  ■each — B.  s.  B.),  the  same 
again  at  5,  7,  and  9  p.m.;   1,  5,  and  9  a.m. 

3  Bells  at  1.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.)  5.30,  7.30, 
and  9.30  p.m.;   1.30,  5.30,  and  9.30  a.m. 

4  Bells  at  2  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.)  6  and  10 
p.m.;  2,  6,  and  10  a.m. 

5  Bells  at  2.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.) 
and  10.30  p.m.;  2.30,  6.30,  and  10.30  a.m. 

6  Bells  at  3  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.) 
and  11  p.m.;  3,  7,  and  11  a.m. 

7  Bells  at  3.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s, 
B.  ss,  B)  and  11.30  p.m.;  3.30,  7.30,  and 
11.30  a.m. 

8  Bells  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B  ss,. 
B,  s.  B.)  every  4  hours,  at  noon,  at  4  p.m. 
8  p.m.,  midnight,  4  a.m.,  and  8  a.m. 

Depth  of  the  Sea. 

Yards  depth. 
Average.     Max. 

Atlantic 4,026      10,120 

Pacific 4,252      10.695 

Indian 3,658        7.565 

Arctic 1,690        4,400 

Antarctic 3,000        3,950 

Mediterranean 1,476        4,090 

Irish 240  710 

English  Channel 110  300 

German 96, 

Levant , .        72 

Adriatic 45 

Baltic 43 

The  Southern  Ocean  below  Cape  Horn 
reaches  a  depth  of  5,500  yards,  and  off  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  5.700  yards.  The  average 
depth  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  is  1,200  yards. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


199 


FIRST  STEAMBOATS,  PIONEER 

1707.  Denis  Papin  experimented  on  River 
Fulda  witli  paddle-wheel  steamboat. 

1736.  Jonathan  Hulls  patented  designs  similar 
to  modern  paddle  boat. 

1769.  James  Watt  invented  a  double-acting 
side-lever  engine. 

1783.  Marquess  of  Jouffrey  made  experiments  in 
France. 

1785.  James  Ramsey,  in  America,  propelled  a 
boat  with  steam  through  a  stern-pipe. 

1^5.  Robert  Fitch,  in  America,  propelled  a 
boat  with  canoe-paddles  fixed    to    a  moving 


1787.  Robert  Miller,  of  Edinburgh,  tried  primi- 
tive manual  machinery. 

1788.  Miller,  with  Symington,  produced  a 
double-hull  stern-wheel  steamboat. 

1802.  Charlotte  Dundas,  the  first  practical 
steam  tugboat,  designed  by  Symington. 

1804.  Phoenix,  screw-boat  designed  by  Stephens 
in  New  York  ;  first  steamer  to  make  a  sea  voyage. 

1807.  Clermont,  first  passenger  steamer  con- 
tinuously employed ;  built  by  Fulton  in  U.S.A. 

s8i2.  Comet,  first  passenger  steamer  con- 
tinuously employed  in  Europe ;  built  by  Miller 
in  Scotland. 

1818.  Bob  Roy,  first  sea-trading  steamer  in  the 
world  ;  built  at  Glasgow. 

x8iQ.  Savannah,  first  auxiliary  steamer,  paddle 
wheels,  to  cross '  the  Atlantic ;  built  in  New 
York.- 

xSzx.  Aaron  Manhy,  first  steamer  (English 
canal  boat)  built  of  iron. 

1823.  City  of  Dublin  Steam  Packet  Co.  was 
established. 

1824.  General  Steam  Navigation  Co.  was 
established  at  London. 

1824.  George  Thompson  &  Co.  (Aberdeen  Line) 
were  established. 

1825.  Enterprise  made  the  first  steam  passage 
to  India. 

1825.  William  Fawcett,  pioneer  steamer  of  the 
P.  &  0.  S.  N.  Co. 

1830.  T.  &  J.  Harrison  (Harrison  Line)  were 
established  at  Liverpool. 

1832.  Elburkah,  iron  steamer,  took  a  private 
exploring  party  up  the  Niger. 

1834.  Lloyd's  Register  for  British  and  Foreign 
Shipping  established. 

1836.  F.  Green  &  Co.  established  at  London. 

1836.  Austrian  Lloyd  Steam  Navigation  Co. 
established  at  Trieste. 

X837.  Francis  B.  Ogden,  first  successful  screw 
tugboat ;  fitted  with  Ericsson's  propeller. 

1838.  .4rc/ttr>?€(ies,madethe  Dover-Calaispassage 
under  two  hours,  fitted  with  Smith's  propeller. 

1838.  B.  F.  Stockton,  built  for  a  tugboat, 
fitted  with  Ericsson's  propeller,  sailed  to 
America ;  first  iron  vessel  to  cross  the  Atlantic  ; 
first  screw  steamer  used  in  America. 

1839.  Thames,  pioneer  steamer  of  the  Royal 
Mail  Steam  Packet  Co. 

i8jo.  George  Smith  &  Sons  (City  Line)  were 
established  at  Glasgow. 

X840.  Britannia,  pioneer  steamer  of  the  Cunard 
Line. 

X840.  Chile,  pioneer  steamer  of  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Co. 

X84S.  Great  Britain,  first  iron  screw  steamer, 
precursor  of  modern  Atlantic  steamer. 

X845.  Thos.  Wilson,  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.  (Wilson 
Line)  established  at  Hull. 

1847.  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co.  established 
in  America. 


SAILINGS  AND  EARLIEST  LINES. 

X849.  Houlder  Brothers  &  Co.  established  at 
London. 

1850.  Bullard,  King  &  Co.  (Natal  Line)  estab- 
lished at  London. 

1850.  Messageries  Maritimes  de  France  estab- 
lished. 

1850.  Inman  (now  American)  Line,  established 
at  Liverpool. 

1851.  Tiber,  first  steamer  of  the  Bibby  Line, 
established  1821  at  Liverpool. 

1852.  Forerunner,  pioneer  steamer  of  the 
African  Steamship  Co. 

1853.  Union  Steamship  Co.  was  established 
(now  Union-Castle  Line). 

1853.  Borussia,  first  steamer  of  the  Hamburg- 
American  Packet  Co.,  established  1847. 

1854.  Canadian,  first  steamer  of  the  Allan 
Line,  established  1820. 

1834.  Donaldson  Bros,  established  at  Glasgow. 
i8ss.  British  India  Steam  Navigation  Co.  was 
established. 
X856.  Tempest,  first  steamer  Anchor  Line. 

1857.  Waldensian,  first  steamer  of  J.  T.  Rennie, 
Son  &  Co.  (Aberdeen  Line). 

1858.  Bremen,  first  Atlantic  steamer  of  th« 
Norddeutscher  Lloyd,  established  1856. 

X858.  Great  Eastern  launched  into  the  Thames, 
Jan.  3x  ;  commenced,  May  x,  1854. 

x8s8.  British  and  African  Steam  Navigation 
Co.,  Ltd.,  established  at  LiverpooL 

i86x.  E,  Ropner  <fc  Co.  established  at  West 
Hartlepool. 

X862.  Shaw,  Savill  &  Co.  established  at 
London. 

1862.  Compagnie  G^n^rale  Transatlantique 
established  at  Havre. 

x866.  DetForenedeDampskibs  Selskab  (United 
Steamship  Co.)  was  established  at  Copenhagen. 

1866.  Booth  Line  established  at  Liverpool. 

1866.  Agamemnon,  first  steamer  of  Alfred 
Holt  (now  the  Blue  Funnel  Line). 

X870.  Nederland  Line  established  at  Amster- 
dam. 

X870.  Dominion  Line  established  at  Lver- 
pool. 

1870.  Leyland  Line  formed  at  Liverpool. 

X871.  Hamburg-South  American  Steamship  Co. 
established  at  Hamburg. 

X872.  Glen  Line  established  at  London. 

1872.  Red  Star  Line  established  at  Antwerp. 

X872.  Chargeurs  R^uiiia  established  at  Paris. 

1872.  Holland-Amerika  Line  established  at 
Rotterdam. 

X873.  New  Zealand  Shipping  Co.  was  formed 
at  Cnristchurch,  New  Zealand. 

X873.  Kosmos  Co.  established  at  Hamburg. 

X877.  Orient  Line  established  at  London. 

X878.  Clan  Line  established  at  Glasgow. 

X878.  Hain  Steam  Ship  Co.,  Ltd.,  established. 

x88x.  Cia.  Trasatlantica  formed  at  Barcelona. 

1881.  Moor  Line  began  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1881.  Prince  Line  began  at  N'ewcastle-on-Tyne. 

1883.  Houston  Line  was  formed  at  Liverpool. 

1883.  Rotterdam  Lloyd  formed  at  Amster- 
dam. 

1885.  Federal  Steam  N.  Co.,  Ltd.,  established 
at  London. 

x88s.  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha  established  at 
Japan. 

x886.  Atlantic  Transport  Co.,  Ltd.,  formed  in 
London. 

x888.  Anglo-American  Oil  Co.,  Ltd.  formed  In 
London. 

1888.  German  Australian  S.S.  Co.  established. 


200 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LOWEST  OCEAN  RATES. 

To  and  from  New  York,  English  and  Continental  Ports. 
(Subject  to  change  without  notice.) 


Lines. 


American  Line 

SSs.  New  York,   St.   Paul,   St.   Louis  and  Phila- 
delphia   

Philadelphia-Liverpool  Steamers 

SSs.  Haverford  and  Merion 

SSs.  Dominion 

Atlantic  Transport  Line 

SSs.  Minneapolis,  Minnetonka,  Minnehaha,  Min- 

newaska 

Anchor  Line 

SSs.  Columbia,  Caledonia  and  Cameronia 

SS.    CaUfornia 

Mediterranean  Service 

SSs.  Italia,  Perugia  and  Calabria 

Austro- Americana 

Kaiser  Franz-Joseph  I 

SS.    Martha  Washington 

SSs.  Laura,  Alice,  Argentina  and  Oceania 

Cunard  Line 

SSs.  Lusitania  and  Maiu-etania 

SS.    Campania 

SSs.  Carmania  and  Caronia 

Boston-Liverpool  Service 

SSs.  Franconia,  Laconia •. 

Ivernia   and    Saxonia 

Mediterranean  Service 

SSs.  Franconia  and  Laconia 

SSs.  Caronia  and  Carmania , 

SSs.  Ivernia  and  Saxonia 

SS.    Carpathia 

SS.    Pannonia 

French  Line 

SS.    France • 

SS.    La  Provence 

SSs.  La  Savoie  and  La  Lorraine 

SSs.  La  Touraine  and  Espagne 

SS.    Rochambeau 

SSs.  Chicago  and  Niagara 

SSs.  Floride  and  Caroline 

Fabre  Line 

SS.    Patria 

SS.    Sant'  Anna  and  Canada 

SSs.  Madonna  and  Venezia 

SSs.  Roma  and  Germania 

Hamburg-American  Line 

SS.    Imperator 

SSs.  Amerika  and  Kaiserin  Aug.  Victoria 

SSs.  Cleveland,  Cincinnati  and  Victoria  Luise 

SSs.  Moltke  and  Bluecher 

SSs.  President  Lincoln,  President  Grant  and  Ham- 
burg   

SSs.  Graf  Waldersee  and  Pennsylvania 

Mediterranean  Service 

SS.    Moltke 

SS.    Hamburg 

SS.    Batavia 

Holland-America  Line 

SS.    Rotterdam 

SS.    New  Amsterdam 

SS.    Noordam  and  other  ships 

Italian  Royal  Mail  Lines 

SSs.  Verona  and  Ancoma 

SSs.  America,  Europa  and  Stampolia 

Philadelphia-Mediterranean  Service 

All  steamers 

Boston-Mediterranean  Service 

SSs.  Palermo  and  Napoli 

Lloyd  Italiano 

SS.    Taornima 

SS.    Mendoza 


1st  Class 

to  or  from 

Europe. 


$95 . 00 


50.00 
47.50 


85.00 


75.00 
70.00 


80.00 
75.00 
70.00 

127.50 
105 . 00 
100.00 

92.50 
85.00 

100.00 

105 . 00 

85.00 

82.50 

75.00 

122.50 

110.00 

100.00 

90.00 


75.00 
75.00 
80.00 
80.00 

127.50 

115.00 

97 .  50 

95.00 

90.00 


2d  Class 
to  or  from 
England. 


$52 . 50 


95.00     I, 
90 . 00     ' , 


107.50 
95.00 
85.00 

80.00 
80.00 

80.00 


80.00 
65.00 


50.00 
50.00 


2d  Class 
to  or  from 
Continent. 


65 .  00 
55.00 
57  50 

52.50 
50.00 


67.50 
60.00 
57.50 
55.00 

55.00 


57 . 50* 
55 . 00* 


*New  York  to  Plymouth  only. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


201 


I 


LOWEST  OCEAN  RATES— Continued. 


Lines. 

1st  Class 

to  or  from 

Europe. 

2d  Class 
to  or  from 
England. 

2d  Class 
to  or  from 
Continent. 

Lloyd  Sabaudo 

SSs.  Tomaso  di  Savoia  and  Principe  di  Udine 

75.00 
70.00 

125.00 

122.50 

115.00 

100 . 00 

95.00 

90.00 

100.00 
90.00 

97.50 
85.00 

65.00 

All  otiier  steamers 

65  00 

North  German  Lloyd 

SSs.  Kronprinzessin  Cecilie  and  Kaiser  Wilhelra  II . 

SSs.  Kronprinz    Wilhelm,     Kaiser     Wilhelm    der 

Grosse 

65.00 

65.00 
60.00 
57.50 
55.00 
55.00 

70.00 
70.00 

SS.    George  Washington 

65.00 

SS     Prinz  Friedrich  Wilhelm  

62.50 

SS.    G'-osser  Kurf  uerst 

60.00 

SS     Barbarossa  and  other  ships 

60.00 

Mediterranean  Service 

SS.    Berlin       

65.00 

Ail  other  steamers 

65.00 

Red  Star  Line 

SS.    Lapland           

57.50 
55.00 

60.00 

SSs.  Finland,  Kroonland  and  Vaderland 

55.00 

Philadelphia-Antwerp  Service 

All  steamers                           

55.00 

Russian-American  Line. 

SSs    Russia    Kursk  and  Czar  * 

Scandinavian-American  Line 

77.50 

130.00 
110.00 
110.00 
95.00 
100.00 

White  Star  Line 

SS.    Olympic 

65.00 
57.50 
57.50 
52.50 
55.00 

53.75 
52.50 

70.00 

SS     Adriatic             .        

SS.    Oceanic 

62.50 

SSs   Majestic       

60.00 

SSs   Baltic  Cedric  and  Celtic  ...        

Boston-Liverpool  Service 

SS     Arabic                    

SS     Cymric 

Mediterranean  Service 

SS     Canopic                        

85.00 
82.50 

65  00 

SS.    Cretic 

65.00 

*  The  minimum  first  class  fare  from  New  York  to  Rotterdam  is  $65.00  and  to 
Libau  $75.00.  Second  class  fare  from  New  York  to  Rotterdam  is  $45.00  and  to 
Libau  $50.00.  The  minimum  first  class  fare  from  Libau  to  New  York  is  $75.00  and 
second  class  fare  $62.50. 

The  above  are  the  lowest  or  minimum  rates  from  port  to  port.  Through  rates  to 
London  or  Paris  should  be  made  by  adding  to  the  above  rates  the  following  railroad 
rates  of  class  and  from  desired  port: 

From  Liverpool  to  London:  1st  Class,  $7.00.  In  connection  with  2d  Class 
ocean  tickets  a  3d  Class  railroad  ticket  is  furnished  for  $2.50.  Fishguard  to  London, 
1st  Class,  $8.25,  and  3d  Class,  $2.50,  in  connection  with  2d  Class  ocean  tickets. 

From  Liverpool  to  Paris:  1st  class  $21.00;  Fishguard  to  Paris  $22.25.  In  con- 
nection with  2d  Class  ocean  tickets,  transportation  is  provided  from  Liverpool  and 
Fishguard  on  payment  of  $7.50. 

From  Plymouth  to  London:     1st  Class,  $7.50;    2d  Class,  $4.75;    3d  Class,  $3.75. 

From  Dover  to  London:     1st  Class,  $4.75;    2d  Class,  $3.15. 

From  Southampton  to  London :     1st  Class.  $2.75;   2d  Cla.ss,  $1.75;   3d  Class,  $1 .40. 

From  Cherbourg  to  Paris:     1st  Class,  $8.75;    2d  Cla.ss,  $6.25;    3d  Class.  $3.60. 

From  Havre  to  Paris-     1st  Class,  $5.60;    2d  Class,  $4.00;    3d  Class,  $2.50. 

From  Boulogne-sur-Mer  to  Paris:     1st  Class,  $5.50;    2d  Class,  $3.70. 

From  Marseilles  to  Paris.  Ist  Class,  $18.85;  2d  Class  $12.80. 


PACIFIC  MAIL  STEAMSHIP  COMPANY.— PANAMA  LINE. 

Between  San  Francisco  and  Mazatlan,  San  Bias,  Manzanillo,  Acapulco,  Salina  Cniz, 
Ocos,  Champerico,  San  Jose  de  Guatemala,  Acajutla,  La  Libertad,  La  Union,  Amapala, 
Corinto,  San  Jose  del  Sue,  Punta  Arenas,  Balboa  (Panama). 

San  Francisco  ,and  Panama,  $120.  Round  Trip,  $216.  Steerage,  $60.  San  Francisco 
and  New  York,  $120.     Steerage,  $65.     San  Francisco  and  New  Orleans,  $120.      First  class  only. 

New  express,  passenger  and  freight  service  direct  for  Panama  and  New  York,  calling 
only  at  San  Pedro  (Los  Angeles)  en  route.  San  Francisco  to  Panama,  $85,  Round  Trip,  $150. 
To  New  York,  $120.     To  New  Orleans,  $120. 


202 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM  NEW  YORK  * 


AMERICAN    LINE. 


Steamships. 

Year 

Gross 
Tonnage 

Indie. 
H.-P. 

Length 

New  York  (Rebuilt  1903)          

1888 
1895 
1895 
1899 

10,798 
11,629 
11,629 
10,786 

16,000 
17,500 
17,000 
16,800 

576 

St.  Louis 

554 

St.  Paul 

554 

Philadelphia 

576 

ANCHOR    LINE. 


Columbia. 
Caledonia . 
California . 
Cameronia 


8,400 

9,400 

9,000 

10,500 


8,400 
10,200 

7,000 
12,000 


503 
515 
485 
532 


ATLANTIC   TRANSPORT   LINE. 


Minneapolis. 
Minnehaha . 
Minnetonka. 
Minnewaska 


1900 

13,448 

9,500 

1900 

13,443 

9,500 

1902 

13,440 

9,500 

1909 

14,317 

9,500 

616 
616 
616 
616 


AU8TRO-AMERICAN    LINE. 


Laura 

Alice 

Argentina 

Oceania 

Martha  Washington .  . 
Kaiser  Franz-Joseph  I 
Belvedere 


1907 

6,122 

1907 

6,122 

1907 

5,526 

1907 

5,497 

1909 

8,312 

1912 

12,567 

1913 

11.000 

4,500 
4,500 
3,600 
3,600 
7,500 
13,000 


Campanij 

Mauretania 

Lusitania 

Caronia 

Carmania 

Franconia 

Laconia 

Aquitania  (Building). 


415 
415 
416 
390 
460 
500 
418 


COMPAXIA  TRANSATLANTICA. 

Cadiz  and  Barcelona  Service.) 

Antonio  Lopez 

Manuel  Calvo             .    .  . 

1891 
1892 
1887 
1889 
1889 

6,300 
6,000 
5,500 
5,500 
4,500 

5,000 
6,000 
4,800 
5,000 
4,500 

430 
419  8 

410.6 

Monte-Video 

410 

Montserrat 

371 

CUNAR 

(Queenstown  and 

a    LINE. 

Liverpool  Service.) 

189i 

13,000 

30,000 

620 

1907 

32,000 

70,000 

790 

1907 

32,500 

70,000 

785 

1905 

20,000 

21,000 

675 

1905 

20,000 

21,000 

675 

1911 

18,150 

14,000 

600 

1912 

18,098 

14,000 

600 

47,000 

901 

CUNARD    LINE. 

(Mediterranean  and  Adriatic  Service.) 


Ultonia                                     

1898 
1903 
1904 
1900 
1900 

10,200 
13,600 
10,000 
14,270 
14,210 

■10,466 
10,400 

500 

540 

PannoniSr          

501 

580 

Ivemia 

580 

*  Tables  copyright  1913  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


203 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM  NEW  YORK.— Continued. 

FABRE    LINE. 

(Various  points,  including  Naples,  depending  on  season  of  year.) 


Steamships. 

Year. 

Gross 
Tonnage 

Indie. 
H.-P. 

Length. 

1902 
1903 
1905 
1907 
1910 
1912 
1914 

5,291 
5,103 
5,633 
6,827 
9,350 
9,350 

6,000 
6,000 
6,200 
7,200 
10,000 
10,000 
12.000 

426 

Germania   

426 

450 

Venezia         

460 

500 

Canada 

Patria 

500 
525 

FRENCH    LINE. 


La  Touraine . 
La  Lorraine.  . 
La  Savoie . . .  . 
La  Provence. 

Chicago 

Niagara  .... 
Rochambeau . 
France 


1890 

9,161 

1899 

11,874 

1900 

11,889 

1906 

14,744 

1906 

11,112 

1908 

9,614 

1911 

12,678 

1912 

23,666 

12,000 
22,000 
22,000 
30,000 
9,200 
8,250 
13,000 
40,000 


536 
580 
580 
624 
520 
504 
543 
720 


HAMBURG-AMERICAN    LINE. 


Pennsylvania 

Patricia 

Pretoria 

Bulgaria* 

Graf  Waldersee 

Batavia* 

Victoria  Luise 

Hamburg* 

Bluecher 

Moltke* 

Amerika 

Kaiserin  Auguste  Victoria. 

President  Lincoln 

President  Grant 

Cleveland 

Cincinnati 

Imperator 

Vaderland  (Building) 


1896 
1897 
1898 
1898 
1899 
1899 
1900 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1907 
1908 
1908 
1913 
1914 


13,333 
13,273 
13,234 
11,077 
13,193 
11,464 
16,502 
10,532 
12,334 
12,335 
22,225 
24,581 
18,100 
18,100 
18,000 
18,000 
50,000 


5,500 
6,000 
5,400 
4,000 
5,500 
4,000 

14,000 
9,000 
9,500 
9,500 

15,500 

17,500 
7,500 
7,500 
9,300 
9,300 

62,000 


*  Mediterranean  Service. 

HOLLAND-AMERICA    LINE. 

(Netherlands-American  Steam  Navigation 


Co.) 


557.6 

560 

560 

501.6 

560 

501  . 

686.6 

498 

525.6 

525 

690 

700 

615 

615 

600 

600 

919 


Potsdam 

Ryndam 

Noordam 

New  Amsterdam 

Rotterdam 

Statendam  (BuUding) 


1900 
1901 
1902 
1906 
1908 


12,600 
12,546 
12,540 
17,250 
24,170 
35,000 


7,500 

7,590 

7,500 

10,000 

14,000 

21,000 


560 
560 
560 
615 
668 
740 


ITALIA   LINE 

(Society  di  Navigazione  a  Vapore.     Naples,  Genoa,  New  York  Service.) 

Napoli 

1899                    9,203 
1908                  10,000 

7,000 
7,600 

470 

Ancona 

520 

LA   VELOCE    LINE. 

(Navigazione  Italiana  a  Vapore  ). 

Stampolia 
Europa. . . 

1908/9 

1906 

12,000 
8,000 

9,000 
9,000 

525 
425 

NAVIGAZIONE    GENERALE   ITALIANA    LINE. 

(Florio  Rubattino). 

America 

1909 
1908 
1899 

12,000 
10,000 
9,203 

9,000 
7,600 
7,000 

525 

520 

Palermo .... 

470 

204 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM   NEW   YORK— Continued. 

LLOYD    ITALIANO, 


Steamships. 

Year. 

Gross 
Tonnage 

Indie. 
H.-P. 

Length. 

1905 
1906 
1905 
1906 
1905 
1908 

5,018 
4,983 
4,996 
5,181 
6,847 
10,000 

444 
444 
444 

477 
6,000 
7,600 

381  4 

Luuisiana 

393.7 
393  7 

Virginia 

381  4 

Mendoza 

420 

Taornima 

520 

NORTH    GERMAN    LLOYD. 

(Bremen  Service.) 


Friedrich  der  Grosse 

Bremen 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse . 

Rhein 

Grosser  Kurfurst 

Main 

Kronprinz  Wilhelm 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  II 

Prinzess  Alice 

Kronpr'n  Cecilie 

Prinz  Fr.  Wilhelm 

George  Washington 

Columbus 


10,568 

7,200 

11,570 

8,000 

14,349 

28,000 

10,058 

5,500 

13,245 

9,700 

10,067 

5,500 

14,908 

35,000 

19,500 

43,000 

10,911 

9,000 

20,000 

45,000 

17,500 

14,000 

25,570 

20,000 

40,000 

25,000 

NORTH    GERMAN    LLOYD. 

(Mediterranean  Service.) 


Koenigin  Luise. 


Koenig  Albert. 
Prinzess  Irene. 
Berlin 


10,711 
10,915 
10,643 
10,881 
19,200 


7,000 
7,000 
9,000 
9,000 
16,500 


RED   STAR    LINE. 


Vaderland. 
Zeeland . . . , 

Finland 

Kroonland. 
Lapland . . . 
(Building) . 


11,960 
11,905 
12,188 
12,185 
18,694 


10,000 
9,800 
9,300 
9,400 

14,500 


RUSSIAN-AMERICAN  LINE. 

Russia 

1909 
1911 
1912 

16,000 

-   14,000 

13,500 

10,000 
10,000 
10,000 

475 

Kursk 

450 

Czar 

425 

SCANDINAVIAN-AMERICAN  LINE. 


C.  F.  Tietgen 

Oscar  II 

HelligOlav 

United  States 

Frederik  VIII.  (Building). 


8,500 
10,000 
10,000 
10,000 
12,000 


WHITE   STAR    LINE. 


Majestic . . 
Oceanic . . , 
Canopic . . 

Celtic 

Cedric.  .  .  . 
Baltic... 
Adriatic. . 
Laurentic . 
Megan  tic . 
Olympic.  . 


10,147 
17,274 
12,097 
20,904 
21,035 
23,876 
24,541 
14,892 
14,878 
46,359 


16,000 
28,000 
8,730 
14,000 
14,000 
15,000 
17.000 
14,000 
11,000 
46,000 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


205 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM   PORTS  OTHER 
THAN  NEW  YORK. 


CUNABD    LINE. 

(Boston- Liverpool  Service.) 


Steamships. 

Year 

Gross 
Tonnage. 

Indie. 
H.-P. 

Length. 

Franconia 

1911 
1912 

18,150 
18.098 

14,000 
14,000 

600 

Laeonia 

600 

ALLAN 

LINE. 

Parisian 

1881 
1891 
1891 
1884 
1884 
1902 
1902 
1900 
1893 

5,395 
4,836 
4,838 
4.444 
3.846 
4,508 
4,505 
4,309 
3,546 

774 
582 
582 
475 
463 
446 
446 
359 
328 

440 

Numidian . . 

400 

400 

Carthaginian 

386 

372 

388 

Hibernian. 

385 

385 

Orcadian 

•  361 

LETLAND    LINE. 


1900 
1899 
1900 
1900 

10,435 

10,422 

9,309 

8,555 

4,702 
4,505 
4,120 
4,019 

571 

571 

Canadian 

549 

529 

WHITE    STAR    LINE. 


Cymric 
Cretic .  . 
Arabic. 


7,700 
7,300 
9,200 


WHITE    STAR    LINE. 

(Australian  Service.) 


Gothic . . . 
Belgic. .  . 
Ceramic. 


7,758 

9,767 

18,000 


NORTH    GERMAN    LLOYD   8.  S.    CO. 

(Bremen-Boston-New  Orleans  Service.) 


Breslau 

Cassel 

Chemnitz 

Frankfurt.  .  .  . 

Koeln 

Hannover.  . . . 
Brandenburg. 


1901 

7,524 

3,400 

1901 

7,553 

3,400 

1901 

3,200 

7,542 

1899 

3,200 

7,431 

1901 

8,850 

3,400 

1901 

8,850 

3.400 

1901 

8,850 

3,400 

ALLAN  LINE. 

(Montreal  Services.) 


Victorian 

Virginian 

Tunisian 

Corsican 

Hesperian 

Grampian 

Ionian 

Pretorian 

Corinthian 

Sicilian 

Sardinian 

Pomeranian 

Alsatian  (Building). 
Albynian  (Building) 


1904 

10,629 

1905 

10,754 

1900 

10.576 

849 

1907 

11.419 

917 

1908 

10.920 

803 

1907 

10.947 

825 

1901 

8.268 

604 

1901 

6.508 

800 

1899 

6.229 

447 

1899 

6.229 

447 

1875 

4,349 

316 

1882 

4.207 

550 

1913 

17,000 

18.000 

1913 

17,000 

18.000 

206 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM  PORTS  OTHER  THAN 
NEW  YORK— CorUinued. 


CANADIAN  PACIFIC  RAILWAY    CO. 

Steamships. 

Year. 

Gross 
Tonnage. 

Indie. 
H.-P. 

Length. 

1906 
1906 

14,500 
14,500 

3,168 
3,168 

548  8 

Empress  of  Ireland 

548!  9 

Royal  Mail  Steamers  "Empress  of  Britain"  and  "Empress  of  Ireland"  leave  Quebec  in 
Summer  and  St.  John  in  Winter.  Other  vessels  of  the  line  carry  second  only,  second  and 
steerage  only,  and  steerage  only.     Their  names  are  therefore  omitted  here. 

WHITE    STAR-DOMINION. 


Laurentic. 
Megantic. 
Canada. . . 
Dominion. 
Teutonic. . 


14,892 

15,000 

9,413 

7,036 

9,984 


6,641 
3,514 
16,000 


484 
550 
514 
456 

582 


DONALDSON    LINE. 

(Montreal  to  Glasgow.) 


1904 

1906 

Building 

8,668 
8,135 

5,600 
5,555 

478 

Cassandra 

455 

Saturnia 

MONTREAL    SERVICES— THOMSON    LINE. 

(Mediterranean  Service.) 


Tortona 

.  .  1     1909     1               7,907            1         5,400     | 

450.6 

PHILADELPHI>S 

STEAMSHIP   SERVICES — AMERICAN   LINE. 

Haverf  ord 

A       1901      1              11,635            1       4,157 

547 

Merion 

.        1902      I              11,621             1       3,953 

547 

Marquette. . 
Menominee. 
Manitou 


RED    STAR    LINE. 


1 


897 


7,058 
6,918 
6,848 


3,700 
3,700 
3,700 


502 
490 
490 


CUNARD  LINE. 

(Montreal — London. ) 

Ascania       

•1911 
1909 
1913 
1913 

9,111 

7,907 

13,404 

13.300 

482 

465 

540 

Alannia 

540 

FRENCH  LINE. 

(Quebec — Havre  Service.) 


Niagara . 
Floride.. 
Caroline. 


1908 
1908 
1908 


9,614 
7,029 
7,220 


8.250 
3,400 
4,200 


504 
437 
437 


(New  Orleans — Havre  Service.) 


Louisiane . 
Californie . 
Virginie . . , 
Mexico . . . 


1908 

5,399 

3,000 

403 

1905 

5,455 

3,000 

417 

1907 

5,579 

2,300 

409 

1907 

5,276 

3,000 

409 

These  tables  include  the  principal  lines  engaged  in  European  trade.  There  are  other  lines, 
however,  carrying  passengers,  but  which  are  omitted  on  account  of  infrequent  or  irregular 
services,  or  failure  to  respond  to  copies  of  proof  sheets  sent  out  for  correction.  The  Editor 
talces  no  responsibility  for  the  list  as  printed,  though  more  than  ordinary  care  has  been  used 
in  its  compilation  and  correction.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  "Lowest  Ocean 
Rates"  means  only  the  lowest  fares  at  any  season  of  the  year.  During  the  rush  or  "high" 
season  these  fares  usually  apply  only  to  a  very  few  inside  rooms,  and  plans  should  not  be  based 
on  this  schedule  without  consulting  the  steamship  company  or  a  reputable  tourist  agency  to 
find  if  any  minimum  accommodations  are  available.  In  the  fall  and  winter  seasons  superior  rooms 
can  usually  be  obtained  at  minimum  rates  without  difficulty.  If  you  live  out  of  town  do  not 
wait  until  reaching  New  York,  Boston  or  Philadelphia  before  attempting  to  secure  passage. 
If  you  are  going  in  July  engage  your  passage  in  January  if  possible.  There  will  be  little 
difficulty  in  canceling  accommodations  if  plans  have  to  be  changed,  provided  ample  notice  is  givea  tc 
enable  steamship  company  to  resell. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


207 


RATES  TO  EUROPEAN  PORTS  FROM  CANADA.* 


Allan  Line. 

MONTREAL  AND  QUEBEC  TO  LIVERPOOL. 

First  class  passage  from  St.  John  or  Halifax, 
$72.50  and  up;  Montreal  or  Quebec  and 
Liverpool,  $80.00  and  up.  Second  class, 
$50.00  and  up, 

MONTREAL  TO  GLASGOW. 

First  class,  $70.00  and  up;  second  class, 
$50.00  and  up.  One  class  cabin,  $47.50  and 
up. 

Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Co. 

MONTREAL  AND  QUEBEC  TO  LIVERPOOL. 

First  class,  $92.50  from  Quebec;  $85.00 
from  St.  John,  and  upwards;  second  class, 
$53.75  and  up.  One  class  cabin  (second  class) 
$50.00  and  up. 


CuNAKD  Line. 

MONTREAL  TO  LONDON  AND  SOUTHAMPTON  TO 
MONTREAL. 

Cabin  (called  second),  $46.25  and  up. 
Donaldson  Line. 

MONTREAL  TO  GLASGOW. 

Cabin  (called  second),  $47.50  and  up. 
British  third  class.  East,  $31.25;  prepaid 
West,  $31.25. 

White  Star — Dominion  Line. 

MONTREAL  AND  QUEBEC  TO  LIVERPOOL. 

First  class,  summer  season,  $92.50  and  up; 
winter  season,  $85.00  and  up;  second  class, 
$53.75  and  up.  One  class  cabin,  $47.50  and 
up. 


RATES  TO  WEST  INDIAN,  SOUTH  AMERICAN  PORTS,  ETC.f 


The  Booth  Steamship  Co.,  Ltd. 


NEW  YORK  AND  PARA, 

Barbados 

Para 

MANAOS,  VIA  BARBADOS. 

- — Saloon — ^     Third 

Single    Return     Class 

...    $55     $110      $27.50 

...     90       160        48.00 

...    110       195        53.00 

Iquitos,  Peru 

...    140       245        75.00 

Canadian  South  African  Line. 

MONTREAL  OR  ST.  JOHN,  N.  B.,  TO  CAPE  TOWN, 

PORT  ELIZABETH,  EAST  LONDON,  DURBAN, 

AND  DELAGOA  BAY. 


First   class — Cape   Town, 
$135. 


$110.     Durban, 


COMPANIA  TrANSATLANTICA. 

NEW  YORK,  HAVANA,  VERA  CRUZ  AND  PUERTO 
MEXICO 

To      To     To 
Havana  Vera  Puerto 
Cruz  Mexico 

First  class $37     $60     $60 

Second  class 26       40       40 

Round  trip  10  per  cent,  discount. 


Hamburg-American    Line — 
Atlas  Service. 

NEW  YORK  TO  COLON,    COLUMBIA,   COSTA    RICA 
AND  WEST  INDIAN  PORTS. 


Kingston 

or  Santiago 

Colon    

Puerto     Colombia 

Cartagena     

Santa     Marta     . . 

Port-Limon      

Port   au    Prince.. 
Jeremie      


Oct. 


—1st  Class- 
One    Round 
way      trip 
1    to    May   31 

$45  00    $85  50 
75  00    142  50 


—2d  Class- 
One  Round 
way     trip 


80  00 
80  00 
80  00 
80  00 
60  00 
60  00 


152  00 
152  00 
152  00 
152  00 
100  00 
100  00 


$30  00 
45  00 
45  00 
45  00 
45  00 
45  00 
35  00 
35  00 


$57  00 
85  50 
85  50 
85  50 
85  50 
85  50 
60  QO 
60  00 


CLYDE  LINE 

NEW     YORK     FOR     CHARLESTON,     8. 
JACKSONVILLE,    FLA. 


C,     AND 


Fares  from 
New  York  to 

Charleston 

First  Cabin $20  00 

Round  Trip ....    32  00 

Intermediate 15  00 

Round  Trip 24  00 

Steerage 10  00 


Fares  from 

New  York  to 

Jacksonville 

$24  90 

43  30 

19  00 

34  80 

12  50 


Insular  Line,  Inc. 

NEW  YORK  AND  PORTO  RICO. 

Rates  of  Passage.  First  class — To  or  from 
New  York  and  Porto  Rico,  $25  and  $30. 

Lamport  &  Holt  Line. 

Direct  service  from  New  York  to  Brazil  and 
Argentine.  Steamers  call  at  Bahia,  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Santos.  Through  tickets  issued 
to  Paranagua,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Monte- 
video, Buenos  Ayres.  All  vessels  call  at 
Barbados  and  Trinidad  northbotmd. 


- 

-Intermediate— 

S.S 

Vestris 

Minimum 

and 

1st 

"V" 

Van-'    3d 

Class  Steamers  dyck    Class 

BahIa    

.$150 

$75 

$85          $45 

Rio    de    Janeiro 

.  150 

75 

85            45 

Slantos      

.  160 

80 

90            50 

Paranagua   

.  165 

— 

—            62 

Rio    Grande    do 

tiui 

..  180 



—           65 

Porto    Alegre    . . 

.  185 

— 

—            67 

Montevideo     

.  190 

90 

100            60 

Buenos     Ayres 

.   190 

90 

100            60 

Rosario     

.  196 

96 

106            60 

Children  under  12  years  of  age,  half  fare; 
under  two  years,  free.  Servants  in  saloon, 
two-thirds    fare. 

*  t  All  rates  are  subject  to  change  without 
notice,  and  any  tourist  agent  will  give  ac- 
curate figures  as  to  cost.  On  Sept.  1,  1913,  the 
rates  quoted  as  printed  were  believed  to  be 
correct. 


208 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RATES  TO  WEST  INDIAN  AND  SOUTH  AMERICAN  PORTS— Continued. 


MuNsoN  Steamship  Line. 

NEW  YORK  AND  CUBA. 

One  Round 

First  Cabin.  way.  trip. 

New  York  to  Nipe «35.00  

New  York  and  Nuevitas 35.00  $66.50 

New  York  and  Puerto  Padre.    50.00  

New  York  and  Gibara.......     50.00        95.50 

New  York  and  Banes 50.00  

INTERMEDIATE. 

New  York  to  Nine J25.00  

New  York  to  Nuevitas 25.00  $47.50 

New  York  to  Puerto  Padre. . .    35.00  

New  York  to  Gibara 35.00  

New  York   &   Cuba   Mail   S.S.   Co. 

(ward  line.) 
new  york-havana-mexico  service. 
To  1st  Class. 

Havana $40.00  and  up 

Progreso 60.00 

Mexico  City 72.20 

Vera  Cruz 65.50 

Puerto  Mexico 75.00 

Children  under  3  years,  not  exceeding  one  to 
a  family  free;   each  additional  child  half  fare. 
Children  8  to  12,  accompanied  by  an  adult, 
half  fare. 

NASSAU. 

1st  2d 

To  Class        Class 

Nassau $40.00      $15.00 

New  York  &  Porto  Rico  S.S.  Co. 

NEW  YORK  AND  SAN  JUAN,  PONCE  AND 
MAYAGUEZ,   PORTO  RICO. 

First  cla.ss  $45  and  up.     Excursion  $81  and 
up      Second  class  $25  and  up. 

Panama  Railroad  Steamship  Line. 

COLON CANAL      ZONE PANAMA,      SAN      FRAN- 
CISCO,  MEXICO,   CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH 
AMERICA. 

New  York  to  Canal  Zone  (Colon) $75.00 

New  York  to  Canal  Zone,  Round  Trip  .  100.00 
New  York  to  San  Francisco 120.00 

Peninsular  and  Occidental  S.S. 
Company. 

KEY  WEST,   CUBA  AND  THE   WEST  INDIES,   PORT 
TAMPA KEY  WEST HAVANA  LINE. 

One  Round 

Between                                Way.  Trip. 

Port  Tampa  and  Havana $25.40  $42. 10 

Key  West  and  Port  Tampa. . .     12.90  21. 10 

Key  West  and  Havana 12.50  21.00 

The  above  rates  include  meals  and  berth 
while  at  sea. 

Southern  Pacific  Steamers. 

NEW  ORLEANS  AND  HAVANA  SERVICE. 

Fares  between  New  Orleans  and  Havana. 

First  cabin $25.00 

Round  trip,  either  direction 45.00 

Steerage 12.50 

Trinidad  Line. 

NEW  YORK,  GRENADA  AND  TRINIDAD,   B.W.I. 

Trinidad  or  Grenada — first  class $50.00 

Trinidad  or  Grenada— excursion 90.00 


Quebec  S.S.  Co.,  Ltd. 

NEW  YORK  TO    BERMUDA   AND   WINDWARD 
ISLANDS. 

Bermuda  Service. 

Cjibin  passage,  round  trip,  $25  and  up,  ac- 
cording to  steamer  and  date  of  sailing.     (Sub- 
ject   to     change.)     Steerage     passage,     $15; 
excursion,  $18.     Alien  Tax  $4  additional. 
West  India  Service. 

New  York  to  St.  Thomas,  St.  Croix,  St. 
Kitts,  Antigua,  Guadeloupe,  Dominica, 
Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  Barbados  and  De- 
merara. 

Cabin  passage,  $50  to  $80.  Return  ticets, 
good  for  6  months,  $90  to  $150.  Steerage 
$27.50  to  $32.50.  U.S.  Alien  Tax  $4  additional. 

Red  "D"  Line. 

TO   PUERTO   RICO   AND  VENEZUELA,    NEW   YORK 
TO     LA     GUAYRA,      PUERTO      CABELLO, 
CURACAO  AND  MARACAIBO. 
S.S.  "CARACAS"  AND  "PHILADELPHIA" 
1st  Class 
Upper    Saloon      3d 

New  York  and  San  Juan.. $40. 00  $35.00  $20.00 
New    York    and    La    Guayra 

by    most    direct    route 65.00  60.00  30.00 

New   York    and    Curacao 65.00  60.00  30.00 

New  York  to  Puerto  Cabello  70.00  65.00  35.00 
La    Guayra    and    New    York 

(via    Puerto    Cabello) 75.00  70.00  40.00 

Puerto  Cabello  to  New  York  65.00  60.00  30.00 

S.S.  "zulia"  and  S.S.  "maracaibo" 

1st  Class    2d  Class 

New    York    and    Mayaguez $35.00         $25.00 

New    York    to    La    Guayra 60.00'  40.00 

New    York    and    Curacao 60.00  40.00 

New    York    and    Maracaibo 75.00  50.00 

No  second  class  passengers  carried  on  the 
S.S.    "Caracas,"    "Philadelphia,"  or  "Merida." 

Round  trip  10  per  cent,  reduction.  Good  for 
12   months. 

The  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet 
Company. 

NEW  YORK  AND  SOUTHAMPTON  VIA  CUBA, 
JAMAICA,  COLON,  CARTAGENA,  PUERTO 

COLOMBIA  (SA vanilla),  TRINIDAD  (TRANSFER 
HERE  FOR  VENEZUELA,  BRITISH  GUIANA  AND 
WINDWARD  AND  LEEWARD  ISLANDS),  BAR- 
BADOS, ST.  MICHAELS  (aZORES)  AND  CHER- 
BOURG, RETURNING  TO  NEW  YORK  BY  SAME 
ROUTE  REVERSED. 

First  Class  Second  Class 

New    York    to    Single  Return  Single  Return 

Antilla     (Cuba).  .$42.50  $80.75  $30.00  $57.00 

Kingston     45.00  85.50  30.00  57.00 

Colon     75.00  142.50  45.00  85.50 

Cartagena     80.00  152.00  45.00  85.50 

Puerto  Colombia 

(Savanilla)      ...  80.00  152.00  45.00  85.50 

Trinidad     85.00  153.00  55.00  99.00 

Barbados     90.00  162.00  60.00  108.00 

Cherbourg        ).. 175.00  300.00)  ,„r  aa  K«« /v» 

Southampton}.. 200.00  350.00 1  125.00  j  200.00 

CUBA. 

Santiago  and  Camaguey,  $45  first  class,  $30 
second  class;  Havana,  $55  first  class;  Havana 
via  Santiago,  $58.50  first  class. 

BERMUDA.  SERVICE 

New  York  to  Bermuda,  first  class,  round 
trip,  $25  and  up. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


209 


RATES  TO  WEST  INDIAN  AND  SOUTH  AMERICAN  PORTS— Continued. 


United  Fruit  Company. 

NEW    YORK JAMAICA PANAMA COSTA    RICA 

AND  COLOMBIA  SERVICES. 

Per  Adult                                      First  Cabin. 

Between                                      One  Round 

New  York  and                             Way.  Trip. 

Kingston $45.00  $85.50 

Colon 75.00  142.50 

Cartagena ' 80.00  152.00 

Puerto  Colombia 80.00  152.00 

Santa  Marta 80.00  152.00 

Limon 80.00  152.00 

BETWEEN    PHILADELPHIA    AND    PORT    ANTONIO, 
JAMAICA. 

One        Round 
Way.        Trip. 
First  cabin $35.00      $60.00 

BOSTON COSTA  RICA  SERVICE. 

Fare,  Boston  to  Limon,  one  way,  $60.00; 
round  trip,  $114.00. 


NEW      ORLEANS GUATEMALA COSTA 

PANAMA  SERVICE. 

One 
Way 
Cabin 

1st- 
Class 
Between    New    Orleans    and 

Belize,  British  Honduras. .  .  $25.00 
Between    New    Orleans    and 

Livingston,  Guatemala.  ..  .    30.00 
Between    New    Orleans    and 

Barrios,  Guatemala 30.00 

Between    New    Orleans    and 

Cortez,  Spanish  Honduras.    30.00 
Between    New    Orleans    and 

Limon,  Costa  Rica 50.00 

Between  New  Orleans  or  Mo-' 

bile   and   Bocas   del   Toro, 

Panama 50.00 

Between    New    Orleans    and 

Colon,  Panama 50.00 


Round 
Trip 
Cabin 

1st 
Class 

$45.00 
37.00 
57.00 
57.00 
95.00 

95.00 
95.00 


RATES  TO  PACIFIC  AND  TRANS-PACIFIC  PORTS. 

CANADIAN-AUSTBALASIAN  HOTAL  MAIL  LINE. 


rrom 
VANCOVTEB.  B.  C,, 

ONE-WAY  FAbIs. 

BOUND-TBir  FAKES. 

^}nl 

ServanU 
Accom- 

?f^^ 

8t«er.g.. 

FiBST  CLass. 

"cSir 

To 

Six 
Month*. 

Twelve 
Months. 

Twelve 
Month*. 

HONOLULU,  Hawaiian  Iilaadi. 

*75  00 
200  00 
200  00 
too  00 
8H00 
21S  3S 
226  90 
213  15 
212  7S 
319  SO 
221.00 
251  10 
251  10 
212. OS 
200  00 
31S90 

21S  45 

321  00 

•50  00 
131.50 
133  50 
111.60 

145  40 
148  85 
160  40 

146  65 

146  25 
15100 
156.50 
184  60 
.184  60 

145  55 
11150 

147  10 

151. IS 
156  50 

(50.00 
126.00 
125.00 
126  00 
131  55 
140  35 
131  90 
134  75 
137  75 
117  80 
148  00 
176  10 
176  10 
137  05 
125  00 
111  80 

1U4S 

148  00 

tio.oo 

80.00 
80  00 
80  00 

88  55 

86  10 
0155 
88.75 
85  10 
92  80 
90.30 
US  55 
105  66 
87.35 
10  (0 

89  86 

91  6S 
9.85 

1115.00 

1300.00 
100.00 
100  00 
119.60 
326  55 
146  00 
119.50 
120  45 
129  20 
135  76 
376  65 
176  66 
318.46 
100.00 
13100 

now 

137  35 

9100.00 

SUVA,  Fiji  Islands                 

300.00 

AUCKLAND,  New  Zealand 

300. 00 

300.00 

212  90 

225  65 

ROCHHAMPTON.  Queensland,  via  Sydney  and  .teamet. 

HELBOUBNE,  Victoria   via  Sydney  and  rail 

246  00 
114  (0 

"                      "            via  Sydney  and  Interstate  steamer 

220  46 
319  50 

"                      "via  Sydney  and  Interstate  steamer  .  . 
fBEHANTLE,  West  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  Interstate  steamer. . 
ALBANY,  West  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  Interstate  steamer.  .  .  . 
HOBABT   Tasmania  via  Sydney  and  steamer 

235  75 
276  65 
276.65 
«1S.4» 

APIA    Samoan  Islands  via  Suva  and  steamer 

300.  W 

WELLINGTON,  New  Zealand,  via  Auckland  and  steamer 

POBT  LYTTLETON  (Christ  Church).  New  Zealand,  via  Auckland 

33100 

33016 

317  36 

UNION  STEAMSniP  CO.  OF  NEW  ZEALAND.  (Ltd.) 


From 
SAN  FRANCISCO.  CAL., 

ONE-WAY  FARES. 

ROUND-TRIP  FARES. 

First 
Cabin. 

Second 
Cabin. 

CabL: 

First 
Cabin. 

Second 
Cabin. 

To 

Four 
Months. 

Months. 

PAPEETE,  Tahiti 

$100  00 
1?2S0 
247  00 
237  00 
194  50 
178  75 
184  00 
189.25 
213  75 
200  00 
213  26 
213  25 
219.50 
256  00 

$60  00 

78  75 

® 189  50 

@179.50 

137  00 
121  25 
128  50 
131  75 

138  75 
125  00 
133  75 
184.75 
187.75 
180  00 

$40  "" 

$135  00 
175  00 
198  75 
178  75 
298  76 
257  50 
276  75 
285  00 
822  00 
800  00 
119  50 
119  50 
829  25 
382  75 

$110  00 

BAROTONGA,  Cook  Islands 

S3 
107 
96 
75 
75 
78 
82 
88 
80 
88 
90 
92 
107 

75 
00 
00 
00 
00 
50 
00 
25 
00 
75 
00 
75 
50 

©298.76 

AUCKLAND,  New  Zealand,  via  Wellington 

WELLINGTON,  New  Zealand.. 

187  SO 
196  7S 
206  00 

POBT  LYTTLETON,  (Christ  Church)    New  Zealand   via  Wellington 

DUNEDIN.  New  Zealand,  via  Wellington 

HOBABT,  Tasmania,  via  Wellington 

222  00 
200  00 

SYDNEY,  New  South  Wales,  via  Wellington  and  steamer 

BRISBANE,  Queensland,  via  Sydney  and  rail    . 

218  00 

MELBOURNE,  Victoria,  via  Sydney  and  rail                                                         .      .  . 

214  76 

ADELAIDE,  South  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  rail                         

319  SO 

FREMANTLE,  West  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  rail 

263  04 

©First  cabin  on  steamship  beyond  Auckland,  New  Zealand. 


210 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RATES  TO  PACIFIC  AND  TRANS-PACIFIC  PORTS— Continued. 


NIPPON  YTSEN  KAISHA  (Japan  Mafl  Steamship  Co.). 


From 

SEATTLE,  WASH., 

To 


YOKOHAMA,  Japan 

KOBE,  Japan 

MOJI,  Japan 

NAGASAKI,  Japan 

SHANGHAI,  China 

HONG  KONG 

MANILA,  Philippine  Islands,  via 
Hoog  Kong 


one-way  fakes. 


«U0  00 

110  oe 
lis. 00 

lis  00 

moo 

12S.00 
ISO. 00 


Servants 

Accoufantino 

Families 


Other 
than      Asiatic 
Asiatic 


@«7S.OO 
@  75.00 
@  80.00 
®  80.00 
®  8S.00 
®  85.00 

Qioa.so 


BOUND-TBIP  FABES. 


«43  50   >165.00 


4S  50 
43  SO 
48  50 
43.50 
43.50 

41.60 


US  00 
173  50 
172.50 
187.50 
187. SO 

OS.OO 


{193  50 
193.50 
201.25 
201.25 
218.75 
218. 7S 


Second  Class. 


BANK  LINE  (Ltd.) 


SEATTLE  OB  TACOMA,  WASH.,  OB 
VANCOUVEB,  B.  C, 


ONE-WAY  FABES. 


Servants 
accompanyinq 

F.AMILIES. 


Other 

than 

Asiatic. 


BOUND-TBIP  FABES. 


Other  than  Asiatic. 


YOKOHAMA,  Japan 

KOBE,  Japan 

MOJI,  Japan. 

NAGASAKI,  Japan,  via  Kobe 

8HANGHAL  China 

HONG  KONG 

MANILA,  Philippine  Islands.. 


9100  00 
104  00 
.106  SO 
110  00 
US  00 
US  00 
US  00 


$85.00 
87  SO 
90  00 
95  00 
100  00 
105.00 
lOS.OO 


$42  SO 
42  SO 
42  50 
42  60 
42.60 
42.60 
tt.6« 


$43  60 
43  60 
43  SO 
43  SO 
47JiO 
47  SO 
4760 


$150  00 
156  00 
159.76 
166  00 
172  SO 
172.60 
172  60 


$127.60 
132  50 
135.00 
145.00 
ISO  00 
167.60 
167.60 


$150.00 
162.50 
157.60 
167  60 
176.00 
185  00 
185  00 


$85  00 

85  00 
85.00 

86  00 
86  00 
86.00 

86  a« 


OCEAN  STEAMSPIP  CO.  (Ltd.)  AND  CHINA  MinTUAL  STEAM  NAVIGATION  CQ.  (Ltd.) 


From 
SEATTLE  OB  TACOMA.  WASH.,  OB  VANCOUVEB,  B.  C, 

To 

ONE-WAY 
FABES. 

Asiatic 
Steerage. 

YOKOHAMA,  Japan 

$48.50 

48.60 

MOJI,  Japan 

48  60 

NAGASAKI,  Japan  .                                                                                                                                                                                    '      

43. 60 

SHANGHAI,  China 

61.00 

HONG  KONG                                                                                                                                                                                       

SI.  00 

MANILA,  Philippine  Islands                                                                                                                                                                        

51.00 

MATSON  NAVIGATION  CO. 


From 

OKE-WAY  FABES. 

BOUND-TBIP 
FABES. 

SAN  FBANCISCO.  CAL., 
To 

First 
Class. 

Servants 

Accompanying 

Families. 

Mixed 
Class. 

Steerage. 

First  Class. 

Six  Months. 

HONOLULU,  Hawaiian  Islands 

866.00 
180.00 
200.00 
200  00 
212.90 
213.16 
219.60 

$50.00 

©$14250 
® 145  00 
®145.00 
©153.55 
©154.75 
©15780 

$30  00 

$110  bo 

SUVA,  Fiji  Islands,  via  Honolulu  and  Canadian-Australasian  Royal  Mail  Line 

AUCKLAND,  New  Zealand,  via  Honolulu  and  Canadian-Australasian  Royal  Mail  Line 
SYDNEY,  New  South  Wales  via  Honolulu  and  Canadian-Australasian  Royal  Mail  Line 
BBISBANE,  Queensland,  via  Sydney  and  rail 

• 

MELBOUBNE.  Victoria,  via  Sydney  and  rail 

ADELAIDE,  South  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  rail 

©First  class  to  Honolulu  and  second  class  beyond. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


211 


RATES  TO  PACIFIC  AND  TRANS-PACIFIC  PORTS— Continued. 


PACIFIC  MAIL  STEAMSHIP  CO.  OE  TOYO  KISEN  KAISHA. 


From 
SAN  FBANCISCO,  CAL., 


ONE-WAY  FABES. 


First 
Clam 


Servants 

ACCOMPANTtNO 

Fauiues 


Other 
Than 
Asiatic 


BONOLULUf  Hawaiian  Islands,  via  PaciGc  Mail  Steamship  Co.  only, 

©YOKOHAMA,  Japan 

®KOBE,  Japan 

©NAGASAKI,  Japan 

©SHANGHAI,  China 

®HONG  KONG 

©MANILA,  Philippine  Islapja.  via  Nagasaki  direct  or  Hong  Kong 


US  8S 
1*8  85 

150  00 


®{S0.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50  00 
50  00 
SO  00 
50  00 


©$85.00 

©150.00 
©157.50 
©171.00 
©175.00 
©175.00 
©175.00 


70.00 
71.00 
80  00 
85.00 
85  00 
85  00 


51.00 
51  00 
51.00 
51.00 
51.00 
51.00 


«AII  FBANCISCO.  CAL., 


^ 


BOUND-TBIP  FABES. 


Other  Than  Asiatic.    Asiatic 


Six 
Months, 


Twelve 
Months 


Months 
orTwelvc 
Months 


Six 
Months. 


Mixed  Class. 


Twelve 
Months. 


Servants 

accoupantinq 

Fauiues. 


Twelve" 
Months. 


BOKOLVLU,  Hawaiian  Islands,  vl&  Pa- 
cific Mail  Steamship  Co.  only 

<£)YOKOHAMA,  J«pa» 

©KOBE,  Japan. 

©NAGASAKI,  Japan. 

©SHANGHAI,  China 

©HONG  KONG 

©MANILA,  Philippine  Islands,  via  Naga- 
saki direct  or  Hong  Kong 


®U85.00 
©110.00 
800.00 
812.50 
884.00 
887  50 
88750 
887  50 


$850  00 
865  00 
89375 
893.75 
89375 
893  75 


®$90.00 
800.00 
20835 
22270 
225  00 
225  00 
225  00 


$283 
243  85 
262.50 
262  50 
262  50 

262.50 


©$6000 

100.00 
100  00 
100  00 
100  00 
100  00 
100.1 


©$110.00 

©225.00 
©236. 25 
©256. 50 
©262.50 
©262.50 
©262.50 


©$262.50 
©274.40 
©295. 25 
©300  00 
@S00  00 

©300  00 


©$298.90 
©298  90 
©815.80 
©842.65 

©342.65 

©842.65 


©$200.00 
©208.35 
©222.70 
©225.00 
©225.00 
©225.00 


©$228  40 
©228  40 
©238  15 

©255.15 
©255.15 

©255.15 


01n  constructing  through  fares  via  San  Francisco  and  PaclHc  Mall  Steamship  Co.  or  Toyo  KIsen  Kalsha,  the  following  deductions 
Will  be  made  from  the  one-way  and  round-trip  basing  fares  of  the  Steamship  lines  named  to  all  points,  except  Honolulu,  as  shown  above: 

Deduct  Sa.SS  when  one-way  first-class  limited  or  30  day  railway  tickets  and  $2.20  when  excursion  railway  tickets  are  issued  from  New  York 

to  San  Francisco. 
Deduct  $1.75  when  one-way  mixed-class  railway  tickets  are  issued  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 

Deduct  $2.70  when  one-way  first-class  limited  or  30  day  railway  tickets  and  $2.20  when  excursion  railway  tickets  are  issued  from  Philadel- 
phia to  San  Francisco. 
Deduct  $1.60  when  one-way  mixed-class  railway  tickets  arc  issued  from  Philadelphia  to  San  Francisco. 
Deduct  $1.60  (except  via  Cincinnati  and  Chicago)  and  $1.80  via  Cincinnati  and  Chicago  when  one-way  first-claas  limited  or  30  day  railway 

tickets  and  $1.4S  when  excursion  railway  tickets  are  issjred  from  Baltimore  to  San  Francisco. 
Deduct  50  cents  (except  via  Cincinnati  and  Chicago)  and  70  cents  via  Cincinnati  and  Chicago  when  one-way  mixed-class  railway  tickets 

are  issued  from  Baltimore  to  San  Francisco. 
Deduct  $1.60  when  one-way  first-class  limited  or  30  day  railway  tickets  and  $1.45  when  excursion  railway  tickets  are  issued  from  Washington 

to  San  Francisco. 
Deduct  60  cents  when  one-way  mixed-class  railway  tickets  are  issued  from  Washington  to  San  Francisco. 

No  deductions  will  be  made  on  variable  route  excursion  railway  tickets  to  San  Francisco  In  one  direction  either  going  or  return- 
Ing  via  Portland,  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Vancouver,  or  Victoria. 
@Fares  apply  only  via  steamships  Korea,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  or  Siberia. 

©Fares  apply  only  for  inside  rooms,  saloon  deck,  via  steamships  Korea,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  or  Siberia. 
©Fares  apply  only  via  steamship  China. 

©Fares  apply  only  via  steamships  China,  Nile,  or  Persia  of  Pacific  Mail  S.S.  Co.  or  Nippon  Maru  of  Toyo  Kisen  Kaisha. 

©Fares  apply  going  first-class  via  steamships  Korea,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  or  Siberia  of  Pacific  Mail  S.S.  Co.  or  Chiyo  Afaru,  Shinyo  Maru, 
or  Tenyo  Maru.  of  ToyoIUsen  Kaisha,  and  returning  intermediate  via  steamships  China,  Nile,  or  Persia  of  Pacific  Mail  S.S.  Co.  or  Nippon  Maru  of 
Toyo  Kisen  Kaisha,  or  vice  versa. 

OCEANIC  STEAMSHIP  CO. 


From 
SAN  FBANCISCO,  CAL.. 

ONE-WAY   FABES. 

BOUND-TBIP  FABES. 

Eii^i 

%Zs' 

?r 

First  Class. 

^cfr 

To 

Months. 

iSo-ntl. 

Twelve 
Months. 

$65.00 
160.00 
200.00 
218  00 

218  25 
213.25 
213  25 

219  50 
255.00 
211.00 
217.50 
822.00 

$110.00 

125  00 

138.75 

184.75 

138  25 

138.25 

137.75 

180.00 

©186.00 

©142.50 

® 147. 00 

©$30.00 
©  80.00 
©  80.00 
©  88.75 
©  89.75 
©  87.75 
@  87.75 
®  92.75 
©107.50 
©  86.50 
@  91.00 
®  98.25 

$110.00 

'$240'00' 
300  00 
819  SO 
319  SO 
819  75 
$19  75 
829  25 
382  75 
817. SO 
328  SO 
835.00 

MELBOUBNE   Victoria  via  Sydney  and  rail 

214  7g 

AUCKLAND    New  Zealand   via  Sydney  and  steamer 

210  75 

WELLINGTON,  New  Zealand  via  Sydney  and  steamer 

219  75 

ADELAIDE,  South  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  rail 

219.60 

POBT  LYTTLETON  (Christ  Church),  New  Zealand,via  Sydney  and  steamer. 
DUNSDIN   New  Zealand  via  Sydney  and  steamer 

228  50 
235. 00 

(First  class  on  steamer  beyond  Sydney,  New  South  Wales. 

(Fares  will  not  apply  (or  females  on  steamships  Sonoma  or  Ytntura. 


212 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CANADIAN  PACIFIC  RY.  CO.'S  ROYAL  MAIL  STEAMSniP  LINE. 


From 

VANCOCVEE.  B.  C, 

To 


ONE-WAY  FARES. 


Servants 

accompantino 

Families. 


Other 
Than 


Asiatic 
Steerage. 


YOKOHAMA.  Japan 

KOBE,  Japan 

MOJI,  Japan 

NAGASAKI,  Japan 

SHANGHAI,  China 

HONG  KONG 

MANILA,  Philippine  Islands,  via  Hong  Kong, 


@S200  00 
@  207  50 


$133  36 
138  35 


®  m  50 
@  m  00 

(3)  22S  00 
®  225.00 


®U8  35 
150  00 
150  00 
150  00 


50  00 
®  50  00 
®  50  00 
50  00 
50  00 
50  00 


® 3125  00 
@  132  50 
®  146  00 


<S>  160  00 
(^  160  00 
®  160  00 


@$70  00 
@74  00 
®80  00 
®80  00 
@85  00 
@85  00 
@)85  00 


®t61  00 

(3)61  00 


(3)61  00 
(3)61  00 
(3)61  00 
(3)61  00 


®$43.50 
®  4160 
@4}.60 

(S)61  00 
®  51.00 
®61  00 


• 

ROUND-TRIP  FARES. 

First  Class. 

Inter- 
mediate 

Mixed 

Class. 

From 
VANCOVVEB.  B.  C. 

Six 
Months. 

Twelve 

Months. 

Servants  Accompanying 
Families. 

Six 
Months. 

Other  Than  Asiatic. 

Asiatic. 

Six 
Months. 

Twelve 

To 

Six 
Months. 

Twelve 
Months. 

Six 
Months 

Twelve 
Months. 

Month!. 

YOKOHAMA,  Japan 

KOBE,  Japan 

®»00  00 
®  312  60 

®  334  00 
®  337  60 
®  337  50 

®  337  50 

®$350  00 
®  365  00 

®  393  76 
®  393  75 
®  393  76 
®  393  76 

3200  00 
208  36 

®  222  70 
226  00 

225  00 

226  00 

3233  36 
243  35 

®  262  50 
262  50 
262  50 
262  50 

3100  00 
100  00 

a  100  00 

5)  100  00 
100  00 
100  00 
100  00 

® 3187  50 
@  198  76 
@  219  00 

RS225  to 
3  236  90 

fii)  257  75 
S?  257  75 
®  262  50 
'3'  262  50 
(S,  262.50 

@{261  40 

(3)  261  40 
S  278.40 
K  278  40 
•^  305  15 
g  305  15 
@  806  IS 

MOJI,  Japan 

NAGASAKI,  Japan 

SHANGHAI,  China 

®  225  00 
@  226  00 

HONG  KONG  . 

MANILA,  Philippine  Islands,  via  Hong  K..ng 

or  vice  versa. 


ships  Empress  oj  India  or  Empress  of  Japan,  and  returning  i 

ps  Empress  of  India  or  Empress  of  Japan   to   Nagasaki,  and 
must  provide  for  their  own  transportation  between  Nagasaki  and  Moji. 

DEPTHS  OF  PORTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


ship  Monleaglt, 


Port. 


Amsterdam  (canal) 

Holland 

Antwerp,  Belgium 

Baltimore,  Md 

Boston,  Mass 

Boulogne,  France 

Bremen,  Germany 

Bremerhaven,  Germany.  . 

Brindisi,  Italy 

Cherbourg,  France 

Copenhagen,  Denmark.  .  . 

Dieppe,  France 

Galveston,  Tex 

Genoa,  Italy 

Glasgow,  Scotland 

Greenock,  Scotland 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia 

Hamburg,  Germany 

Havre,  France .  .  . 

Kaiser      William      Canal, 

Germany 

Key  West,  Fla 

Konigsberg  Canal,  Ger...  . 
Leghorn,  Italy 

*  Deep  water. 


Channel 

Quay 

(mean 

(mean 

high 

high 

water). 

water). 

Feet. 

Feet. 

30 

30 

37 

37 

31 

31 

36 

36 

29 

34 

18 

18 

34 

34 

32 

32 

42 

50 

26 

26 

34 

34 

30 

28 

60 

33 

30 

38 

36 

39 

83 

45 

32 

35 

42 

30 

29 

30 

30 

.  21 

22 

26 

Channel 

Quay 

Port. 

(mean 

(mean 

high 

high 

water). 

water). 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Libau,  Russia 

22 

29 

Liverpool,  England 

55 

33 

London,  England .... 

42 

43 

Manchester  Ship  Canal.  .  . 

28 

28 

Marseille,  France 

55 

39 

Montreal,  Canada 

30 

35 

Naples,  Italy 

33 

30 

New  Orleans,  La 

30 

40 

New  York,  N.  Y 

42 
30 

50 

Norfolk,  Va 

30 

Ostend,  Belgium. . 

31 
29 

38 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

32 

Portland,  Me 

38 
29 

38 

Rotterdam,  Holland.  .... 

29 

St.  Johns,  Newfoundland 

48 

54 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

39 

39 

Seattle,  Wash 

(*) 

30  to  50 

Southampton,  England..  . 
Stettin,  Germany 

41 

43 

23 

23 

Stockholm,  Sweden.  ..... 

25 

22 

Suez  Canal,  Egypt 

28 

Toulon,  France 

t26 

t23 

Trieste,  Austria 

30 

28 

i 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


213 


FROM  STEAM  PACKET  TO  STEAM  PALACE. 


(1)  Wood  Paddle-boats. 

(2)  Iron 


(3)  Iron  Screw  Steamers. 

(4)  Steel      " 


(5)  Steel  Twin-Screw  Steamera, 


Date 

Name  of  Steamer. 

Owners. 

Remarks. 

1833 
1838 

Royal  William.  .  .(1) 

Quebec  &  HalifaxS.N.Co.  -j 

British  and  Amer.S.N.Co.  . 
Great  Western  S.N.Co.  .  .  . 

Transatlantic  SS.  Co 

Cunard  Line 

From  Pictou  (N.S.),  1st  to  cross  the 

Atlantic. 
From  Cork,  1st  departure  from  U.  K. 

1840 

Great  Western 

Royal  William (2) 

Rritannia 

"  Bristol,  1st  built  for  Atlantic. 

"   Liverpool,  1st  departure. 

' '   Liverpool ,  1  st  carried  British  mails. 

1849 
1854 

Collins      "            

"  New  York,  1st  carried  U.S.  mails. 

Allan        "      

'  Glasgow,  1st  steamer  of  Line. 

1856 

Tpmnest 

Anchor     "                 

1st 

Harnburg-American  Line  . 

"  Hamburg, l.st        "            * 

>t 

1858 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd 

From  Bremen  to  New  York. 

1856 

Persia (2) 

1862 

Last       "       " 

■ 

1845 
1850 

Great  Britain.  .  .  .  (3) 
City  of  Glasgow 

Great  Western  S.N.Co.  .  .  . 
Inman  Line 

1st  Atlantic  iron  screw  steamer. 
1st  to  carry  steerage  passengers. 

1858 

1868 

Italy 

National  Line 

1st  Atlantic  ss.  with  comp.  engines. 

1869 

City  of  Brussels.  • .  . . 

Oceanic  (1st) 

Pennsylvania 

Inman       "                

1st       "         "       "  steam  steering  gear. 

1871 

White  Star  Line 

1873 

American       "      

1st  sailing  of  Line  to  Liverpool. 

1874 

White  Star    "      

1st  to  exceed  5,000  tons.  Great  Eastern 

1875 

City  of  Berlin 

1st  with  electric  light.             [excepted. 
Watertight  compartments  floated  her. 

1879 

1882 

Alaska 

1st  "ocean  greyho^^nd." 

1883 

Oregon 

1  Cunard        "  (2) '.'.'.'.'.'.  \ 

Sunk    outside   New  York;    every  one 
saved  by  N.  D.  Lloyd  ss.  Fulda. 

1879 

Buenos  Ayrean.  .  (4) 

1881 

1st  Cunard 

1884 

City  of  Rome 

J  Inman  (1)  Line 1 

1  Anchor(2)     "      j 

Fitted  with  three  funnels. 

j  Umbria ( 

\  Etruria f 

AUer  .                 .... 

Cunard           "        

1st  with  20  knots  speed. 

1886 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd 

1st  triple-expansion  express  ss. 

1888 
1889 

\  City  of  NewYork(5) 

1  City  of  Paris 

\  Teutonic ( 

1  Majestic I 

Ftirst  Bismarck 

La  Touraine 

f  Campania 1 

1  Lucania / 

fSt.  Paul \ 

1  St.  Louis / 

KaiserWilhelmd.Gr. 

Inman  &  Internationale  1)  ( 
American  Line  (2)    f 

White  Star  Line 

1st  twin-screw  ocean  expresses. 

1st  to  exceed  10,000  tons,G.E.excepted 

Designed  as  mercantile  cruisers. 

1890 
1892 

Hamburg-American  Line  . 
Compagnie  Generale  Trans. 
Cunard  Line         / 

1st  under  6i  days  from  Southampton. 
Record  Havre  to  New  York,  6i  days. 
Lucania:  highest  day's  run  562  knots. 

1893 

1895 

1897 
1899 

American f 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd.  .  .  . 
White  Star  Line 

Liverpool  to  New  York  records. 
Largest  express  steamers  ever  built  in 

America. 
Record  day's  run,  580  knots.       [tons. 
Balanced  engines,  1st  to  exceed  15,000 

1900 
1901 

Deutschland 

Celtic 

Hamburg-American  Line.. 
White  Star  Line 

Fastest  ocean  steamer  in  the  world. 
1st  to  exceed  20,000  tons. 

1902 
1903 
1904 

KronpkinzWilhelm 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.. 
Baltic 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd.. .  .  . 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd 

White  Star  Line 

Largest  express  steamer  in  the  world. 
Largest  ss.  in  the  world— 726x76x49. 
1st  fitted  with  turbine  engines. 

1907 

Cunard  Line f 

Fastest    in  the    world.       Fitted    with 

Mauretania 

turbine  engines.    Record  day's  run, 

1911 

"1 

White  Star  Line 

•Hamburg- American  Line 

Mauretania,  676  knots. 

1913 

Imperator   

This  IS  the  largest  vessel  in  the  world. 

214 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


rrhHHUNICATfONj 


Courtesy   ot    "The   Sphere." 

IF  ONLY  WE  COULD  FLY  THE  ATLANTIC. 

ONE  WAY  BY  WHICH  THE  ICEBERG  DANGER  WOULD  BE  AVOIDED. 

This  diagram  tells  its  own  story  of  how  we  have  conquered  time  and  space.     The  problem 
of  flying  to  America  is  now  well   within  the  bounds  of  possibility. 


I 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


215 


STEAMSHIP  RECORDS. 

Compiled  and  Revised  by  A.  W.  Lewis,  Chief  of  the  Ship  News  of  t'l?  "  Associated  Press.' 


QUEENSTOWN   RECORDS    SINCE 
WESTWARD. 

Line.  d. 


Date.       Steamer. 

1880  Arizona 

1882  Alaslia 

1884  Oregon 

1885  Etruria 

1887  Umbria 

1888  Etruria 

1889  City    of    Paris 
1891  Majestic 

1891  Teutonic 

1892  City    of    ? 
1894  Campania 

1894  Lucania 

1895  Campania 
1898  Etruria 
1907  Lusitania 

1907  Mauretania 

1908  Lusitania 

1909  Mauretania 
1909  Lusitania 

1909  Mauretania 

1910  Mauretania 


ris 


Guion 

Guion 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Inman 

Wliite  Star 

Wliite  Star 

American 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Cunard 


QUEENSTOWN    RECORDS   SINCE 
EASTWARD. 
Guion 


I 


1882  Alaska 

1884  America 

1884  Oregon 

1887  Etruria 

1889  City   of  Paris 

1889  City   of  Paris 

1891  Teutonic 


National 

Cunard 

Cunard 

Inman 

Inman 

White  Star 


1892    City  of  New  York    American 


1893  Campania 

1893  Campania 

1893  Campania 

1893  Lucania 

1894  Campania 
1894  Lucania 
189i  Lucania 
1907  Lusitania 

1907  Mauretania 

1908  Lusitania 

1909  Mauretania 
1909  Mauretania 
1909  Lusitania 
1911  Lusitania 


Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 
Cunard 


6 
6 
6 
6 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 

*4 
4 

*4 


1880. 

h.  m. 

10  47 

6  43 

9  42 

5  31 

4  42 

1  55 

19  IS 

18   8 

16  31 

14  24 

9  27 

7  23 

9   6 

20  55 

18  40 

0  55 

15   0 

15  55 

11  *42 

10  51 

10  *41 

1882. 

18  37 

14   S 

11   9 

4  36 

23  38 

22  50 

21   3 

19  57 

17  27 

14  55 

12   7 

13  30 

9  18 

13  11 

8  38 

22  50 

22  29 

22  43 

17  21 

13  41 

15  52 

15  50 


SOUTHAMPTON  RECORDS  SINCE  1890. 


1890    Columbia 


1893 


EASTWARD. 

Hamburg  Amer- 
ican 6 
Furst    Bismarck     Hamburg  Amer- 
ican 6 
1897    St.   Louis                   American              6 
Kaiser   Wilhelm   der    Grosse, 

North    German   Lloyd.  5 


1897 


10    55 
10    14 


17      8 


1892    Lahn 


1893 
1894 


SOUTHAMPTON  RECORDS  SINCE  1892 
WESTWARD. 

North  German 

Lloyd  6    22      0 

Paris  American  6      9    37 

New  York  American  6      7    14 

1896    St.  Louis  American  6      2    24 

1896  St.   Paul  American  6      0    31 

1897  Kaiser    Wilhelm    der    Grosse 

(North    German    Lloyd)  5    22    35 

1898  Kaiser  Wilhelm   der  Grosse 

(North    German    Lloyd)  5 

1910    Kaiser  Wilhelm  II  5 


RECORD  OF  S.  S.  MAURETANIA. 

(Cunard  Line.) 

WESTWARD. 


Date. 

1907,  Dec. 
1909,  July 

1909,  Sept. 

1910,  Sept. 


d. 

h. 

m 

5 

0 

55 

4 

15 

55 

4 

10 

51 

4 

10 

♦41 

4 

22 

29 

4 

17 

21 

4 

13 

*41 

From  Queenstown 
From  Queenstown 
From  Queenstown 
From  Queenstown 

*  Record. 

EASTWARD. 
1907,  Dec.      To  Queenstown 
1909,  June    To  Queenstown 
1909,  Sept.     To  Queenstown 

RECORD  OF  S.  S.  LUSITANIA, 

(Cunard  Line.) 

WESTWARD. 

1907,  Nov.     From  Queenstown  4        18        40 

1908,  Aug.     From  Queenstown  4        15  0 

1909,  Sept.     From  Queenstown  4        11      *42 

*  Record. 

EASTWARD. 

1907,  Nov.     To  Queenstown  4  22  50 

1908,  Oct.       To  Queenstown  4  22  43 

1909,  Oct.      To  Queenstown  4  15  52 
1911,  Jan.     To  Queenstown  4  15  *50 

RECORD  OF 
S.  S.  KRONPRINZESSIN  CECILIE. 
(North  German  Lloyd  Line.) 
WESTWARD. 
From  Cherbourg 
F'rom  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 

EASTWARD. 
To  Plymouth 
To  Plymouth 
To  Plymouth 


5 

16 

0 

5 

U 

9 

5 

10 

*23 

5 

11 

5 

5 

8 

7 

5 

7 

*25 

1908,  Jan. 
1908,  Aug. 
1910,  Sept. 

1907,  Aug, 

1908,  Sept, 

1909,  Sept. 

RECORD  OF  S.  S.  LA  PROVENCE, 
French  Line.) 
WESTWARD, 

1906,    April  From  Havre   (first  trip)  6  9 

1906,  May    From  Havre  6  3 

1906,  July     From  Havre  6  3 

1906,  Sept.     From  Havre  6  2 

1907,  Sept.    From  Havre  6  1 

EASTWARD, 
1906,  May      To  Havre  6  4 

1906,  June     To  Havre  6  2      ' 

RECORD  OF  S.  S.  FRANCE. 
(French  Line.) 
WESTWARD. 
1912,  Apl.  26     From  Havre 

(First   trip)     6  2 

1912,  May  From  Havre  5      '  23 

1912,  Aug.        From  Havre  5        22 

1912,   Sept.        From  Havre  5        22 

EASTWARD. 
1912,   May     To  Havre 

(First  trip  east)     5        20 
1912,  Aug.    To  Havre  5        16 


20    10 
18    48 


RECORD  OF  S.  S.  KAISER  WILHELM  II, 
(North  German  Lloyd  Line.) 
WESTWARD. 
1903,     April  From  Cherbourg 
1903,   Aug.     From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 

EASTWARD. 
To  Plymouth 
To  Plymouth 
To  Plymouth 


1904,  Nov, 
1909,  Nov. 

1903,  May 

1903,  Aug. 

1904,  Oct. 


5 

23 

0 

5 

15 

10 

5 

12 

25 

5 

12 

*S 

6 

1 

30 

5 

10 

42 

5 

8 

*20 

Copyright  1913.  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


Record. 


216 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STEAMSHIP  RECORDS— Continued. 


fi 

10 

15 

5 

21 

10 

5 

19 

6 

5 

15 

45 

5 

11 

*57 

5 

9 

48 

5 

8 

*18 

RECORD  OF 

S.  S.  KRONPRINZ  WILHELM 

(North  German  Lloyd  Line.) 

WESTWARD. 

Date  d. 

1901,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg 

(First    trip)  6 
1901,  Oct.      From  Cherbourg 
1901,   Nov.     From  Cherbourg 

1901,  Dec.      From  Cherbourg 

1902,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg 

EASTWARD. 
1901,  Oct.       To  Plymouth 
1901,  Nov.    To  Plymouth 

RECORD  OF 

THE  OLD  S.  S.  DEUTSCHLAND 

(Hamburg- American  Line.) 

WESTWARD. 

1900,  July     From  Plymouth 

(First   Trip)  5 

1900,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg 

1901,  Aug.     From  Cherbourg 

1903,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg 

EASTWARD. 
1900,  July     To  Plymouth 
1900,  Aug.     To  Plymouth 
1900,  Sept.    To  Plymouth 
1900,  Sept.    To  Cherbourg       via 

Plymouth  5        13        30 

Her    speedy    machinery    has    been    removed 

and    she    is    now    a    superb    cruising    yacht    of 

comparatively   low   speed  and  is  the    "Victoria 

Luise." 

RECORD  OF  S.  S.  "IMPERATOR." 

WESTWARD. 
1913,  June    From  Cherbourg 

(First    trip)     6         5        14 
1913,  July    From  Cherbourg  5        21        30 

1913,  Aug.     From  Cherbourg  5        19  8 

EASTWARD. 
1913,  July    To  Plymouth 

(First    trip    east)     6  1        28 

1913,  July    To  Plymouth  5        18        24 


5 

16 

24 

5 

12 

29 

5 

12 

23 

5 

11 

54 

5 

15 

6 

5 

11 

45 

5 

7 

38 

RECORD  OF 

S.  S.  KAISER  WILHELM  DER  GROSSE. 

( North  German  Lloyd  Line.) 


Date 

1897,  Oct. 

1897,  Nov. 

1899,  July 

1899,  Sept. 

1900,  Jan. 

1901,  Oct. 


EASTWARD. 

To  Plymouth 
To  Southampton 
To  Cherbourg 
To  Cherbourg 
To  Cherbourg 
To  Plymouth 


WESTWARD, 


1897,  Sept.    From 


1898,  April 

1899,  Mar. 
1899,  Sept. 
1899,  Oct. 
1899,  Nov, 
1901,  Oct. 

1901,  Nov. 

1902,  April 
1902,   Sept. 

*Record 


Southampton 

(First   Trip)  5 


From  Southampton 
From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 
From  Cherbourg 


35 
10 
8 
15 
48 
37 
22 
24 
45 
*20 


RECORD  OF  S.  S.  "OLYMPIC." 
WESTWARD. 

1911,  June    From  Queenstown 

(First    trip)  5  15 

1911,  July    From  Queenstown  5  13 

1911,   Aug.     From  Queenstown  5  12 

1911,  Sept.  From  Queenstown  5  7 

EASTWARD, 


1911,  July    To    Plymouth 

(First    trip  east)     5  18  30 

1911,  Aug.    To  Plymouth  5  17  46 

1911,  Sept.  To  Plymouth  5  14  32 

1911,  Dec.     To  Plymouth  5  12  16 


PROPORTIONAL  STEAMSHIP  SPEEDS. 


Miles 

Feet 

Feet 

Miles 

Feet 

Feet 

Knots. 

Hour. 

per 

per 

Knots. 

per 

per 

per 

Mmute. 

Second 

Hour. 

Minute. 

Second. 

1 

1.151 

101.333 

1.689 

13i 

15.545 

1,368.000 

22.800 

H 

1.727 

152.000 

2.533 

14 

16.121 

1,418.666 

23.644 

2 

2..303 

202.666 

3.378 

14i 

16.696 

1,469.333 

24.488 

2i 

2.879 

253.333 

4.222 

15 

17.273 

1,520.000 

25.333 

3 

3.454 

304.000 

5.066 

m 

.17.848 

1,570.666 

26.177 

3i 

4.030 

354.666 

5.911 

16 

18.424 

1,621.333 

27.022 

4 

.       4.606 

405.333 

6.755 

m 

19.000 

1,672.000 

27.866 

^ 

5.181 

456.000 

7.600 

17 

19.575 

1,722.666 

28.711 

5 

5.757 

506.666 

8.444 

17i 

20.151 

1,773.333 

29.555 

H 

6.333 

557.333 

9.288 

18 

20.727 

1,824.000 

30.400 

6 

6.909 

608.000 

10.133 

18i 

21.303 

1,874.666 

31.244 

6i 

7.484 

658.666 

10.972 

19 

21.878 

1,925.333 

32.088 

7 

8.060 

709.333 

11.822 

m 

22.454 

1,976.000 

32.933 

7i 

8.636 

760.000 

12.666 

20 

23.030 

2,026.666 

33.777 

8 

9.212 

810.666 

13.511 

20i 

23.606 

2,077.333 

34.622 

8i 

9.787 

861.333 

14.355 

21 

24.181 

.  2,128.000 

35.466 

9 

10.363 

912.000 

15.200 

21i 

24.757 

2,178.666 

36.311 

9i 

10.939 

962.666 

16.044 

22 

25.333 

2,229.333 

37.154 

10 

11.515 

1,013.333 

16.888 

22i 

25.909 

2,280.000 

37.998 

lOi 

12.091 

1,064.000 

17.732 

23 

26.485 

2,330.666 

38.842 

11 

12.666 

1,114.666 

18.577 

23i 

27.060 

2,381.333 

39.687 

Hi 

13.242 

1,165.333 

19.421 

24 

27.636 

2,432.000 

40.532 

12 

13.818 

1,216.000 

20.266 

24i 

28.212 

2,482.666 

41.376 

m 

14.394 

1,266.666 

21.111 

25 

28.787 

2,533.333 

42.220 

13 

14.969 

1,317.333 

21.955 

26 

29.938 

2,634.666 

43.910 

Copyright  1913,  by  Munn  &  Co..  Inc. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


217 


Copyright  1909  by  Munn  &  Co. 

THPJ  DEVELOPMENT  OF  OCEAN  VESSELS  IN  THE  PAST  THREE  CENTURIES. 

The  "Half  Moon"  of  1609,  if  the  wind  favored,  could  sail  about  6  knots.  The  "Clermont" 
of  1807  made  4i  knots.  The  "Mauretania"  in  1909  crossed  the  Atlantic  at  a  26-knot  gait. 
The  engine  and  boiler  rooms  of  the  Mauretania  could  accommodate  five  Clermonts  placed  end 
to  end.  The  "Half  Moon"  could  bo  placed  athwartship  on  the  deck  above  with  her  hull  and 
masts  entirely  within  the  ship's  structure. 


218 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DISTANCES  IN  KNOTS  OR  NAUTICAL  MILES. 


Short  Track — Aug.  24  to  Jan.  14,  East. 

Aug.  15  to  Jan.  14,  West. 
Long  Track — ^Jan.  15  to  Aug.  23,  East. 

Jan.  15  to  Aug.  14,  West. 

Ambrose  Channel  Lightship*  and — 

Alexandria,  Egypt 

Antwerp 

Azores  (Ponta  del  Gada) 

Bremen 

Brow  Head 

Cape  Race 

Cherbourg 

Dover 

Fastnet 

Fire  Island  Lightship 

Flushing 

Genoa 

Gibraltar 

Hamburg 

Havre 

Liverpool  (Landing  Stage) 

Lizard  Point 

London  (Tilbury  Docks) 

Nantucket  Lightship 

Naples 

Needles 

Newfoundland  (Banks  of) 

Plymouth 

Queens  town 

Roche's  Point 

Rotterdam 

Scilly  Islands  (Bishop  Rock) 

Southampton  (Docks) 

Philadelphia  to  Delaware  Breakwater,  88  miles 
Delaware  Breakwater  and — 

Antwerp 

Fastnet 

Flushing • 

Gravesend 

Liverpool  (Landing  Stage) 

Lizard  Point 

London  (Tilbury  Docks) 

Nantucket  Lightship 

Newfoundland  (Banks  of) 

Boston  (Dock)  to  Boston  Light,  16  miles. 
Boston  Light  and — 

Antwerp 

Azores  (Ponta  del  Gada) 

Brow  Head 

Gibraltar 

Liverpool  (Landing  Stage. ) 

Queenstown 

Montreal  and — 

Antwerp 

Liverpool  (Landing  Stage) 

London  (Tilbury  Docks) 

Quebec 

Portland  to — 

Halifax 

Liverpool 

New  Orleans  to^— 

Liverpool  (Landing  Stage) 

London  (Tilbury  Docks) • 


EASTBOUND 

WESTBOUND 

Short 

T^^rTcl 

Short 

Long 

Track 

Track 

Track 

4,952 

4,962 

4,945 

4,954 

3,323 

3,432 

3,296 

3,389 

2,227 

2,231 

2,221 

2,230 

3,563 

3,692 

3,536 

3,629 

2,744 

998 

3,073 

2,869 

2,717 

2,823 

3,182 

3,046 

3',i39 

3,190 

3,299 

3,163 

3,259 

2,751 

29 

3,278 

2,876 

2,724 

2,830 

3,387 

3',25i 

3',344 

4,021 

4,031 

4,013 

4,023 

3,168 

3,178 

3,160 

3,170 

3,511 

3,621 

3,485 

3,578 

3,145 

3,246 

3,110 

3,205 

3,033 

3,158 

3,015 

3,124 

2,929 

3,038 

2,902 

2,995 

3,257 

3,366 

3,230 

3,326 

193 

4,116 

4,126 

4,108 

4,118 

3,073 

3,182 

3,046 

3,139 

935 

2,978 

3,087 

2,951 

3,047 

2,814 

2,939 

2,787 

2,893 

2,810 

2,935 

2,783 

2,889 

3,327 

3,436 

3,300 

3,393 

2,880 

2,989 

2,853 

2,946 

3,095 

3,204 

3,068 

3,161 

3,397 

3,506 

3,379 

3,472 

2,825 

2,950 

2,807 

2,913 

3,352 

3,461 

3,334 

3,427 

3,335 

3,444 

3,313 

3,409 

3,116 

3,241 

3,098 

3,204 

3,002 

3,111 

2,985 

3,078 

3,336 

3,445 

3,314 

3,410 

277 

1,009 

3,161 

3,280 

3,126 

3,233 

2,064 

2,078 

2,064 

2,078 

2,583 

2,718 

2,548 

2,668 

3,048 

3,062 

3,048 

3,062 

2,882 

3,017 

2,947 

2,967 

2,652 

2.787 

2,617 

2,737 

3,150 

3,254 

3,150 

3,254 

2,755 

2,968 

2,755 

2,968 

3,082 

3,186 

3,082 

3,186 

155 



326 

2,862 

2,985 

2,819 

2,935 

4,465 

4,465 

4,465 

4,465 

4,676 

4.676 

4,676 

4,676 

♦New  York  (Battery)  to  Ambrose  Channel  Lightship,  25  miles. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


219 


MARINE  DISASTERS. 


Among  the  marine  disasters  on  record 
that  have  resulted  in  the  loss  of  Ufe  are: 

1860,  Feb.  19. — American  ship  Luna 
wrecked  off  Barfleur;  about  100  lives  lost. 

1860,  Sept.  8.— Steamer  Lady  Elgin  sunk 
by  collision  on  Lake  Michigan;  287  lives  lost. 

1863,  Feb.  7. — British  steamer  Orpheus 
wrecked  off  coast  of  New  Zealand;  about  200 
lives  lost. 

1863,  April  27.—  Steamer  Anglo-Saxon 
wrecked  in  fog  off  Cape  Race,  N.  F. ;  about 
237  Uves  lost. 

1865,  Aug.  24. — Emigrant  ship  Eagle  Speed 
foundered  near  Calcutta;  265  hves  lost. 

1866,  Jan.  11. — Steamer  London,  on  her 
way  to  Melbourne,  foundered  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay;  220  lives  lost. 

1866,  Oct.  3. — Steamer  Evening  Star  from 
New  York  to  New  Orleans,  foundered;  about 
250  lives  lost. 

1867,  Oct.  29— Royal  Mail  Steamers  Rhone 
and  Wye  and  about  fifty  other  vessels  driven 
ashore  and  wrecked  at  St.  Thomas,  West  In- 
dies, by  a  hurricane;    about  1,000  lives  lost. 

1868,  April  9. — Steamer  Sea  Bird  burned 
on  Lake  Michigan;  100  hves  lost. 

1869,  Oct.  27.— Steamer  Stonewall  burned 
below  Cairo,  111. ;  200  lives  lost. 

1870,  Jan.  28. — Inman  Line  steamer  City  of 
Boston,  left  New  York  with  117  passengers 
and  was  never  heard  from. 

1870,  Sept.  7. — British  warship  Captain 
foundered  off  Finisterre;  472  lives  lost. 

1870,  Oct.  19. — Steamer  Cambria  lost  off 
Inishtrahul;  about  170  hves  lost. 

1871,  July  30.— Staten  Island  ferryboat 
Westfield  exploded  in  New  York  Harbor;  100 
lives  lost. 

1873,  Jan.  22.— British  steamer  Northfleet, 
sunk  in  collision  off  Dungeness;  300  lives  lost. 

1873,  Nov.  23.— White  Star  liner  Atlantic 
wrecked  off  Nova  Scotia;   547  lives  lost. 

1873,  Nov.  23. — French  Line  steamer  Ville 
du  Havre,  from  New  York  to  Havre,  in  col- 
lision with  ship  Loch  Earn,  sank  in  sixteen 
minutes;   110  lives  lost. 

1874,  Dec.  26. — Immigrant  vessel  Cospat- 
rick  took  fire  and  sank  off  Auckland;  476  lives 
lost. 

1875,  May  7. — Hamburg  mail  steamer 
Schiller  wrecked  in  fog  on  Scilly  Isles;  200 
lives  lost. 

1875,  Nov.  4. — American  steamer  Pacific  in 
collision  thirty  miles  southwest  of  Cape  Flat- 
tery; 236  lives  lost. 

1875,  Dec.  6. — Steamer  Deutschland 
wrecked  at  mouth  of  the  Thames;  157  lives 
lost. 

1877,  July  15. — British  steamer  Eten 
wrecked  off  Valparaiso;  about  100  lives  lost. 

1877,  Nov. — Steamer  Atacama  wrecked  off 
Caldera,  Chile;  105  hves  lost. 

1877,  Nov.  24.— United  States  Sloop  of  War 
Huron  wrecked  off  North  Carolina  coast;  110 
lives  lost. 

1878,  Jan.  31. — Steamer  Metropolis  wrecked 
off  North  Carolina;    104  hves  lost. 

1878,  March  24. — British  training  ship 
Euryd! '  e,  a  frigate,  foundered  near  the  Isle  of 
Wight;  300  hves  lost. 

1878,  Sept.  3. — Bntish  iron  steamer  Prin- 
cess Alice  sunk  in  collision  in  the  Thames;  700 
lives  lost. 


1878,  Nov.  25. — Steamer  Pomerania  sunk 
in  midnight  collision  with  a  bark  in  the 
English  Channel;    47  lives  lost. 

1878,  Dec.  18. — French  steamer  Byzantin 
sunk  in  collision  in  the  Dardanelles  with  the 
British  steamer  Rinaldo;  210  lives  lost. 

1879,  Dec.  2. — Steamer  Borusia  sunk  off 
coast  of  Spain;  174  hves  lost. 

1880,  Jan.  31. — British  training  ship  At- 
lanta, left  Bermuda  with  290  men  and  was 
never  heard  from. 

1880,  Nov.  24. — French  steamer  Oncle 
Joseph  sank  by  coUision  off  Spezzia;  '250 
Uves  lost. 

1881,  May  24. — Steamer  Victoria  capsized 
in  Thames  River,  Canada;  200  hves  lost. 

1881,  Aug.  30. — Steamer  Teuton  wrecked 
off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  200  lives  lost. 

1883,  July  3. — Steamer  Daphne  turned  tur- 
tle in  the  Clyde;    124  hves  lost. 

1884,  Jan.  18. — American  steamer  City  of 
Columbus  wrecked  off  Gay  Head  Light,  Mass. ; 
99  lives  lost. 

1884,  April  3. — Steamer  Daniel  Steinman 
wrecked  off  Sambro  Head,  N.  S.;  131  lives 
lost. 

1884,  April  19.-;-Bark  Ponema  and  steam- 
ship State  of  Florida  sank  in  midocean  after 
collision;  145  hves  lost. 

1884,  July  23. — Spanish  steamer  Gijon  and 
British  steamer  Lux  in  collision  off  Finistere; 
150  lives  lost. 

1886,  March  14. — Steamship  Oregon,  Cu- 
nard  Line,  run  into  by  unknown  steamer, 
eighteen  miles  east  of  Long  Island,  sank  eight 
hours  afterward;  no  lives  lost. 

1887,  Jan.  29. — Steamer  Kapunda  in  col- 
lision with  bark  Ada  Melore  off  coast  of  Brazil ; 
300  lives  lost. 

1887,  Nov.  15.— British  steamer  Wah 
Young  caught  fire  between  Canton  and  Hong- 
kong; 400  lives  lost. 

1887,  Nov.  19.— Steamer  W.  A.  Scholten 
sunk  by  coUision  in  the  Enghsh  Channel ; 
134  lives  lost. 

1888,  Aug.  14. — Steamship  Geiser  sunk  by 
coUision  with  the  ThingvaUa;  105  lives  lost. 

1888,  Sept.  13.— Italian  steamship  Sud 
America  and  steamship  La  France  in  collision 
near  the  Canary  Islands;  89  lives  lost. 

1889,  March  16.— United  States  warship 
Trenton,  Vandalia,  and  Nipsic  and  German 
ships  Adier  and  Eber  wrecked  on  Samoan 
Islands;  147  lives  lost. 

1890,  Jan.  2. — Steamer  Persia  wrecked  off 
Corsica;  130  lives  lost. 

1890,  Feb.  17.— British  steamer  Duburg 
wrecked  in  China  sea;  400  lives  lost. 

1890,  March  1. -^British  steamship  Quetia 
foundered  in  Torres  Straits;  124  lives  lost. 

1890,  Sept.  19.— Turkish  frigate  Ertogrul 
foundered  off  Japan ;  540  lives  lost. 

1890,  Dec.  27. — British  steamer  Shanghai 
burned  in  China  Sea;  101  lives  lost. 

1891,  March  17. — Anchor  liner  Utopia  in 
collision  with  British  steamer  Anson  off  Gi- 
braltar and  sunk;  574  hves  lost. 

1891,  April  16.— British  ship  St.  Catharis 
wrecked  off  Caroline  Island;  90  hves  lost. 

1892,  Jan.  13. — Steamer  Namehow  wrecked 
in  China  Sea;  414  hves  lost. 

1892,  Oct.  28. — Anchor  liner  Romania 
wrecked  off  Corsica;  113  hves  lost. 


220 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MARINE   DISASTERS— Continued. 


1893,  Feb.  8. — Anchor  Line  Trinalria 
wrecked  off  Spain;  115  lives  lost. 

1893,  Feb.  11. — Steamer  Naronic,  White 
Star  Line,  lost  on  the  Atlantic  and  never 
heard  from;  74  lives  lost. 

1893,  June  22.— British  battleship  Victoria 
sunk  in  collision  with  the  Camperdown  off 
Syria;  357  lives  lost. 

1894,  Nov.  1. — Steamer  Wairaro  wrecked 
off  New  Zealand;  134  lives  lost. 

1895,  Jan.  30. — German  steamer  Elbe  sunk 
in  collision  with  British  steamer  Crathie  in 
North  Sea;  335  lives  lost. 

1895,  March  11. — Spanish  cruiser  Reina  Re- 
genta  foundered  in  Atlantic  at  entrance  to 
Mediterranean;  400  lives  lost. 

1895,  May  28. — French  steamer  Dom 
Pedro  wrecked  off  coast  of  Galacia;  about 
100  Uves  lost. 

1896,  June  17. ^Steamer  Drummond  Castle 
wrecked  off  Brest,  France;  about  250  lives 
lost. 

1897,  March  7.— Steamship  Ville  de  St. 
Nazaire,  French  Line,  burned  in  a  storm  off 
Cape  Hatteras;  40  lives  lost. 

1898,  July  2. — Steamship  La  Bourgoyne 
rammed  British  steel  sailing  vessel  Cromarty- 
shire and  sank  rapidly;  584  lives  lost. 

1904,  June  15.— Gen.  Slocum,  excursion 
steamboat,  with  1,400  persons  aboard;  took 
fire  going  through  Hell  Gate,  East  River; 
more  tha,n  1,000  lives  lost. 

1904,  July  3. — Steamship  Norge  foundered 
at  sea;  519  lives  lost. 

1905,  Sept.  12. — Japanese  warship  Mikasa 
sunk  after  explosion  in  Sasebo  Harbor;  599 
lives  lost. 

1907,  Feb.  12. — Steamship  Larchmont  in 
collision  with  Harry  Hamilton  in  Long  Island 
Sound;  183  lives  lost. 

1907,  Feb.  21. — English  mail  steamship 
Berlin  wrecked  off  the  Hook  of  Holland;  142 
lives  lost. 

1907,  Feb.  24. — Austrian  Lloyd  steamship 
Imperatrix,  from  Trieste  to  Bombay,  wrecked 
on  Cape  of  Crete  and  sunk;  137  lives  lost. 

1907,  January. — -British  steamship  Pen- 
gwern  foundered  in  the  North  Sea;  crew  and 
24  men  lost. 

1907,  January. — Prinz  Waldemar,  Ham- 
burg-American Line,  aground  at  Kingston, 
Jamaica  after  earthquake;  3  lives  lost. 

1907,  February.— French  warship  Jean  Bart 
sunk  off  coast  of  Morocco. 

1907,  March. — Steamship  Congo  sunk  at 
mouth  of  Ems  River  by  German  steamship 
Nerissa;  7  lives  lost. 

1907,  March. — French  warship  Jena  blown 
up  at  Toulon;  120  Hves  lost. 

1907,  June. — Steamship  Aden  sunk  off  So- 
cotra,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa;  78  lives  lost. 

1907,  July. — Steamship  Columbia  sunk  off 
Shelton  Cove,  Cal.,  in  collision  with  steamship 
San  Pedro;  50  lives  lost. 

1908,  Feb.  3.— Steamship  St.  Cuthbert, 
bound  from  Antwerp  to  New  York,  burned  at 
sea  off  Nova  Scotia;  15  lives  lost. 


1908,  April  25.— British  cruiser  Gladiator 
rammed  by  American  liner  St.  Paul  off  Isle  of 
Wight;  30  lives  lost. 

1908,  July. — Chinese  warship  Ying  King 
foundered;  300  lives  lost. 

1908,  Aug.  9. — Steamship  Prudentia  lost  on 
voyage  to  Argentina. 

1908,  Aug.  23. — Norwegian  steamship  Fol- 
gefouden  sunk;  many  lives  lost. 

1908,  Nov.  5. — Steamship  Archimedes  lost 
in  Baltic  Sea;  10  drowned. 

1908,  Nov.  26. — Steamship  Finance  sunk 
by  steamship  Georgic  off  Sandy  Hook;  4  lives 
lost. 

1908,  Nov.  6. — Steamship  Taish  sunk  in 
storm  off  Etoro  Island;  150  lives  lost. 

1908,  Nov.  27.— Steamship  San  Pablo  sunk 
off  Philippine  Islands;  100  lives  lost. 

1908,  Dec.  13.— Steamship  Ginsei  Maru 
wrecked  off  Wei-Hai-Wai  and  crew  and  pas- 
sengers drowned. 

1908,  Dec.  4.— Steamship  Soo  City  found- 
ered off  Newfoundland;  crew  lost. 

1909,  Jan.  24. — Steamship  Republic  ram- 
med off  Nantucket  by  steamship  Florida;  8 
lives  lost  in  collision;  vessel  sank;  help  re- 
ceived by  wireless. 

1911,  Feb.  2, — Steamship  Abenton  wrecked 
70  lives  lost. 

1911,  April  23. — Steamship  Asia  ran 
aground;  40  lives  lost. 

1911,  Sept  5. — Steamship  Tuscapel  wrecked 
81  lives  lost. 

1911,  Oct.  2.— Steamship  Hatfield  in  col- 
lision and  sunk;  20  lives  lost. 

1911,  April  2. — Steamship  Koombuna 
wrecked;  150  lives  lost. 

1912,  Jan.  18.— Wistow  Hall,  British 
steamer,  foundered  off  coast  of  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland;  53  drowned. 

1912,  Feb.  13.— Ryoha  Maru  and  Mori 
Maru,  Japanese  steamers,  sunk  in  collision 
off  Nagasaki;  46  lives  lost. 

1912,  March  21. — Steamship  Cachepol  sunk 
after  an  explosion  of  her  boilers,  off  the  west 
coast  of  Peru;  70  lives  lost. 

1912,  April  8. — Nile  excursion  steamer  sunk 
in  collision  near  Cairo,  Egypt;  200  lives  lost. 

1912,  April  15.— Steamship  Titanic,  White 
Star  Line,  struck  an  iceberg  and  sank;  1,517 
lives  lost. 

1912,  April  30. — Coasting  boat  Texas, 
Archipelago  Steamship  Company,  siink  by  a 
submarine  mine  at  the  entrance  to  Smyrna 
Bay;  69  lives  lost. 

1912,  Sept.  23. — Russian  steamer  Obnevka 
sunk  in  Dvina  River;  115  lives  lost. 

1913,  Jan.  8. — Steamer  Rosecrans  sunk  with 
33  men  on  Pacific  Coast. 

1913,  May  22. — French  Messageries  IVlari- 
times  liner  Senegal  blown  up  by  a  mine  in 
the  Port  of  Smyrna;  about  200  lives  lost. 

1913,  May  26. — Steamship  Nevada  blown 
up  by  a  mine  in  the  Port  of  Smyrna;  about 
245  lives  lost. 

1913,  Aug.  18. — State  of  California,  steamer 
struck  rock  in  Alaskan  Sea  and  sank  almost 
immediately;  32  perished. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


221 


Operations  of  the   United  States 
Life-Saving  Service. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1912,  a 
total  of  1,730  vessels  were  reported  by  keepers 
of  life-saving  stations  as  having  sustained 
casualties,  more  or  less  serious,  within  the 
field  of  service  operations.  Of  these  vessels, 
455  were  documented  and  1,275  undocu- 
mented, the  latter  class  comprising  launches, 
sailboats,  rowboats,  etc. 

Of  the  455  documented  vessels,  48  were  lost; 
of  the  3,731  persons  on  board,  6  were  lost; 
280  persons  were  succored  at  stations  and 
(312  days'  succor  was  afforded.  The  value 
of  the  vessels  involved  was  $9,396,480;  value 
of  cargoes,  $2,499,725;  total  value  of  property 
involved,  $11,896,205;  value  of  property 
saved,  $9,860,995;  value  of  property  lost, 
$2,035,210. 

Of  the  1,275  undocumented  vessels,  13 
were  totally  lost;  of  the  3,462  persons  on 
board,  10  perished,  164  persons  were  succored 
ac  stations  and  2d2  days'  succor  was  afforded. 
The  value  of  the  vessels  involved  was 
$1,314,420;  value  of  cargoes,  $37,680;  total 
value  of  property  involved,  $1,352,100;  value 
of  property  saved,  $1,294,175;  value  of  proper- 
ty lost,  $57,925. 

Of  course'  the.se  figures  do  not  represent 
the  entire  amount  saved  by  the  service.  A 
considerable  portion  was  saved  by  salvage 
companies,  wrecking  tugs  and  other  instru- 
mentalities, often  working  in  conjunction  with 
the  seamen.  It  is  equally  impossible  to  give 
an  approximate  estimate  of  the  number  of 
lives  saved.  Often  a  vessel  with  a  long 
passenger  list  and  a  large  cargo  was  saved 
only  by  the  warning  signals  of  the  patrolman, 
while  in  many  cases,  either  where  vessels 
suffered  actual  loss  or  where  they  were  warned 
of  danger,  no  loss  of  life  would  have  resulted, 
even  though  no  aid  had  been  rendered. 

General  Summary  of  Operations 
Since  the  Introduction  of  the 
Present  Life-Saving  System, 
1871-1912. 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  present  life- 
saving  system,  the  disasters  at  sea  have 
totaled  24,441,  and  the  number  of  persons 
involved  159,332,  this  number  including  per- 
sons rescued  not  connected  with  vessels  in- 
volved in  disaster.  The  number  of  lives  lost 
was  1,330.  Eighty-five  of  these  were  lost  at. 
the  disaster  to  the  steamer  "  Metropolis"  in 
1877-78,  when  service  was  impeded  by  dis- 
tance, and  fourteen  others  in  the  same  year 
owing  to  similar  causes.  The  number  of 
persons  succored  at  stations,  inclusive  of  those 
not  connected  with  vessels  involved  in  dis- 
aster, was  24,201,  and  the  days'  succor 
afforded  was  54,516. 

The  total  value  of  the  vessels  involved  in 
disaster  was  $231,360,845,  of  which  amount 
$86,909,229  represented  the  value  of  cargoes 
involved.  $256,228,037  was  saved  and 
$62,042,037  was  lost. 

United   States   Steamboat  Inspec- 
tion Service. 

This  service  is  now  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 
The  Supervising-Inspector  General  reported 


that  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912, 
the  number  of  annual  certificates  of  inspection 
issued  to  domestic  steam,  motor,  sailing 
vessels  and  barges,  was  7,398;  number  of 
certificates  issued  to  foreign  passenger  steam 
vessels  438,  making  a  total  of  7,836.  The 
number  of  new  life  preservers  inspected  was 
244,565,  of  which  number  2,750  were  rejected. 
3,786  marine  boiler  plates  were  tested  at  the 
mills  by  assistant  inspectors.  There  were 
7,616  applicants  for  original  and  renewal  of 
licenses  examined  for  color-blindness,  206 
of  whom  were  found  color  blind  and  rejected. 
During  the  year  there  were  3  accidents  caused 
by  fire,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  4  lives;  17 
collisions  in  which  31  lives  were  lost;  8  ex- 
plosions or  accidental  escape  of  steam,  result- 
ing in  the  loss  of  14  lives;  32  killed  as  a  cause 
of  11  accidents  from  striking  snags,  wrecks  and 
sinking;  139  cases  of  accidental  drowning  and 
44  deaths  by  miscellaneous  accidents.  During 
the  fiscal  year  307,692,494  pa.ssengers  were 
carried  on  steam  vessels  that  are  required  by 
law  to  report  the  number  of  passengers 
carried.  Taking  the  total  number  of  lives 
lost  as  264,  it  is  seen  that  1,165,501  passen- 
gers were  carried  for  each  life  lost,  whether  of 
passengers  or  crew,  and  from  all  causes. 

United  States  Revenue  Cttter 
Service. 

The  United  States  Revenue  Cutter  Service, 
organized  in  1790,  is  a  military  arm  of  the 
Government  attached  to  and  under  the 
direction  of  the  Treasury  Department.  It 
is  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  the  navi- 
gation and  customs  laws  of  the  United  States, 
the  assistance  of  vessels  in  distress,  the  pro- 
tection of  the  sealing  industry  in  Alaska, 
the  enforcement  of  quarantine  laws,  the 
destruction  of  derelicts  and  other  dangers 
to  navigation  and  numerous  other  duties. 
There  are  in  the  service  228  commissioned 
officers  and  cadets  and  1,500  petty  officers 
and  enlisted  men.  43  vessels,  including  2 
tug-boats  and  6  launches,  are  used  in  the 
service. 


Coal  Consumption  of  Ocean 
Steamers. 

The  amount  of  coal  consumed  by  a  steam- 
ship increases  much  faster  than  the  rate  of 
increase  of  speed.  This  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  which  applies  to  a  "typical  ves- 
sel" of  10,000  gross  tons. 


Tons  of 

Number 

Coal  Con- 

of 

Mileage 

sumed 

Firemen 

^r 

Knots. 

per  Day. 

Required. 

10 

44 

15 

42,000 

11 

53 

18 

46,200 

12 

65 

22 

50,400 

13 

79 

26 

54,600 

14 

96 

32 

58,800 

15 

117 

39 

63.000 

16 

144 

48 

67,200 

17 

173 

58 

71,400 

18 

209 

70 

75,600 

19 

254 

85 

79,800 

20 

305 

102 

84.000 

21 

371 

127 

88,200 

222 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AROUND  THE  WORLD  IN  THIRTY-SIX  DAYS. 


When  Jules  Verne  wrote  his  fas- 
cinating story,  "Around  the  World  in 
80  Days,"  he  probably  did  not  realize 
that  within  a  comparatively  short  pe- 
riod this  trip  could  be  made  in  much 
abbreviated  time.  In  fact  Phineas 
Fogg  could  now  make  the  complete 
circuit  of  the  earth  in  slightly  less 
than   thirty-six   days. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made 
to  beat  the  fictional  record  of  Phineas 
Fogg  by  both  men  and  women.  The 
first  of  these  journeys  around  the  world 
against  time  was  made  in  1889  by 
Nellie  Ely  in  72  days  6  hours  11  min- 
utes and  14  seconds.  Geo.  Francis 
Train  made  the  trip  in  1890  in  67 
days  12  hours  and  3  minutes.  In 
1901  Charles  Fitzmorris  made  the  trip 
in  60  days  13  hours  29  minutes  and  42 
2-5  seconds,  in  the  race  of  schoolboys 
conducted  by  the  Hearst  papers. 

Fitzmorris  left  Chicago May  20,  1901 

New  York May  22,  1901 

Berlin May  30,  1901 

Moscow June     1,  1901 

Irkutsk June  10,  1901 

Stretensk,SiberiaJune  13,  1901 
Blagoveschensk  June  21,  1901 
Vladivostok.  .  .  .June  27,  1901 

Yokohama July     5,  1901 

Victoria,  B.  C.July  16,  1901 

Arrived  in  Chicago July  20,  1901 

The  first  record  breaker  to  use  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway  was  Henry 
Frederick,  who  in  1903  made  the  cir- 
cuit in  54  days  7  hours  20  minutes. 
In  1907  Col.  Burnley  Campbell  re- 
duced the  time  to  40  days  19  hours 
SO  minutes.  In  1911  Andrew  Jaeger- 
Schmidt  made  a  record-breaking  trip, 
the  elapsed  time  being  39  days  19 
hours  42  minutes  37  4-5  seconds. 

July  17,  1911,  1:15  P.M.,  left  Paris, 

July  20,  Moscow, 

July  22,  Omsk, 

July  25,  Irkutsk, 

July  28,  Harbin 

July  29,  Vladivostok, 

July  31,  Yokohama, 

Aug.  12,  Vancouver, 

Aug.  18,  Montreal, 

Aug.  19,  New  York 

Aug.  26,  Paris. 

This  trip  cost  $1,426.  Of  this 
amount  only  $596  was  spent  for  rail- 
road fare  and  transportation,  while 
$600  went  in  tips  and  gratuities. 


The  record  of  Jaeger-Schmidt  was 
broken  in  1913  by  John  Henry 
Mears  by  3  days  22  hours  and  37 
seconds.  Mears  made  the  world  trip 
of  21,066  miles  in  35  days  21  hours 
35  minutes  and  4-5  seconds,  thus 
traveling  at  an  average  speed  of  587 
miles  a  day  or  24^  miles  an  hour. 
Jaeger-Schmidt  had  traveled  19,.300 
miles  at  an  average-  daily  rate  of  480 
miles,  or  20  miles  an  hour. 

Mears  left  New  York July   2,  at  12.45  a.m. 

Berlin July   9 

St.  Petersburg.July  12 

Harbin July  21 

Yokohama  . .  .  July  24 

Victoria Aug.  2 

St.  Paul Aug.  5 

Chicago Aug.  5 

Arrived  in  New  York;  .  .  .Aug.  6,  at  10.20  p.m. 

During  the  entire  trip  Mr.  Mears 
slept  in  a  hotel  but  once,  and  that 
was  for  two  hours  in  London.  The 
trip  cost  less  than  $800;  this  includes 
the  liberal  tips  he  distributed  along 
the  way  and  the  money  he  spent  in 
bribing  the  engine  crew  on  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  trip 
was  the  flight  of  fifteen  miles  in  an 
hydroaeroplane  over  Puget  Sound 
from  a  yacht  to  Seattle.  Mr.  Mears 
stated  after  his  trip  that  in  order  to 
break  his  record  it  would  probably 
be  necessary  to  resort  to  the  use  of 
an  aeroplane  from  Fishguard  to  Lon- 
don and  from  Dover  to  Moscow,  then 
cutting  off  about  two  days.  It  is 
expected  that  the  new  record  will 
stand  for  years. 

.  The  record  around  the  globe  by  the 
westward  route  is  claimed  by  Daniel 
D.  Bidwell,  who  in  1911  made  the 
complete  circuit  in  47  days  and  22 
hours.  The  route  taken  by  Mr.  Bid- 
well  took  in  Montreal,  Vancouver, 
Yokohoma,  Vladivostok,  Moscow, 
Dover,  and  back  to  New  York. 

On  July  23,  1911,  a  bicyclist  named 
Pankratow  started  on  a  trip  around 
the  world  on  a  bicycle  from  Harbin, 
Manchuria.  He  finished  on  Aug.  10, 
1913,  having  ridden  around  the  world 
on  his  wheel  in  two  years  and  eigh- 
teen days. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


223 


FUkk  RICOCB   SHIP 


rUU  RIMiO  (Hir  WITH  DOVfekE  TOPSAIU 


RIGS  OF  SAILING  VESSELS. 


While  there  are  not  quite  so  many  different 
rigs  of  sailing  vessels  as  there  are  vessels, 
there  are  a  great  many,  some  of  them  differ- 
ing but  slightly  from  others,  and  there  is 
much  confusion  of  nomenclature,  even 
among  those  who  should  know  better  than  to 
get  the  rigs  mixed  in  their  minds.  To  aid  in 
dispelling  misunderstandings  as  to  the  names 
of  the  rigs  of  vessels,  or  as  to  how  certain 
named  rigs  are  to  be  understood,  the  accom- 


panying illustrations  have  been  prepared, 
showing  a  wide  range  from  the  smallest  and 
the  most  simple  sailmg  vessels  to  the  largest 
and  most  complicated. 

In  the  first  place  we  may  make  a  distinction 
by  reason  of  the  number  of  masts,  which 
ranges  from  one  to  five.  The  second  dis- 
tinction may  be  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
sails  are  attached,  extended,  and  maneuvered; 
some    being    on    horizontal    yards    swinging 


224 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


crosswise  of  the  mast,  some  on  yards  which 
lie  obliquely  to  the  horizontal,  others^having 
booms  or  gaffs  attached  at  only  one  end  to 
the  mast,  and  others  again  having  no  sprit  or 
spar  by  which  to  aid  in  their  extension. 
Some  sails  are  triangular,  others  have  four 
well  defined  sides.  Some  vessels  have  all  the 
sails  centered  at  the  masts,  or  are  square 
rigged;  in  others  all  the  sails  are  "fore  and 
aft;"  and  others  again  have  the  sails  on  one 
or  more  masts  of  different  type  from  those  on 
the  other  or  others;  while  in  some,  part  of  the 
sails  on  a  mast  are  of  one  type  and  the  rest  of 
one  or  more  others. 

Referring  to  the  illustrations,  and  consider- 
ing only  the  number  of  masts:  A  to  I  inclusive 
have  but  one;  J  to  X  inclusive,  two;  and  the 
rest  have  three.  There  are  vessels  having 
four  and  even  five  masts,  but  these  do  not 
require  illustration  as  the  sails  on  the  other 
mast  or  masts  are  of  the  same  general  type  as 
those  on  the  three. 

Of  sails  we  have  as  distinct  types  No  5  A, 
which  is  a  leg  of  mutton,  having  a  boom  to 
extend  its  lower  edge;  5  B,  which  is  a  square 
sail,  having  its  upper  edge  extended  by  a 
yard  and  found  also  at  4  and  5  L,  M  and 
N,  4  V,  W,  X,  Y,  Z,  AA  and  BA;  5  X,  Z,  AA 
and  BA,  and  6  AA  and  BA.  All  these  square 
sails  have  no  yard  to  extend  them  on  their 
lower  edges. 

In  vessels  F  and  J  there  will  be  seen  to  be 
one  long  yard  at  an  angle  to  the  mast  and 
having  its  lower  end  made  fast  to  a  convenient 
point  below.     This  is  called  a  lateen  rig. 

In  vessels  D,  E,  G,  H,  I,  O,  P,  Q,  R,  S, 
T,  U,  V,  W,  Y,  all  sails  marked  5  are  bent  to 
the  mast  at  their  inner  edge,  and  extended  by 
a  boom  below  and  a  gaff  above.  These  are 
fore  and  aft  sails.  Other  fore  and  aft  sails, 
bent  to  stays  and  not  to  any  mast,  boom  or 
yard,  are  the  stay  sails  seen  in  vessels  D,  E,  I, 
J,  K,  M,  N,  and  on  all  the  others  from  P  on, 
inclusive.  The  particular  sail  on  vessel  A  is 
a  leg  of  mutton  sail;  on  B,  a  lug  sail  or  lug;  on 
C,  a  split  lug,  differing  from  that  on  B  by  one 
portion  being  bent  to  the  mast  as  well  as  to 
the  yard  above.  In  vessel  K  may  be  seen  a 
"sliding  gunter,"  the  upper  portion  of  which 
is  extended  by  a  spar  which  is  hoisted  along- 
side of  the  mast,  constituting,  practically,  a 
sliding  topmast;  the  sail  being  bent  to  both 
halves  of  the  mast  proper.  On  vessel  L  there 
is  a  dipping  lug,  and  on  M  a  three-quarter  lug. 

In  S  we  see  a  schooner  the  topsails  of  which, 
marked  12  and  13,  are  extended  by  the  top- 
mast and  the  gaff;  these  being  called  gaff- 
topsails;  while  in  T  they  have  at  their  lower 
edges  comparatively  short  spars  called  clubs, 
by  which  they  may  be  more  flatly  strained 
than  where  the  attachment  is  made  directly 
to  the  corner  (or  clew)  of  the  sail.  In  BB  we 
see  the  topsails  double;  that  is,  instead  of 
there  being  only  one  sail  to  the  topmast,  as 
in  AD,  9,  10.  11,  they  are  double,  the  upper 
half  being  bent  to  the  regular  yard  above,  and 
the  other  to  a  yard  which  is  hoisted  on  the 
mast;  the  object  being  to  enable  the  sail  area 
to  be  more  readily  reduced  than  by  reefing 
one  large  sail. 

Taking  the  different  rigs  in  order  as  lettered, 
A,  is  a  leg  of  mutton,  B  a  lug,  C  a  split  lug,  D 
a  sloop  (having  a  single  mast  and  only  fore 
and  aft  sails),  E  a  sloop  having  a  gaff  topsail, 
F  a  lateen  rig,  G  a  skipjack  (having  no  bow- 
sprit and  no  staysail  nor  topsail),  H  a  cat- 


boat  (which  differs  from  the  skipjack  only  in 
the  hull),  I  the  cutter  as  known  m  the  United 
States  Navy  (distinguished  by  being  sloop 
rigged,  with  a  square  topsail  instead  of  a  gaff 
topsail  or  a  club  topsail),  J  a  lateen  rigged 
felucca,  K  a  sliding  gunter  (having  practically 
a  sliding  topmast  to  which  as  well  as  to  the 
mast  the  sail  is  bent),  L  a  dipping  lug,  M  a 
three-quarter  lug,  N  a  standing  lug  (one 
lower  corner  of  the  sail  being  secured  to  the 
mast,  and  the  lower  edge  being  extended 
without  a  boom),  O  a  pirogue  (having  no  bow- 
sprit, no  staysails,  and  no  topsails,  and  being 
fitted  with  a  lee  board  as  shown),  P  a  sloop 
yawl  (having  a  small  mast  stepped  astern  and 
bearing  a  leg  of  mutton  sail),  Q  a  sloop  yawl 
with  a  jigger. 

R  is  a  schooner  having  two  masts,  both 
fore  and  aft  rigged;  this  one  having  no  top- 
sails and  only  one  staysail;  S  a  schooner  with 
gaff  topsails  (sometimes  called  a  gaff  topsail 
schooner),  T  a  schooner  with  club  topsails 
(sometimes  called  a  club  topsail  schooner), 
U  a  topsail  schooner  (having  a  square  top- 
sail on  the  foremast  and  a  gaff  topsail  on  the 
mainmast),  V  a  hermaphrodite  or  modified 
brig  (two  masted  and  having  the  foremast 
square  rigged  and  the  mainmast  fore  and  aft 
rigged),  W  a  brigantine  (having  two  masts, 
the  foremast  being  square  rigged  and  the 
mainmast  having  square  topsails  and  but  a 
mainsail  extended  by  gaff  and  boom),  X  a 
brig  (a  two  masted  vessel  square  rigged  on 
both  masts),  Y  a  barkentine  (having  three 
masts,  the  foremast  being  square  rigged  and 
the  other  two  fore  and  aft  rigged),  Z  a  bark 
(having  three  masts,  the  foremast  and  main- 
mast being  square  rigged  and'the  mizzenmast 
fore  and  aft  rigged),  AA  a  full  rigged  ship 
(having  three  masts,  all  square  rigged),  and 
BA  a  full  rigged  merchant  ship  (having  double 
topsails  as  before  explained). 

The  sails  as  illustrated  on  all  the  vessels 
shown  bear  the  same  numbers  for  the  same 
name  throughout.  In  all,  1  is  the  flying  jib, 
2  the  jib,  3  the  foretopmast  staysail,  4  the 
foresail,  5  the  mainsail,  6  the  cross  jack  sail, 
7  the  spanker,  8  the  jigger,  9  the  fore  topsail, 
10  the  main  topsail,  11  the  mizzen  topsail,  12 
the  fore  gaff  topsail,  13  the  main  gaff  topsail, 
14,  the  main  topmast  staysail,  15  the  mizzen 
topmast  staysail,  16  the  lower  fore  topsail,  17 
the  lower  main  topsail,  18  the  lower  mizzen 
topsail,  19  the  upper  fore  topsail,  20  the  upper 
main  topsail,  21  the  upper  mizzen  topsail,  22 
the  fore  topgallant  sail,  23  the  main  top- 
gallant sail,  24  the  mizzen  topgallant  sail,  25 
the  fore  royal,  26  the  main  royal,  27  the 
mizzen  royal,  28  the  main  skysail,  29  the  main 
topgallant  staysail,  30  the  mizzen  topgallant 
staysail,  31  the  jib  topsail,  32  the  fore  trysail, 
33  the  staysail,  34  the  gaff  topsail,  35  the  main 
royal  staysail. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  sails  not  shown,  as 
for  instance  studding  sails,  which  are  extend- 
ed by  yards  on  square  rigged  vessels,  and 
other  staysails  than  those  shown  may  be  set 
when  the  wind  is  light  and  they  can  be  used 
to  advantage  to  catch  any  wind. 

There  are  other  rigs  which  embody  the 
features  of  those  already  shown,  such  for 
example  as  the  three  masted,  four  masted, 
and  five  masted  schooners,  the  four  masted 
and  five  masted  ships  and  the  four  masted 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


225 


shipentine,  all  of  which  are  an  extension  of  the 
rigs  shown. 

BUOYS. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  customary  to 
mark  channels  with  red  and  black  buoys. 
As  the  channel  is  entered  from  the  sea  the 
red  buoys  are  on  the  starboard,  or  right  side, 
and  the  black  buoys  on  the  port.  Usually 
there  is  a  difference  in  form  between  the  two 
sets  of  buoys.  The  starboard  or  red  buoys 
are   of    the    type    known    as    "nun"    buoys, 


.    CAN   BUOY 

sometimes  called  "nut"  buoys,  the  part  that 
projects  out  of  the  water  being  conical  in 
form.  The  port  or  black  buoys  are  of  the 
type  known  as  "can"  buoys,  the  part  that 
projects  out  of  the  water  having  the  form  of  a 


NUN  BUOY 

plain  cylinder  or  else  a  sligntly  tapered 
cylinder.  In  winter  weather  in  waters  where 
there  is  apt  to  be  a  great  deal  of  ice,  "spar" 
buoys  are  used  instead  of  "can"  and  "nun" 


buoys,  the  "spar  "  buoys  having  the  shape  of 
a  spar  as  the  name  implies.  In  Europe  buoys 
are  not  as  consistently  used  as  in  the  United 
States  and  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  summarize 
here  the  significance  of  the  different  buoys  in 
various  European  ports.  At  night  certain 
channels  are  marked  by  "light"  buoys;  that 
is,  buoys  fitted  with  acetylene,  Pintsch  gas, 
or  electric  lights. 


NAUTICAL    TERMS 

Abaft:  Toward  the  stern  or  end  of  the  vessel. 

Aft:  Toward  the  .stern  or  end  of  the  vessel. 

Alleyway:  The  ship's  passageway. 

Altitude:  This  is  the  angular  distance  of 
the  pole  above  the  horizon. 

Bower  Anchor:  This  is  an  anchor  which  is 
ready  for  immediate  use. 

Bulkhead:  A  longitudinal  or  transverse 
partition. 

Cart:  A  sea  map. 

Deadlight:  This  is  a  covering  of  wood  or 
metal  used  in  severe  weather  to  protect  glass 
portholes  or  windows. 

Equinox:  This  is  the  equal  length  of  the  day 
and  night  occurring  toward  the  end  of  March 
and  September. 

Ebb-Tide:  Falling  tide. 

Forward:  Toward  the  bow  or  front  of  the 
vessel. 

Fore-and-aft:  This  refers  to  the  length  of 
the  ship. 

Fo'castle:  This  was  formerly  the  seamen's 
quarters,  but  in  the  modern  vessel  they  are 
quartered  almost  anywhere  near  their  work. 

Fathom:  Six  feet. 

Flood-Tide:  Rising  tide. 

Galley:  This  is  the  kitchen. 

Height  of  tide:  This  is  the  difference  be- 
tween the  level  of  high  water  and  that  of  low 
water. 

Larboard:  The  opposite  of  starboard;  port 
is  the  later  and  more  preferred  term. 

Lee-side:  This  is  the  side  away  from  the 
wind. 

Latitude:  Distance  directly  North  or  South 
of  the  Equator. 

Longitude :  Distance  directly  East  or  West 
of.the  meridian  of  Greenwich. 

Lights  of  vessels:  These  are  the  port  and 
starboard  lights,  red  and  green,  respectively, 
besides  a  white  light  in  the  foretop. 

Mid-ship  :  This  means  the  pomt  which  is 
equidistant  between  the  bow  and  the  stern. 

Neap-tide:  This  is  low  tide  caused  by  the 
sun   and   moon  being  farthest  apart. 

Port:  This  is  the  left-hand  side  of  the  ship 
looking  toward  the  bow. 

Porthole:  A  stateroom  window  secured  in  a 
massive  metal  ring  adapted  to  be  closed 
tightly. 

Starboard:  This  is  the  right-hand  side  of 
the  ship  looking  toward  the  bow. 

Scuppers:  Channels  for  water,  usually  at 
the  outer  edge  of  the  deck. 

Soundings:  Depth  of  water  in  fathoms. 

Spring-tide:  This  is  high  tide  caused  by  the 
sun  and  moon  being  on  the  meridian  together 

Sheet-anchor:  This  is  a  spare  anchor  which 
is  reserved  for  emergencies. 

Thwartship:  Crosswise  to  the  ship. 

Weather-side:  This  is  the  side  of  the  ship 
toward  the  wind. 


226 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


227 


IT  IS  BETTER  TO  BE  SAFE  THAN  SORRY. 
Testing  temperature  of  sea  water. 

PROVISIONING  THE  '' KRONPRINZ  WILHELM"  FOR  A  SINGLE 
TRANSATLANTIC  TRIP. 


W       B1 

L 


The  Book  of  Genesis  does  not  record 
the  tonnage  of  the  huge  vessel  which 
finally  stranded  on  Mount  Ararat,  af- 
ter finishing  the  most  wonderful  voy- 
age ever  described  in  the  annals  of 
mankind.  But  it  is  quite  safe  to  as- 
sume that  the  dimensions  of  the  Ark, 
that  old-time  floating  storehouse,  are 
exceeded  in  size  by  the  largest  of 
steamships  now  crossing  the  Atlantic. 

Not  the  least  striking  evidence  of 
the  size  of  these  modern  monsters  of 
the  deep  is  afforded  by  the  vast  quan- 
tities of  food  which  must  be  taken 
aboard  for  a  single  six-day  trip  across 
the  Atlantic.  For  the  1,500  passen- 
gers and  the  several  hundred  men  con- 
stituting the  crew,  carloads  of  food 
and  whole  tanks  of  liquids  are  neces- 
sary. To  enumerate  in  cold  type  the 
exact  quantities  of  bread,  meat,  and 
vegetables  consumed  in  a  weekly  trip 
would  give  but  an  inadequate  idea  of 
the  storing  capacity  of  a  modern  liner. 
We  have,  therefore,  prepared  a  picture 
which  graphically  shows  by  compari- 
son with  the  average  man  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  meat,  poultry,  and  bread- 
stuffs,  as  well  as  the  liquors  used. 
Each  kind  of  food  has  been  concen- 
trated into  a  giant  unit,  compared 
with  which  the  figure  of  the  average 
man  seems  puny. 

On  the  "Kronprinz  Wilhelm,"  of  the 
North  German  Lloyd  Line,  which 
steamship  we  have  taken  for  the  pur- 
pose of  instituting  our  comparisons, 
some  19,800  pounds  of  fresh  meat  and 


14,300  pounds  of  salt  beef  and  mut- 
ton, in  all  34,100  pounds  of  meat,  are 
eaten  during  a  single  trip  from  New 
York  to  Bremen.  This  enormous  quan- 
tity of  meat  has  been  pictured  in  the 
form  of  a  single  joint  of  beef,  which, 
if  it  actually  existed,  would  be  some- 
what less  than  10  feet  high,  10  feet 
long,  and  5  feet  wide.  If  placed  on 
one  end  of  a  scale,  it  would  require 
about  227  average  men  in  the  other  end 
to  tip  the  beam. 

For  a  single  voyage  the  "Kronprinz 
Wilhelm"  uses  2,640  pounds  of  ham, 
1,320  pounds  of  bacon,  and  506  pounds 
of  sausage — in  all,  4,466  pounds. 
Since  most  of  this  is  pork,  it  may 
well  be  pictured  in  the  form  of  a  ham. 
That  single  ham  is  equivalent  in 
weight  to  374  average  hams.  It  is 
7^4  feet  high,  3  feet  in  diameter  and 
2  feet  thick. 

The  poultry  eaten  by  the  passen- 
gers of  the  steamer  during  a  trip  to 
Bremen  or  New  York  weighs  4,840 
pounds.  Suppose  that  we  show  these 
4,840  pounds  of  poultry  in  the  form 
of  a  turkey,  dressed  and  ready  for 
the  oven.  The  bird  would  be  a  giant 
10  feet  long,  8  feet  broad,  and  5  feet 
high. 

Sauerkraut,  beans,  peas,  rice,  and 
fresh  vegetables  are  consumed  to  the 
amount  of  25,320  pounds.  Packed  for 
market,  these  preserved  and  fresh  vege- 
tables would  be  contained  in  290  bas- 
kets of  the  usual  form,  which,  piled  up 
make  a  formidable  truncated  pyramid- 


228 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOQK. 


THE  COMPLICATED  GEAR  OF  A  LARGE  VESSEL. 
Photograph  taken  on  the  "George  Washington." 


1 

Main  Deck. 

8 

Cargo  Winches. 

2 

Lower  Promenade  Deck. 

9 

Rigging. 

3 

Upper  Promenade  Deck. 

10 

Derrick  for  Heavy  Cargo 

4 

Boat  Deck. 

11 

Smoke  Funnel. 

.«) 

Bridge  Deck. 

12 

Ventilators. 

6 

Cargo  Beams. 

13 

Boats 

7 

Mast 

14 

Back  Stays. 

IS     Skylight 


^ 

1 

1 

1 

P 

■■ 

1 

1 

•  -^r--9- 

pf'4»frr^ 

.,.j 

m 

fli 

^ 

■ 

1 

a 

■■ 

■ 

^ 
1^" 

■■■HI 

H 

■ 

I 

B 

H 

m 

F-' 

THE  OLYMPIC  ON  HER  MAIDEN  VOYAGE. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


229 


AMIDSHIPS    THERE  IS  MORE  SPACE    TO  WALK  ON  THE  SUN  DECK. 


Smoke  Stack. 
Winter  Garden. 
Boat  Deck. 
Sun  Deck. 
Boats 
Quadrant  Davit. 


7  Boat  Tackle. 

8  Ventilators. 

9  Various  Deck  Houses. 

10  Boat  Winch. 

11  Cargo  Beams. 

12  Awning  Stanchions. 


LIFEBOAT  DRILL  ON  A  TRANSATLANTIC  LINER. 

PROVISIONING  THE  BOATS. 

Taken  specially  for  this  book. 


230 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LONGITUDINAL    SECTION    OF    THE    TWIN    SCREW- 

Vienna  cafe  (smokers) 

First  class  cabin 

Bathroom 

Lavatory 

Post  office 

Second  class  pantry 

Second  class  kitchen 

Firemen  and  trimmers 

Engine  room 

First  class  Smoking  room 

First  class  cabins 

Doctor's  cabin 

Barber's  room 


1. 

Second  Class  Promenade  Deck 

14. 

2. 

Reserve  rudder  machine 

15. 

3. 

Rudder  machine 

16. 

4. 

Second  class  Smoking  room 

17. 

ft. 

Second  class  cabin 

18. 

6. 

Second  class  Ladies'  saloon 

19. 

7. 

Second  class  Dining  room 

20. 

8. 

Baggage  room 
Shaft  timnel 

21. 

9. 

22. 

10. 

Rudder 

23. 

11. 

Screw 

24. 

12. 

Double  bottom 

25. 

13. 

Vienna  cafe  Shelter 

26. 

Copyright  1912,    Munn   &   Co.,    Inc.  turbines. 

LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  THE  TURBINE-DRIVEN 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


231 


EXPRESS    STEAMER  "KAISER  WILHELM  11/ 


27. 

First  class  kitchen 

40. 

Navigating  house 

28. 

First  class  pantry 

41. 

Chart  house 

29. 

Scullery 

42. 

Captain's  rooms 

30. 

Coal  bunkers 

43. 

Reading  and  Writing  room 

31. 

Boiler  room 

44. 

Steerage  kitchen 

32. 

Vienna  cafe  (non-smokers) 

45. 

Steerage 

33. 

Grand  staircase 

46. 

Provision  department 

34. 

Dining  room 

47. 

Goods  hold 

35. 

Social  Hall 

48. 

Chains 

36. 

Children's  saloon 

49. 

Sails 

37. 

Chief  Steward's  office 

50. 

Sailors 

38. 

Imperial  suite 

51. 

Anchor  machine    ' 

39. 

First  class  cabins 

52. 

Anchor 

rrrmnrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrfT! 


STEAMER 


BOILERS. 

FRANCE,"  A  FINE  TYPE  OF  LINER. 


232 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  DISTANCE  OF  THE  HORIZON 
AT  DIFFERENT  ELEVATIONS. 


Xi 

Distance 

JS 

Distance 

4^' 

Distance 

^ 

Distance 

^ 

Distance 

SP 

to 

.SP 

to 

^ 

to 

M 

to 

[m 

to 

Horizon 

Horizon 

'5 

Horizon 

£ 

Horizon 

'5 

Horizon 

Feet 

Nautical 

Feet 

Nautical 

Feet 

Nautical 

Feet 

Nautical 

Feet 

Nautical 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

1 

1.15 

33 

6.60 

85 

10.59 

245 

17.98 

450 

24.36 

2 

1.62 

34 

6.70 

90 

10.90 

250 

18.16 

460 

24.63 

3 

1.99 

35 

6.80 

95 

11.19 

255 

18.34 

470 

24.90 

4 

2.30 

36 

6.89 

100 

11.48 

260 

18.52 

480 

25.16 

5 

2.57 

37 

6.99 

105 

11.77 

265 

18.70 

490 

25.42 

6 

2.81 

38 

7.08 

110 

12.05 

270 

18.87 

500 

25.68 

7 

3.04 

39 

7.17 

115 

12.32 

275 

19.05 

510 

25.94 

8 

3.25 

40 

7.26 

120 

12.58 

280 

19.22 

520 

26.19 

9 

3.45 

41 

7.35 

125 

12.84 

285 

19.39 

530 

26.44 

10 

3.63 

42 

7.44 

130 

13.10 

290 

19.56 

540 

26.69 

11 

3.81 

43 

7.53 

135 

13.35 

295 

19.73 

550 

26.93 

12 

3.98 

44 

7.62 

140 

13.60 

300 

19.89 

560 

27.18 

13 

4.14 

45 

7.70 

145 

13.83 

305 

20.06 

570 

27.42 

14 

4.30 

46 

7.79 

150 

14.06 

310 

20.22 

580 

27.66 

15 

4.45 

47 

7.87 

155 

14.30 

315 

20.38 

590 

27.90 

16 

4.59 

48 

7.96 

160 

14.53 

320 

20.55 

600 

28.13 

17 

4.74 

49 

8.04 

165 

14.75 

325 

20.71 

610 

28.37 

IS 

4.87 

50 

8.12 

170 

14.97 

330 

20.86 

620 

28.60 

19 

5.01 

51 

8.20 

175 

15.19 

335 

21.02 

630 

28.83 

20 

5.14 

52 

8.29 

180 

15.41 

340 

21.18 

640 

29.06 

21 

5.26 

53 

8.36 

185 

15.62 

345 

21.33 

650 

29.28 

22 

5.39 

54 

8.44 

190 

15.83 

350 

21.49 

660 

29.51 

23 

5.51 

55 

8.50 

195 

16.04 

355 

2164 

670 

29  73 

24 

5.63 

56 

8.60 

200 

16.24 

360 

21.79 

680 

29.95 

25 

5.74 

57 

8.67 

205 

16.44 

370 

22.09 

690 

30.17 

26 

5.86 

58 

8.75 

210 

16.64 

380 

22.39 

700 

30.39 

27 

5.97 

59 

8.82 

215 

16.84 

390 

22.68 

710 

30.60 

2S 

6.08 

60 

8.90 

220 

17.03 

400 

22.97 

720 

30.82 

29 

6.19 

65 

9.26 

225 

17.23 

410 

23.26 

730 

31.03 

30 

6.29 

70 

9.61 

230 

17.42 

420 

23.54 

740 

31.24 

31 

6.40 

75 

9  95 

235 

17.61 

430 

23.82 

750 

31.45 

32 

6.50 

80 

10.27 

240 

17.79 

440 

24.09 

760 

31.66 

By  this  Table  also  the  distance  can  be  ascertained  at  which  an  ob.iect  can  be  seen  according 
to  its  elevation  and  the  elevation  of  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

EX.AMPLE. — .\  tower  200  feet  high  will  be  visible  at  20f  miles  to  an  observer  whose  eye 
is  elevated  15  feet  above  the  water.     Thus: — 

200  ^^^*  ^^?.''^*'°°'  4J^t^°«e  ^.l^'ble  J.45  nautical  miles  |  _  20.69  nautical  miles. 


ENGINE  ROOM,  OIL  MOTOR-DRIVEN  "SELANDIA." 


CHAPTER  VII. 


RAILROADS. 


For  invaluable  information  relative 
to  Railroads,  both  for  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries,  the  Edi- 
tor is  indebted  to  Mr.  Slason  Thomp- 
son, Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Rail- 
way News  and  Statistics,  Chicago. 
A  considerable  number  of  the  tables 
are  printed  through  his  courtesy,  and 
a  painstaking  revision  of  this  chapter 
is  also   due   to   him. 

In  single-track  mileage  the  Bureau 
figures  9.5%  of  the  total  mileage  oper- 
ating in  the  United  States ;  in  traffic 
figures  they  cover  97.5%. 

The   passenger   mileage    is    obtained 


by  multiplying  the  number  of  passen- 
gers carried  by  the  average  journey 
in  miles.  In  the  case  of  the  United 
Kingdom  that  is  an  approximation  of 
7.8  miles,  from  the  formula  of  the 
London  Statist.  Same  is  true  of  the 
average  haul  of  25  miles  for  freight 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  In  this  case 
it  is  corroborated  by  the  individual 
figures  of  the  Northeastern  Railway 
of  England,  which  is  the  only  British 
road  giving  that  information.  The 
ton  mileage  can  be  obtained  by  multi- 
plying the  freight  tons  carried  by  the 
average   haul   in   miles. 


Popyright,    Miinn 


Co.,    Inc. 

POWER   OF   A   MONSTER  LOCOMOTIVE. 


This  huge  Baldwin  freight  engine,  weighing  300  tons,  was  built  for  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  It  is  capable  of  hauling  10  miles  an  hour  a  train  of 
1C9  cars  weighing,  with  load,  72  tons  each.  The  train,  weighing  10.000  tons,  would 
reach  for  over  a  mile.  or.  say.  from  City  Hall  Square  to  the  Battery,  New  Yoi'k. 
The  lower  cut  represents  the  size  of  a  single  car,  200  feet  by  4[i%  feet  by  62  feet, 
that  would  be  necessary  to   contain   the  load  of  wheat  handled. 

233 


234 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


235 


GROWTH    OF    RAILWAYS   OF   THE    WORLD. 

In  the  following  table  is  given  the  mileage  of  the  principal  countries  in  the 
world  from  the  earliest  date  available  to  the  latest: 


Country 


Great  Britain. . 

United  States  . . 

Canada 

France 

Germany 

Belgium 

Austria  (proper) 

Russia  in 
Europe 

Italy 

Holland 

Switzerland 

Hungary 

Denmark 

Spain 

Chili 

Brazil 

Norway .... 

Sweden 

Argentine  Re- 
public  

Turkey  in 
Europe 

Peru 

Portugal 

Greece 

Uruguay 

Mexico 

Roumania 

Australia* 

Japan 

British  India... 

China 

Africa 


Miles  of  Road  Completed 


Opened 


1825 

1827 
1836 
1828 
1835 
1835 
1837 

1838 


1844 
1846 
1847 
1848 
1851 
1851 
1854 
1856 

1857 


1874 
1853 
1883 


1840 


1,857 

2,818 

16 


341 
207 


1850   1860   1870 


6,621 

9.021 

66 

1,714 

3,637 

554 

817 

310 
265 
110 
15 
137 
20 
17 


10,433 
30,626 
2,065 
5,700 
6,979 
1,074 
1,813 


1,117 
208 
653 

1,004 

1,190 

120 

134 

42 

375 


838 


15,537 

52,922 

2,617 

11,142 

11,729 

1,799 

3,790 

7,098 

3,825 
874 
885 

2,157 
470 

3,400 
452 
504 


637 


247 
444 
6 
61 
215 
152 


4,771 


17,933 

93,296 

7,194 

16,275 

20,693 

2,399 

7,083 

14,026 
5,340 
1,143 
1,596 
4.421 

975 
4,550 
1,100 
2,174 

070 
3.654 

1,536 

727 

1,179 

710 

7 

268 

655 

859 

789 

75 

9,162 


583 


1889    1899    1910t   1912t 


19,943 

160,544 

12,585 

21,899 

24,845 

2,776 

9,345 

17,534 
7,830 
1,632 
1,869 
6,751 
1,217 
5,951 
1,801 
5,546 
970 
4,899 

4,506 

1,024 

993 

1,118 

416 

399 

6.012 

1,537 

4,850 

542 

15,887- 

124 

2,873 


21,666 


17,250 
26,229 
31,386 
2,883' 
11,921 


9,770 
1,966 
2,342 
10,619 
1.764 
8.252 
2,791 
9,195 
1,231 


10,013 

•1,900 

1,035 

1,475 

604 

997 

8,503 

1,920 

11,111 

3,632 

23,523 

401 

5,353 


23,280 
236,422 
24,731 
29,364 
36,235 
2,888 
13,591 

35,347 

10,425 
2,235 
2,791 

12,177 
2,121 
8,961 
3,451 

11,863 
1,608 
8,321 

14,111 

1,967 

1,470 

1,689 
845 

1,371 
14,845 

1,976 
17,956 

5,130 
30,809 

4,997 
19,207 


23,417 
248,888 
26,727 
30,119 
37,255 
5,132 
14,038 

41,888 

10,425 
2,439 
3,034 

12,821. 
2,121 
9,272 
3,451 

12,968 
1,845 
8,554 

18.166 

2,100 

1,470 

1,689 
979 

1,443 
14,990 

2,153 
18,195 

5,130 
32,099 

5,274 
20,758 


•Including  New  Zealand. 
tOr  latest  figures. 
{Includes  Asiatic  Railways. 

The  proportion  of  state  to  privately  owned  railways  as  given  by  Mr.  Edwin  A. 
Pratt  in  ''  Railways  and  Nationahzation,"  1908,  was: 


Company  Owned  Railways, 
State  Owned  Railways 

Total 


389,000 
161,000 


550.000 


236 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATISTICS  OF 


Country 

Year 

Miles 
Covered 
by  Capi- 
talization 

Capitalization 

or  Cost  of 

Construction 

(c) 

Passenger 
Revenue 

Freight 
Revenue 

Other 
Revenues 

United  Kingdom . . . 
German  Empire 

1911 
1910 
1909 
1908 
1910 
1910 
1910-11 
1905 
1908 
1909 
1911 
1911 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1911 

1912 
1910 
1911 
1910 
1912 
1911 
1912 

23,417 

36,740 

25,017 

41,888 

14,038 

12,821 

8,908 

8,810 

1,465 

8,366 

1,891 

1,215 

2,685 

1,978 

2,924 

2,153 

$6,447,969,398 

4,163,615,519 

3,593,660,000 

3,378,839,810 

1,654,207,119 

858,732,000 

1,131,300,000 

649,919,610 

162,385,280 

277,952,716 

81,467,176 

70,277,640 

504,210,184 

d   163,798,304 

341,208,367 

186,670,372 

$215,168,940 

198,737,378 

152,566,693 

80,787,020 

48,520,000 

25,009,200 

36,060,084 

16,215,866 

4,039,350 

12,226,160 

2,667,672 

5,429,948 

19,750,243 

12,374,800 

18,542,282 

$308,197,950 

452,969,934 

184,394,516 

306,014,545 

135,360,000 

65,460,200 

60,247,652 

34,694,555 

6,715,150 

20,762,228 

3,437,904 

5,942,900 

38,275,374 

12,094,800 

22,577,912 

$96,197,110 

69,765,822 

5,284,147 

39,811,560 

12,500,000 

4,265,800 

5,264,847 

6,190,271 

351,750 

992,672 

359  656 

Russian  Empire — 
Austria 

Italy  (a) 

Spain  (a)  . .       

Portugal 

Denmark  (a) 

Belgium  (a) 

Holland  fa) 

Switzerland 

Roumania 

796,496 
1,672,178 
1,272,400 
1,809,944 

Total  Europe 

Canada 

194,316 

26,727 
17,381 
4,764 
32,099 
3,831 
2,761 
248,888 

$23,666,213,495 

1,585,724,797 
868,914,950 
411,598,253 

fl,448,700,000 
260,613,180 
153,448,830 

14,657,545,000 

$848,095,636 
56,543,664 

$1,656,145,620 
148,030,269 

$246,534,653 
14,829,819 

Argentina 

21,072,498 

63,261,000 

11,439,630 

5,521,470 

668,642,865 

20,428,230 

100,419,000 

18,092,050 

9,805,390 

1,980,805,606 

2,646,016 
5,049,000 
2,079,490 
2,144,045 
221.288,226 

British  India 

New  South  Wales... 

New  Zealand 

United  States 

COMPARISON  OF  WORLD'S  RAILWAYS  BY  CONTINENTS  AND 
PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES.  1909. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


237 


FOREIGN  RAILWAYS. 


Rates 

Aver- 

Aver- 

Per Cent 

Total 

Operating 

Expen- 

Passengers 

age 

Freight 

age 

Net  Rev- 

Revenues 

Expenses 

ses  to 

Carried 

Journey 

Tons 

Haul 

enue  to 

Revenues 

(Miles) 

Carried 

(Miles) 

Capital 

$619,564,000 

$380,689,660 

61.8 

1,793,820,800 

b    7.8 

523,653,094 

b    25.0 

3.67 

722,473,134 

490,999,236 

67.9 

1,540,872,110 

14.2 

531,527,817 

60.4 

5.74 

342,245,356 

200,834,642 

58.6 

491,936,930 

20.5 

165,027,920 

80.2 

3.94 

426,613,125 

344,497,405 

80.8 

162,117,000 

79.0 

229,554,000 

160.1 

2.43 

196,380,000 

150,860,000 

76.9 

254,618,531 

18.3 

137,599,886 

68.2 

2.75 

94,735,200 

61,362,800 

64.7 

140,002,000 

19.5 

68.806,000 

.  72.9 

3.87 

101,572,383 
57,100,692 

81,486,337 

80.3 

b25.0 

b  66.0 

1.77 

27,750,936 

48.6 

41,846,249 

b26.0 

22,662,548 

69.4 

4.50 

10,106,250 

4,672,500 

46.2 

14,585,698 

b20.0 

4,315,385 

b54.0 

3.35 

33,981,060 

26,836,984 

79.0 

63.787,226 

16.6 

31,133,715 

43.4 

2.57 

6,465,232 

4,803,096 

74.2 

13,795,396 

16.1 

6,196,241 

38.6 

2.22 

12,169,344 

11,257,072 

92.5 

22.344,630 

21.8 

4,934,799 

53.1 

1.33 

•    59,697,795 

39,123,036 

65,5 

173,491,334 

15.4 

68,793,837 

49.7 

3.80 

25,742,000 

21,365,860 

83.0 

47.711,000 

17.9 

16,702,400 

61.9 

2.67 

42,930,138 

27,230,010 

63.2 

110,068,465 

13.0 

16,466.758 

45.5 

4.60 

18,756,585 

11,660,674 

62.1 

10,233,000 

43.7 

8,823,551 

b96.5 

3.80 

$2,770,532,294 

$1,885,610,248 

68.0 

$4,871,230,369 

15.1 

1,825,197.951 

64.3 

219,403,752 

150,726,539 

68.7 

41,124,181 

70.8 

89.444,331 

218.7 

4.27 

107,058,065 

63,616,485 

59.4 

69,014,600 

24,2 

33,606,626 

120.9 

3.85 

44,147,128 

21,624,686 

43.9 

138,629,706 

21.9 

25,481,868 

83.5 

6.47 

168.729,000 

89,595,000 

63.1 

371,580,000 

36.1 

65,600,000 

184.3 

5.46 

31,611,170 

20,303,030 

64.2 

70,70&,728 

16.4 

10,631,751 

81.0 

4.35 

17,470,905 

11,516,860 

64.8 

11,200,613 

b23.0 

6,863,674 

80.0 

4.02 

2,870,736,697 

62,108,351,953 

73.4 

994.382.480 

33.7 

1,806.173,565 

148.0 

6.25 

(a) State  only.  Cb)E3timated .  (c) From  lat^est  report,  not  alwayj  year  named.  (d)E8timated 
capital  cost  of  Holland's  railways  not  given  since  1897.  (e)Including  taxes.  (f)Valuing  the 
Indian  rupee  at  33  cents  (.324  1-2) 


From  1908  to  1910  the  rate  per 
ton  mile  in  the  United  Kingdom 
was  2.33  cents ;  in  France.  1.36 
cents;  in  Germany,  1.41;  Russia, 
.95;  Austria,  1.36;  Sweden,  1.60; 
Norway,  1.77;  Denmark,  2.00;  Hol- 
land,   1.35 ;    Belgium,    1.17 ;    and    in 


Switzerland,  2.86  cents.  No  recent 
ton  mile  statistics  for  Italy  are 
available,  though  taking  the  aver- 
age haul  as  under  70  miles,  the 
average  receipts  per  ton  mile  were 
probably  in  the  neighborhood  of 
2.25    cents. 


^  J)ISTANCES  ACaOSS  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

From  Pier  1,  North  River,  via  Battery  place  and  Whitehall  street  to  East  River,  one-half  mile;  from 
foot  of  Dey  street.  North  River,  to  foot  of  Fulton  street,  EUtst  illver,  three-quarters  of  a  mile;  from  foot 
of  Chambers  street.  North  River,  via  Chambers,  New  Chambers  and  James  slip  to  East  River,  one  mile; 
from  foot  of  Canal  street.  North  River,  to  Broadway,  three-quarters  of  a  mile;  from  foot  of  Canal  street. 
North  River,  to  Bowery,  one  mile  and  an  eighth;  from  foot  of  Canal  street,  North  River,  to  foot  of  Grand 
street,  Elast  River,  two  and  an  eighth  miles;  from  foot  of  -West  Houston  street  to  foot  of  East  Houston 
street,  two  and  an  eighth  miles;  from  foot  of  West  Fourteenth  street  to  Broadway,  one  and  an  eighth  miles; 
from  foot  of  West  fourteenth  street  to  foot  of  East  Fourteenth  street,  two  and  three-eighths  miles;  from 
foot  of  West  Twenty-third  street  to  Sixth  avenue,  one  mile;  from  West  Twenty-third  street  to  foot  of  East 
Twenty-third  street,  two  and  three-eighths  miles.  North  of  Twenty-third  street  the  average  width  of  the 
Iblaoii  of  Manhattan  la  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  miles. 


238 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  WORLD'S   RAILWAYS   AND   RATIO  OF  MILEAGE   TO  AREA 
AND  POPULATION  IN  EACH  COUNTRY  IN  1910. 


Mileage 

in  1910 

Miles  of 
Line  per  100 

Inhabitants 

Countries 

State 

Total 

per  Mile 

Railways 

Railways 

Sq.  Miles 

of  Line 

I.    EUROPE 

Germany 

34,625 

37,996 

17.9 

1,724 

Austria-Hungary  (including  Bosnia  and  Herze- 

govina)   

22,047 

27,571 

10.6 

1,852 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

23,351 

19.3 

1,923 

France 

5,511 

30,687 

14.8 

1.282 

Russia   in   Europe    (including   Finland   2,246 

miles) 

21,659 

8,830 

37,008 
10,538 

1.8 
9.5 

3,449 

Italy 

3,334 

Selgium 

2,686 

5,288 

46.3 

1,408 

Luxemburg 

119 

318 

31.7 

795 

Netherlands 

1,663 

1,984 

15.6 

2,941 

Switzerland 

1,701 

2,921 

18.3 

1,220 

Spain 

9,317 

4.8 

2,000 

Portugal 

671 

1,808 

5.1 

2.940 

Denmark 

1,217 

2,192 

14.8 

1,176 

Norway 

1,557 

1,921 

1.6 

1,220 

Sweden 

2,717 

8,688 

5.0 

629 

Servia 

357 

494 

2.6 

5.882 

Roumania 

1,980 

2,238 

4.3 

3,030 

Greece 

981 

3.9 

2,703 

Bulgaria 

987 

1,106 

2.9 

3,846 

Turkey  in  Europe 

968 

1.4 

6,250 

Malta,  Jersey,  Isle  of  Man 

68 

16.1 

5,263 

Total  for  Europe,  1910 

107,727 

207,447 

5.5 

2,180 

•       *•         "        1909 

204,864 

5.5 

1,923 

•        «         -        1908 

201,619 
199,345 

5.3 
5.3 

1,941 

■        «          «        1907 

1,887 

•        «          "        1906 

196,437 

5.2 

1,993 

•        «          «        1905 

192,507 

5.1 

2,084 

«        "          «        1904 

189,806 

5.0 

2,084 

«        "          «        1903 

186,685 

5.0 

2,084 

-        "         "        1902 

183,989 

4.9 

2,127 

"        "          «        1901. .r 

180,817 

4.8 

2,174 

1900 

176,396 

4.7 

2,220 

«        «          "        i899 

172,953 

4.6 

2,220 

«        «          «        1898 

167,614 
163,550 

4.4 
4.3 

•        «          •        1897 



•        «          •        1896 

160,030 

4.2 

Increase  in  fourteen  years 

47,417 

RELATION  OF  RAILWAYS  TO  AREA  AND  POPULATION   (See  page  241.) 

Although  this  table  is  favored  by  railway  statisticians  in  comparing  railway 
conditions  relatively  to  area  and  population,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  conveys  an 
adequate  impression  of  the  exceptionally  favorable  transportation  facilities  enjoyed 
by  the  inhabitants  of  this  continent,  and  especialy  those  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  For  instance,  the  figures  mean  that  the  United  States  with  800,000 
square  miles  less  territory  and  not  one-quarter  the  population,  ^las  36.000  more 
miles  of  railway  than  all  Europe,  while  Canada,  having  a  territory  in  which  the 
United  Kingdom  could  be  lost  thirty  times,  and  only  one-sixth  the  population, 
has  actually  more  railway  mileage  than  the  parent  kingdom. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


239 


SUMMARY  OF   THE   WORLD'S   RAILWAYS  AND   RATIO   OF  MILEAGE  TO  ArEA 
AND  POPULATION  IN  EACH  COUNTRY  IN  1910— Continued. 


Mileage  in  1910 

Miles  of 

Line  per  100 

Sq.  Miles 

Inhabitants 

Countries 

State 
Railways 

Total 
Railways 

per  Mile 
of  Line 

II.    AMERICA 

Canada. . . . , 

United  States  of  America  (inclusive  of  Alaska 
420  miles) 

1,718 

24,726 

241,203 

666 

15,260 

1,599 

3.031 

336 

510 

633 

103 

37 

333 

1,584 

756 

13,278 

157 

1,546 

3,526 

17,794 

0.8 

6.8 
1.6 
1.9 

263 
369 

Newfoundland  

359 

Mexico      

952 

Central  America  (Guatemala,  594  miles;  Hon- 
duras, 90  miles;  Salvador,  122  miles;  Nicara- 
gua,  200  miles;  Costa  Rica,  647  miles;  Pan- 

Greater  Antilles  (Cuba,  2,331  miles;  Dominica, 
195  miles;  Haiti,  139  miles;  Jamaica,  185  miles; 
Porto  Rico,  200  miles) 

42 

Lesser  Antilles   (Martinique,    139  miles;  Bar- 
badoes,  108  miles*  Trinity,  88  miles) 

United  States  of  Colombia 

0.1 

0.16 

0.11 

9.091 

Venezuela                        ...                 .         . 

3.846 

British  Guiana 

2,859 

Dutch  Guiana 

0.32 

0.32 

0.16 

0.5 

0.16 

2.3 

1.0 

1.6 

4,166 

Peru 

844 

2.940 
3,030 

United  States  of  Brazil 

6.443 

1,613 

4,000 

671 

Chili 

Argentine  Republic 

1,682 
2,467 

943 
275 

12,197 

327,084 



III.    ASIA 

Central  Russia  in  Asia 

Siberia  and  Manchuria 

\          6,181 

/ 

/          4.066 

I          6.739 

5.420 

6.093 

32.092 

577 

34 

3.130 

51 

757 

1.551 

637 

?.178 

1.9 

0.14 

0.13 

2.4 

1.6 

2.3 

0.005 

0.5 

3.6 

2.3 

0.6 

0.32 

2,325 

1,032- 

China 

83,300 

4,542 
24,460 

10,000 

9,091 

7,143 

Persia 

280,000 

Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Arabia,  including  Cyprus. . 
Portuguese  Indies 

912 

6,260 
11,110 

Malay  Archipelago 

9,434 

Dutch  Indies 

20,000 

Siam 

637 

14,278 

Total  for  Asia 

36.733 

63,329 

/ 

240 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  WORLD'S  RAILWAYS  AND  RATIO  OF  MILEAGE  TO  AREA 
AND  POPULATION  IN  EACH  COUNTRY  IN  1910— Continued. 


Mileage 

in  1910 

Miles  of 
Line  per  100 

Sq.  Miles 

Inhabitants 

Countrios 

State 
Railways 

Total 
Railways 

per  Mile 
of  Line 

IV.    AFRICA 
Egypt 

2,792 

3,674 

3.134 

615 

9,645 

1,691 
1,807 
1,360 
72 
1,001 

1.0 
1.0 

3,125 
2,128 

South  African  Union,  inclwding  Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  Cent.  So.  African  and  Rhodesian  Rail- 

9,192 
1,691 

COLONIES 

English                               

French                        

Italian 

Portuguese 

Total  for  Africa 

22,900 

V.    AUSTRALIA 
New  Zealand 

2,71G 
3,490 
3,642 
1,911 
3,661 
469 
2,144 

2,746 
3,505 
3,783 
2,082 
4,011 
633 
2,422 
88 

2.6 

4.0 

1.3 

0.16 

0.6 

2.4 

0.16 

1.3 

371 

Victoria 

New  South  Wales           

362 
422 

South  A  ustralia      

208 

Queensland 

Tasmania 

West  Australia                                                    .   . 

226 
293 
193 

Hawaii,  etc 

1,234 

Total  for  Australia                       

18,035 

19,272 

0.6 

311 

RECAPITULATION 

I.    Europe 

II.    America 

107,727 
12,197 
36,733 
13,674 
18,035 

207,447 

327,084 

63,329 

22,900 

19,272 

6.5 

2,180 

III.    Asia 

IV     Africa 

V.    Australia 

0.6 

311 

Total 

188,308 

040,032 

DISTANCES   IN    NEW  YORK. 


From  the 

From  the 

From  the 

From  the 

Battery. 

TO 

Battery. 

TO 

Battery. 

TO 

Battery.              TO 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

V* 

Rector. 

4% 

E^st  54th. 

s% 

Bast  139th. 

13          East  199th. 

^ 

Fulton. 

4% 

East  58th. 

9 

East  144th. 

13^       S.   Mosholu  P'k- 

% 

City  Hall. 

5 

East  C3d 

914 

East  149th. 

w'y  &  Web.  av. 

1 

Leonard, 

5% 

East  68tb. 

S5f 

East  154th. 

1.3%       East  205th. 

i^ 

Canal. 

5V2 

East  73d. 

E^st  159th. 

13% 

East  208th. 

Spring. 

5% 

East  78th. 

10 

East  164th. 

14 

W'msbridge  ata. 

1% 

E.  Houston. 

6 

East  83d. 

1014 

Spring  pi. 
East  168th. 

14V4 

Jerome  ave.,   c. 

2 

East  4th. 

6V4. 

East  88th. 

10% 

Woodlawn   rd. 

2V4 

East  9tb. 

6% 

East  93d. 

10% 

East  170th. 

14% 

Jerome  ave.,   c. 

iy 

East  14th. 

6% 

East  97th. 

11 

East  172d. 

Mt.    Vernon   av. 

East  19th. 

7 

East  102d. 

iiH 
11^ 

East  174th. 

14% 

3  * 

East  24th. 

7% 

East  107th. 

Tremont  ave. 

East  133d. 

3^ 

East  29th. 

7% 

East  112th. 

East  179th. 

15 

E.    2.17th.  0.  Mt. 

3% 

East  34th. 

7% 

East  mtb. 

12 

East  182d. 

Vernon  ave. 

3% 

East  38th. 

8 

East  121st. 

12^ 

East  186th. 

15\i     (East  238th. 
15%     ICity  line. 

4 

East  44th. 

sy* 

East  128th. 

12%    . 

Pelham  ave. 

4% 

East  40tb. 

8% 

East  134tb. 

12% 

East  105th. 

SCrENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


241 


Summary  of  Railway  Mileage  in  the  United  States,  by  States,  for  the 
Years  Ending  June  30,  1912,  1911  and  1910,  and  its  Relation  to  Area 
AND  Population. 


State 


Bureau's  Figures 


1912 

Miles 

Operated 


1911 

Miles 

Operated 


Commission's  Figures 


1910 
Miles 
Owned 


Miles  of 
Line  per  100 
Sq.  Miles 


Population 

Per  Mile 

of  Line 

1910  iff 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California. . . 
Colorado  — 
Connecticut. 
Delaware — 

Florida 

Georgia , 

Idaho 

Illinois 


Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland.. 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hajnpshire. . . 

New  Jersey.. 

'New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island; 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia .. . 

Washmgton 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Dist.  of  Columbia. 

Canadat 

Mexicot 


4.994 
1,962 
4,253 
6,610 
5,646 
1.000 
340 
3.769 
6,631 
1,925 

13,257 
7,098 
9,987 
9.216 
3,494 
4,477 
2,096 
1,326 
2,087 
8,360 
8,893 
3,672 
8,336 
4,294 
6,151 
1,601 
1,213 
2,146 
2.975 
8,338 
4.110 
4,379 
9,028 
5,898 
2.125 

10.894 
196 
2,878 
3.984 
3,587 

13,081 

1,819 

936 

4.436 

5,133 

2,885 

7,106 

1,457 

52 

1,760 

226 


5,226 
2,097 
5,306 
7,772 
5.532 
1.000 
337 
4,431 
7,056 
2,178 

11.878 
7,420 
9,755 
9,007 
3,526 
5,554 
2,248 
1,426 
2.115 
9.021 
8,669 
4,506 
8,083 
4,207 
6.067 
2,276 
1,245 
2.260 
3,032 
8.430 
4.932 
4.201 
9.134 
5,980 
2.284 

11.290 
212 
3.442 
3.947 
3,815 

14.281 
1.985 
1.100 
4.534 
4,875 
3,600 
7,475 
1.645 
36 


10.19 

1.84 
10.10 

4.99 

5.34 
20.75 
17.04 

8.08 
12.02 

2-61 
21.20 
20.59 
17.55 
11.01 

8.77 
12.23 

7.52 
14.35 
26.31 
15.69 
10.72 

9.72 
11.76 

2.88 

7.90 

2.07 
13.80 
^0.08 

2.48 
17.09 
10.12 

5.99 
22.42 


25.18 
19.88 
11.29 
5.14 
9.15 
5.44 
2.42 
12.06 
11.26 
7.29 
14.99 
13.53 
1.69 
59.95 


409 
97 
296 
306 
144 
1.115 
604 


149 

474 


184 
649 


901 
1.592 
311 
239 
399 
407 


35 
345 

1.122 
108 

1,081' 
447 
137 
521 
277 
294 
678 

2,657 
440 
148 
572 
272 
188 
323 
454 
234 
339 
312 
89 

9.174 


United  States. 


232,117 


*  Census  figures  1910  divided  by  commission's  figures  for  1910. 
tMileage  operated  in  Canada  and  Mexico  by  American  roads. 


242 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    MILEAGE    OF    SINGLE    TRACK,    SECOND,    THIRD 

AND  FOURTH  TRACK  AND  YARD  TRACK  AND  SIDINGS 

IN  THE   UNITED    STATES,   1890  TO  1912. 


Year 

Single 
Track 

Second 
Track 

Third 
Track 

Fourth 
Track 

Yard 

Track  and 

Sidings 

Total 

Mileage 

Operated 

(all  Tracks) 

1912  Bureau,  95% 

236,444 

24,944 

2,528 

1,763 

90,693 

356,372 

1911  Official 

•246,124 
•240,831 
•235,402 
•230,494 
227,455 
222,340 
216,973 
212,243 
205,313 
200,154 
195,561 
192,556 
187,543 
184,648 
183,284 
182,428 
180,657 
178,708 
176,461 
171,563 
168,402 
163,597 

23,452 
21,659 
20,949 
20,209 
19,421 
17,396 
17,056 
15,824 
14,681 
13,720 
12,845 
12,151 
11,546 
11,293 
11,018 
10,685 
10,639 
10,499 
10,051 
9,367 
8,865 
8,437 

2,414 

2,206 

2,169 

2,081 

1,960 

1,766 

1,609 

1,467 

1,303 

1,204 

1,153 

1,094 

1,047 

r,009 

995 

990 

975 

953 

912 

852 

813 

760 

1,747 

1,489 

1,453 

1,409 

1,390 

1,279 

1,215 

1,046 

963 

895 

876 

829 

790 

793 

780 

764 

733 

710 

668 

626 

599 

561 

88,973 
85,581 
82,376 
79,452 
77,749 
73,760 
69,941 
66,492 
61,560 
68,220 
54,914 
52,153 
49,223 
47,589 
45,934 
44,912 
43,888 
42,661 
42,043 
39,941 
37,318 
35.255 

362,710 
351,767 
342,351 

1910        "      

1909        "      

1908        "       ... 

333,646 
327,975 
317,083 
306,796 
297,073 
283,821 
274,195 
265,352 
258,784 
250,142 
245,323 
242,013 
240,129 
236,894 
233,533 
230,137 
222,351 

1907        "      

1906        "      

1905        "      

1904        "      

1903        "      

1902        "      

1901        "      

1900        •      

1899        "      . 

1898        "      

1897        •      

1896        "      

1895        "      

1894        "      

1893        •      

1892       •      

1891       ■ 

,      215,999 
208,612 

1890       ■      

•Since  1908  the  official  mileage  is  exclusive  of  switching  and  terminal  companies.  In  1908  these 
had  1,624  miles  of  main  track  and  2,085  of  yard  tracks  and  sidings;  in  1909  they  reported  1,623  miles 
of  main  track  and  2,384  of  yard  tracks  and  sidings  and  in  1910  they  reported  1,614  and  2,270  miles 
respectively. 

SUMMARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LOCOMOTIVES  AND  THEIR  PRIN- 
CIPAL CHARACTERISTICS:  1910. 


Class, 


Number. 


Tractive 
power. 


Grate 
surface. 


Heating 
surfoce. 


Weight 
exclusive 
of  tender. 


Weight 

on 
drivers. 


Single  expansion 

Average  per  locomotive. 
Pour-cylinder  compoimd 

Average  per  locomotive. 
Two-cylinder  comjwund 

Average  per  locomotive. 


Total 

Average  per  locomotive 


65,867 


1,611 
862 


Pounds. 
1,502,296,608 

26,891 
59,694,482 

39,440 
27,003,390 

31,326 


Sii.fi. 

1,862,769 

35 

61,467 

49 

32,021 


Sq.ft. 

117,725,234 

2,107 

5,272,616 

3,489 

2,197,380 

2,649 


Tons. 

4,032,797 

72 

168,787 

112 

72,624 

84 


Tons. 
3,314,673 


131,278 
87 


58,240 


27,282 


1,966,257 
36 


125,196,129 
2,160 


4,274,208 
73 


3,506,809 


The  above  table  does  not  include  locomotives  in  the  service  of  terminal  companies. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


243 


TWO  DECADES  IN  RAILWAY  PROGRESS. 

RAILWAY  RESULTS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1892, 
1902  AND  1912  WITH  PERCENTAGES  OF  INCREASE  BY  DECADES. 


Item 
(m= Thousands) 


1902 


1912 

Over 

1912 

1892 

% 

95,656,000 

46.9 

248,888 

53.3 

370,317 

75.5 

$14,657,545 

76.7 

61,508 

17.6 

41,204 

3.0 

2,870,736 

145.1 

11,534 

59.9 

1,990,198 

154.8 

7,996 

66.3 

880,538 

125.5 

3,538 

47.1 

69.33% 

4.0 

S     668,642 

133.1 

1,980,805 

147.8 

51,620 

92.2 

74,735 

238.0 

994,382 

77.3 

33.510,673 

150.8 

1.992 

d    6.3 

57 

35.7 

33.76 

41.7 

1,806,173 

155.6 

267,313,687 

202.9 

7.41 

dl7.5 

422 

133.1 

148 

19.3 

62,291 

88.0 

4,892,101 

235.7 

51,306 

77.7 

2,243,465 

132.0 

84,129,937 

278.2 

1,728,603 

110.4 

695 

37.3 

$1,268,977,272 

170.8 

44.20% 

9.1 

63.76% 

6.0 

$120,873,472 

254.9 

485 

132.0 

4.21% 

45.2 

Population 

Miles  of  Line  (operated) 

Miles  of  All  Track 

Net  Capitalization  (m) 

Net  Capitalization  per  Mile  of  Line. . . 
Net  Capitalization  per  Mile  of  Track.. 

Revenues  from  Operation  (m) 

Revenues  per  Mile  Operated 

Expenses  of  Operation  (m) 

Expenses  of  Operation  per  Mi.  operated 

Net  Revenues  from  Operation  (m) 

Net  Revenues  per  Mile  operated 

Ratio  of  Expenses  to  Revenues 

Receipts  from  Passengers  (m) 

Receipts  from  Freight  (m) 

Receipts  from  Mail  (m) 

Receipts  from  Express  (m) 

Passengers  Carried  (m) 

Passengers  Carried  1  Mile  (m) 

Average  Receipts  per  Passenger  Mile 

(cents) 

Average  Passengers  in  Train 

Average  Journey  per  Passenger  (miles) 

Freight  Tons  Carried  (m) 

Freight  Tons  Carried  1  Mile  (m) 

Average  Receipts  per  Ton  Mile  (mills) 

Average  Tons  in  Train 

Average  Haul  per  Ton  (miles) 

Locomotives  (number) .   

Locomotives  Weight  without  Tender 

(tons) 

Passenger  Cars  (number) 

Freight  Cars  (number) 

Freight  Cars  Capacity  (tons) 

Employes  (number) 

Employes  per  100  Miles  of  Line 

Employes  Compensation 

Proportion  of  Gross  Earnings 

Proportion  of  Operating  Expenses 

Taxes 

Per  Mile  of  Line 

Proportion  of  Gross  Earnings 


65,086,000 
162,397 
211,051 

$8,294,679 
52,348 
40,050 

1,171,407 
7,213 

780,997 
4,809 

390,409 
2,404 

66.67% 

$286,805 

799,316 

26,861 

22,148 

560,958 
13,362,898 

2.126 

42 

23.82 

706,555 

88,241,050 

8.98 

181 

124.89 

33,136 

1,457,984 

28,876 

966,998 

22,240,954 

821,415 

506 

$468,598,170 

40.00% 

"60.08% 

$34,053,495 

209 

2.90% 


79,230,563 
200,154 
274,195 

$9,925,664 
50,962 
36,921 

1,726,380 

8,625 

1,116,248 

5,577 

610,131 

3,048 

64.66% 

$     392,963 

1,207,228 

39,835 

34,253 

649,878 
19,689,937 

1.986 

45 

30.30 

1,200,315 

157,289,370 

7.57 

296 

131.04 

41,225 

2,308,000 

36,987 

1,546,101 

43,416,029 

1,189,315 

594 

$676,028,592 

39.17% 

60.56% 

$54,465,437 

272 

3.15% 


244 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RAILROAD    LOCOMOTIVES    AND    CARS. 


At  the  end  of  the  year  1911  there 
were  58  passenger  locomotives  for 
every  thousand  miles  of  line,  148 
freight  locomotives,  38  switching  loco- 
motives, 5  unclassified,  making  a  total 
of  249  locomotives  per  thousand  miles 
of  line.  There  were  9,586  cars  per 
thousand  miles  of  line,  divided  as 
follows :  203  passenger  cars ;  8,- 
920  freight  cars ;  and  463  cars 
for  the  company's  service.  At 
the  end  of  the  same  year  it  was 
es'timated  that  66,757  passengers  were 
carried  per  passenger  locomotive ;  2,- 
268,097  passenger  miles  covered  per 
passenger  locomotive ;  48,007  tons  car- 
ried per  freight  locomotive  ;  6,913,259 
ton-miles  covered  per  freight  locomo- 
tive. For  every  million  passengers 
carried  there  were  50  passenger  cars, 
and  for  every  million  tons  of  freight 
carried  there  were  1,235  freight  cars 
employed. 


At  the  end  of  the  year  1911  there 
were  49,818  passenger  cars  in  service ; 
2,195,511  freight  cars;  and  114,006 
company  cars,  making  a  total  of  2,- 
359,335  cars  in  the  service.  The  fast 
freight  line  service  required  28,138 
cars  for  its  service. 

Figuring  the  cost  of  a  locomotive 
at  $15,000,  the  60,890  locomotives  re- 
quired for  the  236,444  miles  of  track 
operated  in  1912  cost  $913,350,000; 
the  50,152  passenger  cars,  valued  at 
$6,500,  cost  $325,988,000;  the  freight 
cars,  2,192,987  in  number,  valued  at 
$1,000  each,  cost  $2,192,987,000;  and 
the  113,392  company  cars,  valued  at 
$600  each,  cost  $68,035,200.  Thus 
the  approximate  value  of  all  equip- 
ment of  American  railways  was  $3,- 
500,360,200.  The  single  item,  mainte- 
nan(,'e  of  equipment,  for  the  year  1912, 
amounted  to  $446,446,230. 


ELECTRIC    LOCOMOTIVES. 


The  heaviest  electric  locomotive  on 
the  New  Haven  has  a  weight  on  its 
drivers  of  182,000  pounds,  a  maxi- 
mum guaranteed  speed  of  45  miles, 
and  is  designed  to  trail  a  load  of 
800  tons.  The  Grand  Trunk  (St. 
Clair  Tunnel)  locomotive  has  a 
weight  on  the  drivers  of  132,000 
pounds,  a  guaranteed  speed  of  30 
miles  an  hour,  and  is  designed  to  trail 
a  load  of  500  tons.  The  Pennsylvania 
R.  R.  locomotive  having  a  weight  on 
the  drivers  of  207,800  pounds  and  a 
guaranteed  speed  of  80  miles,  is  de- 
signed to  trail  a  load  of  550  tons. 
The  N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  R.  R.'s  largest 


electric  locomotive,  having  a  weight 
on  the  drivers  of  141,000,  has  a  guar- 
anteed speed  of  75  miles  per  hour. 
The  Baltimore  &  Ohio  has  electric 
locomotives  having  a  weight  of  184,- 
000  pounds  on  the  drivers,  a  guar- 
anteed speed  of  55  miles,  and  is  de- 
signed to  trail  a  load  of  850  tons. 
The  Paris-Orleans  locomotive  has  a 
weight  on  the  drivers  of  110,000 
pounds  and  a  maximum  guaranteed 
speed  of  45  miles.  The  Great  North- 
ern's largest  electric  locomotive  has 
a  weight  of  230,000  pounds  on  the 
drivers  and  a  maximum  guaranteed 
speed  of  30  miles. 


COST  OF  LOCOMOTIVES  AND  CARS. 


I^ocomotives  for  railway  service 
cost  approximately  as  follows  :  Mogul, 
for  freight  service,  having  an  average 
weight  of  160,000  pounds,  cost  $14,- 
100 ;  Consolidation,  for  freight  serv- 
ice, average  weiglit  200,000  pounds, 
cost  $18,500 ;  Mallet  Compound,  for 
freight  service,  average  weiglit  400,- 
000  pounds,  cost  $40,000;  Atlantic, 
for  passenger  service,  average  weight 
185,000  pounds,  cost  $15,970;  Pacific, 
for  passenger  sei*vice,  average  weight 
225,000  pounds,  cost  $20,800;  and 
Ten  Wheel,  for  passenger  service, 
average   weight    170,000    pounds,    cost 

Wood  box  cars  (with  steel  under- 
frame)    weighing  36,000  pounds,  hav- 


ing a  capacity  of  100,000  pounds,  and 
inside  dimensions  of  40'  6"  x  8'  10"  x 
8',  cost  $1,500;  steel  coal  (gondola), 
weight  46,000  pounds,  capacity  110,- 
000  pounds,  inside  dimensions  46'  x 
8'  9"  X  10'  (>",  cost  $1,200;  flat  cars, 
weight  34,000  pounds,  capacity  100,- 
000  j)ounds,  inside  dimensions  40'  2'' 
X  9'  2",  cost  $700;  day  coach,  weiglit 
112,000  pounds,  capacity  81)  passen- 
gers, dimensions  78'  3"  x  10'  x  14'  5", 
cost  $8,500;  sleeping  car  (wood), 
weight    115.000    pounds,    capacity    27 


berths,    inside    dimension!- 


'2'    6' 


8'  6"  X  9'  6",  cost  $16,700;  sleeping 
cars  (steel),  weight  152.300  pounds, 
capacity  24  berths,  inside  dimensions 
72'  0"  X  9'  9"  X  9'  6",  cost  $27,000. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


245 


A  dining  car  costs  $30,000  to  $35,000. 
A  combination  caf6  car  costs  about 
$28,000.  We  are  indebted  to  the 
"World  Almanac"  for  many  of  these 
interesting  figures. 

The  Mallet  Compound,  built  for  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  having 
a  total  weight  of  016,000  pounds,  and 
a  weight  of  550,000  pounds  on  its 
drivers,  is  the  largest  and  most 
l)owerful  locomotive  in  the  world. 
It  has  ten  drivers  on  each  side, 
having  a  diameter  of  57  inches, 
and  was  built  by  the  Santa  Fe 
by  converting  a  2-10-2  type  loco- 
motive by  the  addition  of  a  front 
unit.  From  the  tip  of  the  pilot  to 
the  end  of  the  tender  it  is  121  feet 
7  inches  long.  It  has  a  heating  sur- 
face of  6,579  square  feet.  Its  cylin- 
ders are  28  x  38  x  32  inches  and  its 


tractive  effort  is  111,600  pounds.  It 
was  built  for  operation  over  the  A., 
T.  &  S.  F.  from  Los  Angeles  to 
Albuquerque,  where  the  maximum 
grade  ranges  from  2.2  per  cent,  to 
3  per  cent.  The  locomotive  burns  fuel 
oil,  and  the  tender  has  a  capacity  of 
4,000    gallons. 

The  Mallet  Compound  passenger 
locomotive,  built  by  the  A.,  T.  &  S.  F.. 
is  the  heaviest  passenger  locomotive 
ever  built.  Its  total  weight  is  376,850 
pounds  and  the  weight  on  its  drivers, 
73  inches  in  diameter,  is  268,400 
pounds.  It  has  a  heating  surface  of 
4,756  square  feet.  Its  cylinders  are 
24  X  38  X  28  inches  and  its  tractive  ef- 
fort is  62,850  pounds.  It  is  for  use  on 
a  division  having  2.2  per  cent,  grades, 
and  over  which  the  schedule  speed 
averages  about  25  miles. 


SUMMARY    OF    COST    OF    LOCOMOTIVE    FUEL    AND    PROPORTION 
TO  EARNINGS  AND  EXPENSES  OF  AMERICAN  RAILWAYS. 


At  the  end  of  the  year  1912 
it  was  estimated  that  there  were 
236,444  miles  of  railroad  and  that 
the  total  cost  of  locomotive  fuel 
for    operating    trains    over    them    was 


$230,555,544,  or  11.85  per  cent. 
of  the  total  operating  expenses 
of  the  roads  or  again  8.22  per 
cent,  of  the  gross  earnings  of  the 
roads. 


This  huge  locomotive  was  enlarged  at  the  Santa  Fe  shops  from  an  existing  looomotive  by 
adding  the  superheater  and  feed-water  sections.  The  engine  weighs  308  tons,  the  tender  117 
tons,  making  the  total  weight  425  tons.  Its  length  over  all  is  120  feet  7VL>  inches.  The  H.P. 
cylinders  are  28  inches  dia;  the  L.P.  are  38  inches  dia. ;  the  common  stroke  is  32  Inches. 
The  max.  drawbar  pull  is  111.000  pounds,  and  this  locomotive  has  hauled  1,911  tons  at  12 
miles  per  hour  over  a  1.5  per  cent  grade.  On  the  level  it  could  haul  a  train  so  long  that 
the  side  tracks  could  not  take  it  in.  At  a  speed  of  10  miles  an  hour,  estimated  in  the  ustiiii 
manner,  it  would  develop  about  3,000  horse-power,  which  at  higher  speeds,  would  be  still 
greater.  The  fire-box  has  204  square  feet  of  heating  surface,  and  the  tubes  3,625  square  feet. 
The  gases  next  pass  through  the  tubes  of  a  superheater  of  2,318.4  square  feet  surface  and 
then  through  a  feed-water  heater  of  2,659.5  square  feet.  The  steam  passes  from  the  steam 
dome  to  the  superheater;  through  the  high-pressure  cylinders:  back  to  the  low-pressure 
".uperheater;    through    the    low-pressure    cylinders,    and    to   the   exhaust    stack. 

SANTA    FE    MALLET    FREIGHT    rX)COMOTIVE,    THE 
LARGEST  IN  EXISTENCE- 


246 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  RAILWAY   EMPLOYEES.   COMPENSATION   AND  RATES  OF  PAY 
PER  DAY  BY  CLASSES  IN  1911,  AGGREGATES    FROM  1899  TO  1912. 


1912 

(236,444  Milea  Represented) 

Class 


General  Officers 

Other  Officers 

General  Office  Clerks 

Station  Agents 

Other  Station  Men 

Enginemen 

Firemen 

Conductors 

Other  Trainmen 

Machinists 

Carpenters 

Other  Shopmen 

Section  Foremen 

Other  Trackmen 

Switch  Tenders,  Crossing  Tend- 
ers and  Watchmen 

Telegraph  Operators  and  Dea- 
patchers 

Employes  acct.  Floating  Equpt. 

All  other  Employes  &  Laborers. 

Total  (95%  Mileage  Repre- 
sented)   


Number 


3,622 
9,866 
77,722 
36,862 

161,275 
63,260 
66,423 
48,792 

135,508 
54,467 
69,210 

248,440 
43,113 

347,433 

38,783 

42,557 

11,918 

231,457 


1,690,709 


Per  100 
Miles 
of  Line 


1.5 

4.2 
32.9 
15.6 
68.2 
26.8 
28.1 
20.6 
67.3 
23.0 
29.3 

105.1 
18.2 

147.0 

16.4 

18.0 
5.1 
97.9 


715.2 


Compensation 


Total 


18,111,992 
21,702,497 
64,047,042 
29,018,678 
97,758,363 

101,449,397 
61,309,898 
67,372,682 

127,285,178 
52,194,886 
52,027,465 

167,095,651 
30,835,624 

133,320,207 

23,095,345 

34,701,160 

8,968,119 

149,131,100 


1,239,425,284 


Average 

Pay 
Per  Day 


$15.22 
6.45 
2  50 
2.23 
1.90 
5.02 
3.03 
4.29 
3.02 
3.27 
2.57 
2.25 
2.09 
1.60 

1.73 

2.46 
2.32 
2.13 


2.44 


1911  Official  Figures. 
1910 


1907. 
1906. 
1905. 
1904. 
1903. 
1902. 
1901. 
1900. 


1897. 


1,702, 

1,732, 

1,528, 

1,458, 

1,672, 

1,521, 

1,382, 

1,296, 

1,312, 

1,189, 

1,071, 

1,017, 

928, 

874, 

823, 

826, 

785, 

779, 

873, 

821, 

784, 

749, 

704, 


687 
716 
638 
632 
735 
684 
637 
611 
639 
694 
648 
529 
495 
474 
449 
454 
441 
444 
515 
506 
486 
479 
459 


Sl,230,186,019 

1,165,444,855 

1,005,349,958 

1,051,632,225 

1,072,386,427 

(a)  930,801,653 

839,944,680 

817,598,810 

775,321,415 

676,028,592 

610,713,701 

577,264,841 

522,967,896 

495,055,618 

465,601,581 

468,824,531 

445,508,201 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 


(b)  $2.42 

2.29 

2.24 

2.25 

2.20 

2.09 

2.07 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 

No  data 


(a)  Includes  $30,000,000  estimate  pay-roll  of  Southern  Pacific,  whose  records  were  destroyed  in 
the  San  Francisco  disaster. 

(b)  Bureau  computations. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


247 


?  NUMBERS    OF    DIFFERENT   CLASSES    OF    FREIGHT    CARS. 


At  the  close  of  the  year  1910  the 
several  classes  or  kinds  into  which 
freight  cars  are  divided,  were  as  fol- 
lows :  box  cars,  966,577 ;  flat  cars, 
153,918 ;  stock  cars,  77,584 ;  coal  cars, 
818.689;    tank  cars,   7,434;    refrigera- 


tor cars,  30,918 ;  and  other  cars 
78,411.  The  average  capacity  in  tons 
of  a  box  car  was  33 ;  of  a  flat  car 
33 ;  a  stock  car  30 ;  a  coal  car  41 ; 
a  tank  car  39 ;  a  refrigerator  car  30 ; 
and  of  other  cars  37. 


PASSENGER  TRAFFIC. 


A  summary  of  the  passenger  traffic 
for  the  year  1911  shows  that  there 
were  997,409,882  passengers  carried ; 
that  there  were  33,201,694,699  passen- 
gers carried  one  mile ;  and  that  the 
mileage  of  revenue  passenger  trains 
amounted    to  572,929,421.     The  aver- 


age number  of  passengers  in  a  train 
55 ;  the  average  journey  per  passen- 
ger was  33.48  miles  ;  and  the  average 
revenue  per  passenger  per  mile  was 
1.974  cents.  The  passenger  revenue 
amounted  to  $657,638,291. 


FREIGHT  TRAFFIC. 


At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1911 
the  grand  total  of  freight  trafiic  for 
the  United  States  amounted  to  1,718,- 
014,118  tons,  plus  63,623,836  tons— 
the  latter  amount  being  unassigned 
freight,  while  the  former  was  assigned. 
The  products  of  agriculture,  having  a 
total  freight  tonnage  of  166,864,072, 
were  divided  as  follows :  Grain,  71,- 
126,786  tons;  flour,  19,557,516;  other 
mill  products,  15,475,563 ;  hay,  12,- 
033,156;  tobacco,  1,706,044;  cotton, 
7,228,879;  fruit  and  vegetables,  29,- 
108,043 ;  other  products  of  agricul- 
ture, 10,628.085  tons. 

The  products  of  animals,  totaling 
43,214,057  tons,  were  divided  as  fol- 
lows: Live  stock,  20,416,150; 
dressed  meats,  5,637,469  ;  other  pack- 
ing-house products,  4,809,181 ;  poultry, 
game  and  fish,  1,587,942  ;  wool,  1,023,- 
914;  hides  and  leather,  2,653,507; 
other  products  of  animals,  5,085,894 
tons. 

From  the  products  of  the  mines  the 
total  freight  traffic  amounted  to  921,- 
129,439  tons  and  was  divided  as  fol- 
lows:  Anthracite  coal,  127,402,064; 
bituminous  coal,  479,638,745 ;  coke, 
60,804,241;    ores,    133,082,878;    stone. 


sand,  and  other  like  articles,  99,352,- 
583 ;  other  products  of  mines,  20,848,- 
929  tons. 

The  products  of  the  forests,  divided 
into  lumber,  125,185,647  tons,  and 
other  products  of  the  forest,  61,770,- 
233  tons,  amounted  to  186,955,880 
tons  for  the  year  1911. 

The  manufactures  of  the  United 
States,  making  a  total  freight  tonnage 
of  267,776,334,  were  divided  accord- 
ing to  freight  traffic  as  follows  :  Pe- 
troleum and  other  oils,  17,596,449 ; 
sugai:,  6,923,808 ;  naval  stores,  1,553,- 
271 ;  iron,  pig  and  bloom,  22,713,623 ; 
iron  and  steel  rails,  8,920,596 ;  other 
castings  and  machinery,  23,052,502 ; 
bar  and  sheet  metal,  29,899,867;  ce- 
ment, brick  and  lime,  61,082,645  ;  agri- 
cultural implements,  3,264,739 ;  wag- 
ons, carriages,  tools,  etc.,  3,008,857 ; 
wines,  liquors  and  beers,  6,829,700 ; 
household  goods  and  furniture,  3,820,- 
113;  other  manufactures,  79,110,164 
tons. 

The  freight  traffic  for  merchandise 
amounted  to  60,976,778  tons  and  mis- 
cellaneous— other  commodities,  to  73,- 
097,558  tons. 


SUMMARY     OF    FREIGHT     MILEAGE,     REVENUE, 

PER   TON    MILE. 


AND    RECEIPTS 


During  the  year  1901  the  number 
of  tons  carried  one  mile  amounted  to 
147.077.136,040  and  during  the  year 
1912  to  261,416,643,000  ;  thus  making 
a  total  increase  for  the  11  years  of 
77.5   per   cent.     The    freight    revenue 


for  the  year  1901  amounted  to  $1,118,- 
543,014' and  for  1912  to  $1,936,237,- 
488 ;  making  an  increase  of  73.1  per 
cent,  for  the  11  years.  The  .  receipts 
per  ton  mile  in  1901  amounted  to  7.50 
mills  and  in  1912  to  7.41  miUs. 


248 


TFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


249 


PASSENGER  AND  FREIGHT  REVENUES. 


Analyzing  the  revenues  of  the  pas- 
senger service  for  the  fiscal  year  1890, 
we  find  that  the  revenue  per  passenger 
per  mile  was  2.167  cents ;  the  rev- 
enue per  passenger  carried,  $0.50818  ; 
the  revenue  per  train-mile,  passenger 
trains,  $1.08041 ;  and  the  passenger 
earnings  per  mile  of  road,  $1,978.19. 
For  the  freight  service  for  the  same 
year  the  revenue  per  ton  per  mile 
amounted  to  0.927  cents  ;  the  revenue 
per  ton  of  freight  carried  $1.08781-; 
the  revenue  per  train-mile,  freight 
trains,  $1.65434  ;  freight  earnings  per 
mile  of  road,  $4,588.82.  Thus  the 
total  revenue  per  train-mile  for  all 
trains  amounted  to  $1.44231,  and  the 
cost  of  running  a  train  one  mile 
$0.96006. 

In  1900  the  passenger  revenues 
were  as  follows :  revenue  per  passen- 
ger per  mile  2.003  cents ;  revenue  per 
passenger  carried  $0.56459 ;  revenue 
per  train-mile,  passenger  trains, 
$1.01075 ;  passenger  earnings  per 
mile  of  road  $2,067.17.  The  freight 
revenues  for  the  same  year  were : 
revenue  per  ton  per  mile  0.729  cents  ; 


revenue  per  ton  of  freight  carried 
$0.99373 ;  revenue  per  train-mile, 
freight  trains,  $2.00042;  freight 
earnings  per  mile  of  road  $5,466.47. 
Thus  the  revenue  per  train-mile  for 
all  trains  amounted  to  $1.65721  and 
the  cost  of  running  a  train  one  mile 
$1.07288. 

The  passenger  revenues  for  the  year 
1911  were  divided  into  revenue  per 
passenger  per  mile,  1.974  cents ;  rev- 
enue per  passenger  carried,  $0.65798 ; 
revenue  per  train-mile,  passenger 
trains,  $1.30921 ;  and  passenger 
earnings  ,per  mile  of  road,  $3,312.00. 
On  the  freight  service  the  revenue 
per  ton  per  mile  amounted  to  0.757 
cents ;  the  revenue  per  ton  of  freight 
carried  $1.07944 ;  the  r'evenue  per 
train-mile,  freight  trains,  $2.89548; 
the  freight  earnings  per  mile  of  road, 
$7,895.00.  Thus  the  revenue  per 
train-mile  for  all  trains  amounted  to 
$2.24824  and  the  cost  of  running  a 
train  one  mile  $1.54338.  The  term 
"ton"  generally  signifies  the  short 
ton  of  2,000  pounds. 


CONSUMPTION  OF  FUEL  OIL. 


The  increasing  use  of  fuel  oil  is 
due  to  many  causes.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  from  tests  made  on  some 
of  the  railroads  accessible  to  the  oil 
fields  and.  refineries  of  the  West, 
where  fuel  oil  can  be  purchased 
cheaply,  that  the  cost  of  operating 
with  oil  is  less  and  its  use  equally 
as  efficient  as  coal,  the  supplies  of 
which  are  at  times  very  low  and 
uncertain  on  account  of  strikes  and 
shutdowns  of  mines,  and  often  on 
account  of  shortage  of  cars  for  the 
transportation  of  the  coal,  especially 
in  the  winter  season.  In  some  locali- 
ties where  oil  is  coming  into  use,  as 
in  Nevada,  the  cost  of  coal  is  ex- 
tremely high.  Another  reason  for  the 
use   of   oil    is    the    prevention   or    the 


elimination  of  forest  fires,  which  in 
the  last  few  years  have  been  so  dis- 
astrous in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  country.  In  addition  to  the  econ- 
omy of  the  use  of  oil  as  compared 
with  coal  on  railroads,  it  is  very 
much  cleaner  and  safer  for  the  trav- 
eler, there  being  no  smoke  or  cinders. 
In  1911  there  were  27,368  lines  of 
mile  operated  by  the  use  of  fuel  oil. 
The  total  quantity  of  fuel  oil  con- 
sumed by  railroads  for  the  same  year 
amounted  to  27,774,821  barrels.  The 
total  mileage  made  by  oil-burning  en- 
gines for  that  year  was  104,270,964 
and  the  average  number  of  miles 
traveled  per  barrel  of  oil  consumed 
was  3.75. 


REVENUES  AND  EXPENSES. 


A  general  summary  of  the  monthly 
reports  of  revenues  and.  expenses  made 
up  by  the  Bureau  of  Railway  News 
and  Statistics  (95%  of  all  roads) 
shows  that  the  average  number  of 
miles  operated  during  1912  was  236,- 
444.      The    operating    revenue,    which 


amounted  to  $2,806,177,194,  was  made 
up  as  follows :  Passenger,  .$653,598,- 
401;  freight,  $1,936,237,488;  mail, 
$50,458,769 ;  express,  $73,053,799 ; 
other  revenues  from  operation,  $92,- 
828,737.  The  operating  expenses, 
amounting     to     $2,064,645,750,     were 


250 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


divided  as  follows :  Maintenance  cf 
way  and  structures,  $360,446,190; 
maintenance  of  equipment,  $446,446,- 
230;  traffic  expenses,  $59,8iJ5,212 ; 
transportation  expenses,  $1,008,019,- 
735 ;  general  expenses,  $71,684,564 ; 
taxes,  $118,153,819.  Deducting  the 
total  expenses  and  taxes  from  the  rev- 
enues from  operation,  we  have  a  total 
operating  income  of  $746,385,701 ;  of 
this  amount,  $741,531,444  was  derived 
from  rail  operations,  and  $4,854,257 
from  outside  operations. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1890,  the  I'ailroads  had  a 
total  of  $4,409,658,453  stocks  out- 
standing, of  which  $1,598,131,933,  or 
36.24  per  cent.,  were  paying  divi- 
dends. This  stock  of  the  railroads 
paid  dividends  at  an  average  rate  of 
5.45  per  cent.  The-  railroads  paid 
$87,071,613  dollars  in  dividends  and 
$221,499,702  interest  on  the  funded 
debt,  making  a  total  of  $308,571,315. 
The  interest  on  interest-bearing  cur- 
rent liabilities  amounted  to  $8,114,- 
768. 

In  1900  the  total  stock  of  the  rail- 
roads was  $5,845,579,593  and  the 
stock-paying  dividends  amounted  to 
$2,668,969,895,  or  45.66  per  cent,  of 
the  total  amount  of  stock.  The  aver- 
age rate  paid  was  5.23  per  cent.,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  $139,597,972  paid  in 
dividends.  The  interest  on  the  funded 
debt  amounted  to  $252,949,616,  mak- 
ing a   total  expenditure  on  dividends 


and  interest  on  the  funded  debt  of 
$392,547,588.  The  interest  on  the 
interest-bearing  current  liabilities 
amounted   to  $4,912,892. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1911  the 
total  amount  of  stock  paying  divi- 
dends was  $5,730,250,326,  or  67.65  of 
the  total  amount  of  outstanding  stock. 
The  average  rate  paid  on  stock  was 
8.03  per  cent.,  or  $460,195,376.  The 
interest  on  the  funded  debt  amounted 
to  $410,326,852,  making  a  total  of 
$870,522,228  paid  for  interest  and  div- 
idends. The  interest  on  the  interest- 
bearing  current  liabilities  amounted  to 
$26,207,567. 

At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1911, 
the  assets  for  the  244,089.14  miles  pf 
line  represented  were  as  follows  :  Net 
investment  in  road  and  equipment, 
$15,872,462,792 ;  other  investments, 
$4,551,785,530;  sundry  assets  (in- 
cluding deferred  debit  items),  $348,- 
227,510;  current  accounts,  $1,743,- 
499,260 ;  making  the  total  assets  $22,- 
515,975.092. 

The  liabilities  for  the  same  number 
of  miles  of  road  and  for  the  same  year 
were  as  follows :  Capital  stock,  $8,- 
582,463,256;  bonded  debt  (including 
real  estate  mortgages,  equipment, 
trust  obligations,  etc.),  $10,989,608,- 
551;  unfunded  debt  (including  appro- 
priated surplus),  $418,122,751;  cur- 
rent accounts,  $1,139,377,126;  sinking 
and  other  funds,  $230,573,472.  The 
excess  of  assets  over  liabilities  was, 
therefore,  $1,155,829,092. 


Tow  Boat 

$           1 

to 

I 

■ 

■ 

River,            f 

RaU  Road.  $ 

rnnal,            A 

III 

to  Cr.  of 

4> 

1          1 

i  ' 

<§    a 

183 

RAIL  ROAD  LINE  PROM  NEW  YORK  TO  BUPTALO. 


•^et^tond,  /torn  kAZw  QJoi^  lo 

One  nuiidiect /louncM  o^ Oaaaaae  (lee  for  eacu  £i/f  Aaitenger  on  t^e 
^iver,  anc/  M/ti  /wundo  on  <ne  <^ai/  <!^/hoac/  anc^  '^ana/'. 
TOW  BOAT  NEW  YORK,  ia3 


To  JOHN  M.  HUGHES, 


RAILROAD  TICKET  OF  THE  EARLY  THIRTIES. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


251 


RAILROAD  SPEEDS. 


Month, 
day,  year, 


6-14-'80 
0-  0-'80 
4-22-'82 
7-12-'83 

5-  9-'84 
5-  8-'85 
7-  9-'85 
6-17-'86 

7-  5-'86 

8-  8-'86 
7-10-'88 
8-  0-'88 

8-  0-'88 
8-30-'88 
8-31-'88 

4-  8-'89 

5-19-'89 
5-26-'89 
3-10-'90 
3-10-'90 

3-10-'90 
6-22-'91 
8-  0-'91 
9-14-'91 

10-16-'91 

ll-28-'91 
12-22-'91 

3-28-'92 
ll-18-'92 

ll-18-'92 
12-  0-'92 

5-  9-'93 

5-19-'93 
5-19-'93 
5-28-'93 

8-28-' 93 
3-23-'94 
4-17-:94 
8-26-' 94 

4-  0-'95 
4-21-'95 
8-21-  95 
8-21-'95 

9-ll-'95 

9-24-' 95 

10-24-' 95 

10-24-'95 

10-24-' 95 

5-  7-' 96 
5-  7-' 96 
6-10-'96 

6-20-'96 

7-  3-'96 

ll-21-'96 
2-15-'97 
3-ll-'97 


Railroad. 


P.R.R. 

Gt.  N.  (Eng.; 
W.  Jersey 

B.  S.  &N.  Y. 

P.  «&R. 

L.S.andN.Y.C. 
W.  Shore 
C.,B.&Q. 

Wabash 

N.  Y.  C.  &H.  R. 
L.  &  N.  W.-Cal. 
L.  &LN.  W. 

L.  &  N.  W. 

N.  E.  (Eng.) 
Gt.  N.  (Eng.) 

C.  &  N.  W. 

P..F.W.  &C. 
Mich.  C. 
P  &R. 
P.  R.  R. 

P.  R.  R. 

N.  Y.  C.  &H  R. 
Canadian  Pac 
N.  Y.  C.&H.  R. 

N.  Ry.  (France) 


R.  R. 

&0. 


N.  Y.  C.  &H.  R 

Cent.  N.  J. 

P.  &R. 

L.  &  N.  W. 

N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R. 

N.Y.C.&H  R. 
N.  Y.  C.  &H.  R 
N.  Y.  C.  &H.  R. 
L.  S.  &M.  S. 
P.,C..C.  &St.  L. 
C.  &N.  W. 
L.  S.  &M.S. 
A.  C.  Line 

C.  B.  &Q. 
Camden  &  Atl. 
West  Coast 
East  Coa.st 

N.  Y.  C.  &H.  R. 
N.Y.  C.  &H.  R. 
L.  S.  &M.  S. 
L.  S.&M.S. 

P.  R.  R. 
Mich.  C. 
Mich.  C. 
Atlantic  City 

Atlantic  City 

C.M.&St.  P. 

S.  &R. 
C.B.  &Q. 
Char.  &  Sav. 


From. 


Philadelphia 
London 
Camden 
Syracuse 

N.  Y.  Div. 
Chicago 
Alabama 
Princeton 

K.  City 
Syracuse 
London 
Crewe 

Preston 
York 
London 
Chicago 

Ft.  Wayne 
S.  Bridge 
Philadelphia 
Jersey  City 

Washington 
New  York 
Vancouver 
New  York 

Paris 

Jersey  City 
Philadelphia 

Oneida 
Fanwood 

Jenkintown 

Crewe 

Grimesville 

Syracuse 
Looney\ille 
New  York 

Seymour 
C.  Bluffs 
Cleveland 
Jacksonville 

Chicago 
Camden 
London 
London 

New  York 
Albany 
Erie 
Chicago 

Jersey  City 
Windsor 
St.  Thomas 
Camden 

Camden 

Forest  Glen 

Weld  on 
Chicago 
Cent.  June. 


To. 


Jersey  City 
Grantham 
Cape  May 
Binghamton 

M.  P.  48 
New  York 
Gen.  June. 
BurUngton 

Peru 
Fairport 
Edinboro 
Preston 

Carlisle 
Newcastle 
Edinboro 
Council  Bluffs 

Chicago 
Cliicago 
Jersey  City 
Washington 

Jersey  City 
Buffalo 
Brockville 
E.  Buffalo 

Calais 

Washington 
Canton 

De  Witt 


L'horne 
Rugby 


E.  Buffalo 

Grimesville 

Chicago 

N.  Tower 
Chicago 
Erie 
Washington 

G'burg 
Atlantic  City 
Aberdeen 
Aberdeen 

E.  Buffalo 
Syracuse 
Buffalo 
Buffalo 

Philadelphia 
St.  Thomas 
Fort  Erie 
Atlantic  City 

Atlantic  City 

Nat.  Ave. 

Shops 
Denver 
Ashley  J. 


Dist. 
Miles. 


90 

105.5 
81.5 
79 

14 
964 

36.3 
170 

563 

70.25 
400 

51 

90 

80.5 
392.5 
490 

148.3 
511 
90 
226 


226  4:19:00 

439.52  8:58:00 

2,792  76:31:00 

436.32  7:17:30 


Time, 
h.    m. 


1:33:00 
1:51:00 
1:23:30 
1:23:00 

0:11:19 

22:45:00 

0:30:00 

2:58:00 

13:45:00 
1:01:20 
7:52:00 
0:50:00 

1:30:00 

1:18:00 

7:26:45 

12:30:00 

2:59:00 

11:41:00 

1:25:00 

4:18:00 


184 

227 
91.6 

21.37 

1 

5 

76 

1 

146 

5 

964 

42 
488 

95.5 
780.8 

163 

58.3 
540 
523J 

436.32 
147.84 

86 
510.1 

89.6 

11.2 

118.2 

55.5 

55.5 

74 

76.8 
,025 
102 


3:43:00 

4:11:00 
1 :41 :00 

0:17:40 
0:00:37 

0:03:25 
1:11:00 
0:00:35 

2:21:00 

0:03:00 

19:57:00 

0:35:34 
12:52:00 

1:35:00 
15:49:00 

2:45:00 
0:45:45 
8:55:00 
8:40:00 

6:51:56 
2:10:00 
1:10:46 
8:01:07 

1:33:21 
1:43:05 
1:47:15 
0:48:00 

0:57:00 

1:22:00 

1:12:30 

18:53:00 

1:40:00 


252 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RAILROAD  SPEEDS— Continued. 


Month, 
day,  year. 


4-  9-'97 
4-21-'97 
7-14-'97 
7- 16-' 97 
8-  3-' 97 
8-  3-' 97 
ll-29-'97 

12-  4-' 97 

2-13-'98 
8-20-'98 

1-  2-'99 
4-23-' 99 
7-  9-' 99 

7-19-'99 
7-22-'99 
7-31-'99 


Railroad. 


Atlantic  Coast  L. 
Lehigh  V. 
Atl.  City  (P.  &  R.) 
P.,Ft.  W.  &C. 
Union  Pacific 
Union  Pacific 
Union  Pacific 

Union  Pacific 

Erie 
Atlantic  City 

Chic.B.  &0. 
Chic.B.  &0 
Del.,L.  &W. 

Vandalia 
Atlantic  City 
W.J.  &S.  (Penn.) 


10-  7-' 99   Penn.  W.  Pittsburgh 


10-14-'99 

ll-22-'99 

3-27-' 00 

4-30-' 00 

7-  9-'00 

7-  4-'00 
8-16-'00 
9-30-'00 

12-21 -'00 
3-  l-'Ol 
9-  5-'01 
2-  9-' 02 

3-24-' 02 
3-24-' 02 
6-21-'02 
5-25-' 03 

6- 19-' 03 

8-  8-' 03 
4-27-'04 
6-  9-'04 
7-20-'04 
5-14-'05 

6-  8-' 05 

6- 13-' 05 
0-  0-'05 

7-  9-'05 


10-23-'05 


10-23-'05 
10-24-'05 
11-  3-'05 


5-  5-'06 


Wabash 
L.  S.  «&M.  S. 
Atch.,  T.  i&  S.  F 
Chic,  B.  &  Q. 

N.  Y.  C.  &H.  R. 

Atlantic  City 
Atlantic  City 
Penn.  Lines 

Burlington 
Sav..F.  &W. 
Mich.  Cent. 
N.Y.,  N.  H.  &H. 

Penn. 

BurUngton 

Penn. 

L.  S.  &M.  S. 

L.  &  N.  W. 
A.  T.  &  S.  F. 
Mich.  Cent. 
Gt.  Western 
Atlantic  City 
Atlantic  City 
Penn. 

L.  S.  &M.  S. 
JN.  Y.  C. 
IL.  S.  &M.  S. 
A.  T.  &  S.  F. 

f  Southern  Pac. 

I  Union  Pac. 

i  Chic.  &  No.West. 

I  L.  S.  &M.  S. 

[Erie 

Penn. 
Penn. 
P'inn. 

f  Southern  Pac. 
I  Union  Pac. 
i  Chic  &  N.  W. 
1  L.  S.  &Mich.So. 
N.  Y.  Cent. 


6-19-'06   Atlantic  City 


From. 


Florence,  S.  C. 

Alpine 

Camden 

G.  R.  &  I.  Jc 

Evanston 

N.  Platte 

Cheyenne 

Sidney 

Jersey  City 
Camden 

Omaha 

Clyde 

Bath 

Clayton 
Camden 
Camden 
Ft.  Wayne 

Tilton 
Buffalo 
Los  Angeles 
BurUngton 

Rochester 
Camden 
Camden 
Ft.  Wayne 

Omaha 
M.  P.  69 
Susp.  Bridge 
Harlem  R. 

Philadelphia 
Eckley 
Harrisburg 
Toledo 

London 
Chicago 
Niagara  Falls 
Plymouth 
Camden 
Atlantic  City 
E.  ToJleston 

Chicago 

New  York 

LosAngele- 


Oakland 


Crestline 
Crestline 
Harrisburg 


Oakland 


Camden 


To. 


Rocky  Mt. 
Geneva  Jimc. 
Atlantic  City 
Colehour 
Omaha 
Omaha 
Council  Bluffs 

Omaha 

Buffalo 
Atlantic  City 

Chicago 
Burlington 
East  Buffalo 

Transfer 
Atlantic  City 
Atlantic  City 
Chicago 

Granite  City 
Cleveland 
Chicago 
Chicago 

Syracuse 
Atlantic  City 
Atlantic  City 
Clarke  J. 

Billings 
M.  P.  74 
Windsor 
Boston 

Jersey  City 
Wray 
Altoona 
Elkhart 

Carhsle 

Los  Angeles 

Windsor 

London 

Atlantic  City 

Camden 

Donaldson 

Buffalo 

Cliicago 

Chicago 


Jersey  City 


Ft.  Wayne 
Clarke  J. 
Chicago 


New  York 
Atlantic  City 


Dist. 
Miles. 


172.2 

44 

55.5 
132.5 
955.2 
291.0 
519 

414.2 

423. 
55.5 

500.2 
197.3 
104 

18 

55.5 

58  3 

148.3 

176.6 
183 
2,236 
205.8 

•80.7 
55.5 
55.5 

126 

892.6 
4.8 
229 
228 

89.8 

14.8 

131.4 

133.4 

299.2 

2,267 

225.7 

246.8 

55.5 

55.5 

50 

525 

964 

2,246 


3,239 


131.4 
257.4 
717 


3,255 


55.5 


Time, 
h.    m.    s. 


3:00:00 
0:33:00 
0:46-30 
2:15:00 
23:55:00 
5:35:00 
9:19:00 

7:12:00 

7:30:00 
0:46:45 

8:43:00 
3:04:00 
1:30:00 

0:14:00 
0:51:15 
0:50:30 
2:50:00 

2:47:30 

3:25:00 

58:00:00 

3 :23 :00 

1:25:00 
0:44:15 
0:44:15 
2:38:00 

16:23:00 
0:02:40 
3:40:00 
4:12:00 

1:19:00 
0:09:00 
2:10:00 
1:54:00 

5:58:00 
52 :49 :00 
3:18:00 
3:46:48 
0:43:00 
0:42:33 
0:38:00 

7:33:00 

18:00:00 

44:54:00 


73:12:00 


1:41:20 

3:27:20 

12:49:00 


71:27:00 


0:43:30 


*From  Locomotive  Dictionary. — Courtesy  Railroad-Age-Gazette. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


253 


LATEST  RAILROAD  SPEEDS. 


Month, 
day,  year. 

Railroad. 

From. 

To. 

Dist. 
Miles. 

Time, 
h.    m.    s. 

Speed 
miles 
perH. 

3-28-'09 

/  N.  Y.  C.    \ 
i  L.  S.           / 
1  L.  S.           \ 
I  M.  C.         / 
C.  &  N.  W. 
C.  &  N.  W. 
U.  P. 

Mott  Haven 

Chicago 

959 

16:30:00 

58.12 

7-29-'09 

Toledo 

Elkhart 

134 

1:50:00 

73.08 

8-16-'09 

8-17-'09 

10-  2~'09 

Chicago 
St.  Paul 
Omaha 

St.  Paul 
Chicago 
Denver 

409 
409 
575 

7:24:00 

7:24:00 

12:30:00 

54.05 
54.05 
46.0 

1-17-'10 

/  N.  Y.  C.    \ 

I  L.  S.          [ 
Mich.  C. 
C.  of  N.  J. 

f  S.  P.          ] 
R.  Is. 

[n.  Y.C.    J 
P.  R. 
F.  R. 

C.  &  N.  W. 
N.  Y.  C. 
C.  of  N.  J. 

New  York 

Chicago 

964 

18:30:00 

52.1 

5-21-'10 
12-  O-'IO 

Windsor 
Jersey  City 

Falls  View 
Washington 

224 
227 

3:44:00 
4:04:00 

60.0 
55.8 

2-16-'ll 

2-28-' 11 
2-  O-'ll 
12-22-' 11 
4-00-'ll 
4-00-'ll 

Yuma 

Altoona 

Washington 

Chicago 

Syracuse 

Philadelphia 

New  York 

Philadelphia 
New  York 
CUnton 
Buffalo 
Jersey  City 

2,787 

235.1 
226.8 
138 
149 
90 

74:19:00 

3:29:00 
3:55:30 
2:16:00 
2:20:00 
1:42:00 

40.41 

67.5 

57.8 
59.1 
63.84 
52.9 

Courtesy  Railroad-Age-Gazette. 


RAILWAY  MAIL  REVENUES. 


Number  of 

Railway 

Railway 

Postal 

Year 

Mail 

Mail 

Revenues 

Revenues 

Clerks 

1902 

39,963,248 

9,627 

121,848,047 

1903 

41.709,396 

10,418 

134.224,443 

1904 

44,499,732 

11,621 

143,482,624 

1905 

45,426.125 

12,474 

152,826,585 

1906 

47,371,453 

.      13,598 

167,932,783 

1907 

50,378,964 

14,357 

183,585,006 

1908 

48,517,563 

15,295 

191,478,663 

1909 

49,380,783 

15,866 

203,562,383 

1910 

48,913,888 

10,578 

224,128,657 

1911 ' 

50,702,625 
■  50,458,769 

10,792 
16,636 

237,879,823 

1912 

246,744,015 

Ten  years'  increase,  per  cent 

•    28.8% 

72.8% 

101.7% 

Risk  of  Employees  and  Passengers  on 
American  Railways. 


Safety  Appliances  on 
American  Railways. 


254 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RAILWAY  SPEED  IN  ENGLAND. 
The  Fastest  Running,  without  stoppage,  is  made  by  the  Companies  as  under: — 


Company. 


North  Eastern 

Great  Central  

Great  Western   

Great  Northern  

Midland „ 

London  and  North  Westera  ... 
London  and  South  Western  ... 

Caledonian  

Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  

Cheshire  Lines 

Great  Eastern 

Glasgow  and  South  Western ... 
Great  Southern  and  Western... 
South  Eastern  and  Chatham ... 
London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast 
London,  Tilbury  &  Southend... 

Hull  and  Bamsley 

Great  Northern  (Ireland)  

North  British 

Highland  

North  Stafford... 


Train. 


X.  9 

433 

XI.   o 

12.    7 

xo.xo 
9-3« 
5-  3 
5  58 
8.40 
5  10 
a-43 
2.  6 

12.36 
4S» 

XI.   o 

4.13 
9-  7 
6.56 
9.1a 
".  5 
X.  8 


From 


Darlington  

Leicester  

Paddington 

Peterborough  ... 

Kettering 

Willesden 

Basingstoke 

Perth 

Liverpool 

Manchester 

Lincoln  


To 


York  

Nottingham. 

Bath  

King's  Cross. 

Bedford; 

Coventry  ...., 
Vauxhall  .... 
Aberdeen  .... 
Manchester . 
West  Derby. 
Spalding 


Kilmarnock iDumfries 

Ballybrophy    ...  Mallow  ... 

Tonbridge Ashford... 

Victoria    Brighton 

Stepney Westcliff 

Hemsworth Howden... 

Drogheda Dublin   ... 

Hay  market  Cowlairs 

Blair  Athol Perth 

Crewe Rhyl  


Time. 

Distance. 

H.    M. 

Miles. 

0    43 

44i 

0    aa 

zai 

X     48 

xo6% 

X     18 

76* 

0    as 

a»* 

1    3a 

0    49 

46^^ 

I    37 

89 1 

0    40 

37 

0    34 

3ii 

0  -44 

4oi 

»      4 

58 

X     28 

771 

0    31 

26i 

X       0 

SI 

0    39 
0    30 
0    39 
0    55 
0    45 
»      7 

33 
25 
3xf 

44| 
35i 
51* 

Averag 


6x7 
6x3 

59  4 
58-6 
S8o 
577 
569 
55  9 
555 
551 
548 
546 
530 
51-3 
Sxo 
50*8 
50  "o 
488 
48s 
470 
459 


The  Longest  Runs  without  Stoppage  are  made  by  the  Companies  as  under : 


Company, 


Great  Western    ; 

London  and  North  Western  ... 

Midland 

Great  Northern 

Great  Central 

Caledonian  

Great  Eastern    

North  Eastern    

London  and  South  Western  ... 

North  British 

Glasgow  and  South  Western... 
Great  Southern  and  Western... 
London  Brighton  &  South  Coast 
South  Eastern  and  Cbatham ... 

Highland  

Mid.  and  Great  Northern  Joint 

Somerset  and  Dorset 

Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  .. 
Midland  Great  Western  


Train. 


X0.30 

XX.IO 

XI.50 
a.  20 
315 
1.43 
X.30 

XX.X4 
4.X0 
930 
2.  6 
X.40 
X.48 

XI.   o 

11.50 
a.38 
a.  13 
8.  o 
558 


From 


Paddington 

Euston  

St.  Pancras 

Wakefield 

Marylebone 

Carlisle 

Liverpool  Street 

Newcastle    

Waterloo 

Edinburgh   

Kilmarnock 

Thurles 

Clapham  Juuct. 

Victoria 

Perth 

Peterborough  ... 

Bath  

Blackpool 

Mullingar 


To 


Plymouth... 

Rhyl  

Shipley , 

'King's  Crosg 
!She.ffield   ... 

[Perth 

North  Walsham 
Edinburgh  ... 
iBouniemouth 

Carlisle 

Carlisle 

Dublin  

Fratton 

Dover  Town.., 

Newtonmore 

MeltonConst'ble 

Poole 

Halifax ... 
Dublin  ... 


Time. 

Distance. 

H.    M. 

Miles. 

4      7 

aa5l 

3    58 

ao9i 

4      3 

ao6 

3      5 

175! 

a    57 

164* 

3      3 

150J 

a    38 

*3>, 

2    x8 

iMh 

a      0 

X08 

a    XX 

98i 

X    46 

9*1 

X    40 

86| 

X    59 

8i» 

X     40 

77* 

I    54 

*m 

X     37 

*68i 

«    39 
«    5a 

X     14 

•a 

50 

Speed. 

S4-8 

5038 

570 

55-8 

495 

497 

54X 

540 

45  1 

51  5 

Sao 

4xa 

46X 

36X 
42  a 
40 '6 
3*7 
405 


Single  line,  wholly  or  partly. 


Railway. 


FASTEST  LONG-DISTANCE  TRAINS 

From. 


Northern  (France) Paris 

Prussian Berlin 

London  &  North  West London 

N.  Y.  C.  &  L.  S.  &  M.  S New  York 

Caledonian London 

P.  L.  &  M.  (France) Paris 

Pennsylvania New  York 

Orleans  (France) Paris 

N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R New  York 

O.  &  S.  (France) Paris 

Various Ostend 

From  the  June,  1912,  Railway  and  Lrocomotive  Engineering. 


Speed, 

To. 

Miles. 

miles 
per  hour. 

Calais 

185.1 

59.72 

Hamburg 

177.69 

52.51 

Edinburgh 

393.5 

50.77 

Chicago 

962.49 

50.66 

Edinburgh 

401.5 

50.18 

Men  tone 

687.5 

49.10 

Chicago 

897.0 

47.21 

Bayonne 

488.0 

49.3 

Buffalo 

440.0 

49.3 

Madrid 

903.0 

38.49 

Vienna 

822.0 

37.85 

The  Loetschberg  Railway  Tunnel 
through  the  Bernese  Alps  entailed  an 
expenditure  of  $20,000,000.  It  is  nine 
miles    long,    and    is    therefore    the    third 


largest  In  Europe.  It  gives  a  direct 
connection  with  the  Simplon  Tunnel 
Railway,  and  shortens  the  route  from 
Milan   to   Calais   by   about  eighty   miles. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


255 


RAILROAD  ACCIDENTS. 


During  the  year  1900  there  were 
2,550  employees  of  the  railroads  killed 
and  39,C4o  injured,  or  for  every  399 
men  employed  one  was  killed  and  for 
every  20  men  employed  one  was  in- 
jured. In  1909  the  total  number  of 
employees  killed  was  2,610  and  of 
those  injured  75,006,  or  for  each  576 
men  employed  one  man  was  killed  and 
for  each  20  men  employed  one  was 
injured. 

The  total  number  of  passengers 
killed  during  the  year  1900  was  249 
and  of  those  injured  4,128,  or  for 
every  2,316,591  passengers  carried 
one  was  killed  and  for  every  139,736 
carried  one  was  injured.  In  1909 
253  passengers  were  killed  and  10,311 
injured,  or  for  every  3,523,606  car- 
ried one  was  killed  and  for  every 
86,458  carried  one  was  injured. 

The  number  of  other  persons  killed 
for  the  year  1900  was  5,066  and  dur- 
ing 1909,  5,859 ;  while  those  injured 
in  1900  numbered  6,549  and  in  1909, 
10,309.  The  total  number  of  per- 
sons   killed    during    1900    was    7,865 


and  of  those  injured  50,320,  and  in 
1909  total  of  those  killed  was  8,722 
and  of  those  injured  95,626. 

During  the  year  1912  there  were 
270  passengers  killed  in  railway  ac- 
cidents ;  3,283  employees,  5.424  tres- 
passers and  1,198  other  persons,  not 
trespassers,  making  the  total  for  the 
year  10,185,  as  compared  with  9,957 
in  1911  and  9,682  in  1910. 

During  the  year  1912  the  railroads 
paid  to  persons  on  account  of  injur- 
ies a  total  amount  of  $27,640,851, 
or  0.86  per  cent  of  earnings.  Of  this 
amount,  $2,034,185  was  paid  as  a  re- 
sult of  maintenance  of  way  ;  $1,844.- 
039  as  maintenance  of  equipment ; 
$23,762,327  as  transportation. 

Another  loss  of  $34,197,285  incurred 
by  the  railroads  was  divided  as  fol- 
lows :  Loss  and  damage  to  freight, 
$24,953,843;  to  baggage,  $304,925;  to 
property,  $4,846,165;  to  live  stock, 
etc.,  $4,092,352.  This  amount  was 
1.13  per  cent  of  the  net  earnings  of 
the  railroads. 


SAFETY  APPLIANCES. 


In  the  mater  of  safety  appliances, 
American  railroads  are  far  more  com- 
pletely equipped  than  the  railways 
of  any  other  country.  With  those 
twin    devices    for    the    protection    of 

BLOCK 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1912,  22,236 
miles  of  track  were  equipped  with 
automatic  block  signals ;  55,719  with 
non-automatic  block  signals  and  276 
miles  not  classified,  thus  making  a 
total  of  78,231  miles  having  a  block 
signal  system  of  some  sort.  The  total 
number  of  miles  having  a  block  signal 
system  in  1911  was  76,408,  thus  mak- 
ing an  increase  in  1912  of  1,823  miles 
of    line.    .     After    elaborate    investiga- 


trains  and  employees,  train  brakes 
and  automatic  couplers,  their  equip- 
ment is  practically  complete — the  pro- 
portion being  98%  and  99.7%,  re- 
spectively. 

SIGNALS. 

tions,  the  cost  of  installing  and  main- 
taining the  block  signal  system,  was 
reported  as  follows :  Cost  of  installa- 
tion of  automatic  block  signals  on 
railway  mileage  not  equipped,  $286,- 
492,976;  annual  cost  for  maintenance, 
depreciation  and  interest  charge,  $73,- 
751,012.  The  estimated  cost  of  instal- 
lation was  $1,232  per  mile,  and  for 
maintenance,  $169  per  mile  of  track 
per   year. 


TRAIN  SERVICE 
During  the  year  ending  March  31, 
1909,  the  steam  railroads  of  the  State 
of.  New  York  ran  650,592  trains  or 
an  average  of  54,216  each  month. 
During  1910  they  report  703,816 
trains,  or  58,651  a  month;  and  dur- 
ing 1911,  758,833,  or  63,236  a  month. 
For  this  period  of  three  years  an 
average  of  83.4  per  cent,  of  the  trains 
were  on  time.  For  each  train  the 
average  delay  was  25.96  minutes.  The 
principal  causes  of  delay  were :  wait- 


ing for  trains  on  other  divisions,  32,6 
per  cent. ;  train  work  at  stations, 
14.3  per  cent, ;  waiting  for  train  con- 
nections with  other  railroads,  13  per 
cent. ;  trains  ahead,  7.5  per  cent, ; 
engine  failures,  7,1  per  cent, ;  meet- 
ing and  passing  trains,  6,3  per  cent, ; 
and  wrecks,  5,7  per  cent. 


There  are  47  steamships  engaged  in  cable- 
laying  and  repairing. 


256 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  CASUALTIES  TO  PERSONS  IN  RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS 
FOR  THE  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1911,  AND   1912. 


1912 

1911 

Killed 

Injured 

Killed 

Injured 

Passengers: 

Collisions 

Derailments 

49 
65 

4,184 

3,956 

76 

6,125 

55 
39 

3,176 

2,374 

90 

Other  Causes 

156 

187 

5,753 

Total  Passengers  .   .     . .          

270 

292 
251 

78 
192 

77 

573 

1,505 

14,291 

3,592 
3.015 
1.716 
3.235 
1.523 
13.874 
24.260 

281 

335 
258 

75 
209 

76 

639 

1,454 

11,393 

Employes  on  Duty: 

Collisions 

Derailments 

3,567 
2,258 
1,858 

In  Coupling  Accidents 

Overhead  Obstructions 

2,966 
1,510 

12,989 

Other  Causes 

22,740 

Total  Employes 

2,968 

61,215 

2,946 

47,281 

Total  Passengers  and  Employes  on  Duty . . 
Employes  not  on  Duty: 

3,238 
20 

65,506 

156 
2 
12 
312 
477 
959 

277 
4.746 
6,023 

151 
5,536 

3,227 
13 

69,281 
174 

In  Coupling  Accidents                      

Overhead  Obstructions 

1 

63 
241 
315 

13 
1.185 
1,198 

91 
6.343 

2 

49 

223 

292 

11 

1,143 
1,154 

81 
6,203 

13 

367 

Other  Causes 

410 

Total 

954 

Other  Persons: 
Not  Trespassing-" 

175 

Other  Causes 

4,898 

Total 

6,073 

Trespassers: 

In  Train  Accidents 

Other  Causes 

141 
6,473 

Total 

Total  Accidents  Involving  Train  Operation . 
Industrial  Accidents  to  Employes: 
Not  Involving  Train  Operation 

5,434 
10,185 

400 

6,687 
77,175 

92.363 

5,284 
9,957 

439 

6,614 
70,922 

79.237 

Grand  Total 

10,585 

9,632 

8.722 

10,188 

11,839 

10,618 

9,703 

10,046 

.      9,840 

8,558 

8,455 

7,865 

7,123 

169.538 
119,507 
95,626 
104,230 
111,016 
97,706 
86,008 
84,155 
76,553 
64,662 
53,339 
60,320 
44,620 

10,396 

150,169 

1910 

1909 

1908 

1907 

1906 

1905 

_ 

1904 

1D03 

1902 

1901 

1900 

1899 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


257 


DENSITY  OF  POPULATION. 

Egypt  proper  is  the  most  densely  populated  country,  having  931  per  square  mile.  Belgium 
comes  next  with  660,  then  Holland.  The  United  Kingdom  has  373,  Japan  336,  after  which 
come  the  other  European  Countries  down  to  Russia  with  63.7  and  Sweden  with  31.8.  The 
United  States  has  only  30.9,  and  the  South  American  Republics  all  less.  Australia  contains  only 
1.38  persons  per  square  mile.     In  England  there  is  an  average  of  just  about  1  person  per  acre. 


Lord  Rayleigh  has  recently  made  some 
mteresting  experiments  to  determine  the  colors 
of  the  sea  and  sky.  Other  experimenters, 
such  as  Davy,  Bunsen,  and  Spring,  were  all 
satisfied  that  the  color  of  water  was  blue,  but 
Lord  Rayleigh's  experirnents  have  supplied 
only    limited    confirmation    of    that    view. 


What  appears  to  be  the  intrinsic  color  of  the 
sea  he  finds  is  often  due  to  the  color  of  the 
sky  or  is  affected  by  the  color  of  the  bottom. 
With  carefully  distilled  water  he., got  the  same 
blue  color  of  water  as  the  water  from  Capri 
and  Suez,  while  that  from  Seven  Stones  Light- 
ship, off  the  Cornish  coast,  gave  a  full  green. 


KILLED  IN  EUROPEAN  RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS. 


Country 

Year 

Pas- 
sengers 

Em- 
ployes 

Other 
Persons 

I'otal 

Preced- 
ingYeat 

United  Kingdom 

1911.. 

1910... 

1908... 

1909... 

1910... 

1910... 

1910-11 

1907... 

1904... 

112 
97 

198 
(b)  8 
29 
24 
25 
25 

446 
543 
645 
351 
112 
140 
107 
64 

601 
624 
L866 
c333 
153 
189 
209 
213 

1,159 

1,264 

2,709 

692 

294 

353 

341 

302 

55 

97 

16 

26 

152 

32 

85 

104 

1,121 

Germany , 

1,394 

Russia  (a) 

2,950 

625 

Austria 

313 

Himearv 

356 

Italy     

438 

gnain .   . 

219 

Portugal 

37 

Sweden 

1909... 
1910-11 
1910-11 
1910... 
1909... 
1910... 
1910-11 

6 
1 
1 

11 
3 
7 
7 

32 
7 
9 
71 
20 
32 
28 

59 
8 

16 

70 

9 

46 
69 

91 

13 

30 

Belgium 

95 

Holland 

37 

Switzerland 

99 

18 

Total  Europe 

1910... 
1909... 
1908... 
1907... 
1906  .. 
1905... 
1904... 

554 

692 
671 
630 
586 
560 
503 
412 

2,607 

2,689 
2,641 
2,536 
2,575 
2,319 
2,104 
1.920 

4,465 

4,461 
4,322 
3,580 
3,400 
3,553 
3,414 
2.665 

;,626 

7,897 
7,689 
6,803 
6,606 
6,432 
6,021 
4.995 

7,797 

(a)  Exclusive  of  local  lines  and  railways  of  Finland. 

(b)  In  train  accidents  only. 

(c)  Excluding  suicides,  but  including  passengers  killed  otherwise  than  in  train  accidents. 

(d)  State  railways  only. 

(e)  These  figures  are  those  compiled  for  this  Bureau  each  year  since  its  organization,  the  details 
for  each  country  appearing  in  the  report  of  the  report  for  the  following  year. 


258 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATISTICS    OF    THE    PULLMAN   COMPANY. 

The  report  rendered  by  the  Pullman  Company  for  the  year  ended  June 
30,  1911,  places  the  average  mileage  (single  track)  over  M^hich  operations 
were  conducted  at  120,871  miles.  The  cost  of  the  property  and  equipment 
required  for  the  service  amounted  to  $116,026,015.  The  operating  revenues 
are  divided  into  berth  revenue,  $31,415,918;  seat  revenue,  $5,585,556;  charter 
of  cars,  $601,498;  and  other  miscellaneous  revenues  to  make  the  total  operat- 
ing revenues  $35.61)7,582.  The  conductors  employed  on  the  Pullman  cars,  2,274 
in  number,  receive  an  average  daily  compensation  of  $2.82 ;  the  6.317  porters 
employed  receive  an  average  daily  compensation  of  $1.04 ;  and  the  8  stenog- 
raphers employed  by  the  service  receive  an  average  daily  compensation  of  $2.31. 

OPERATING  STATISTICS. 

Total  number  of  revenue  passengers— berth 12,435,404 

,  Total  number  of  revenue  passengers— seat 9,219,648 

Average  revenue  per  passenger— berth $2. 53 

Average  revenue  -per  passenger— seat $0. 61 

Total  number  of  car-miles 625, 589, 998 

, Total  number  of  car-days 1,667,916 

'  Average  number  of  revenue  passengers  per  car  per  day 14 

.Operating  revenues  per  car-mile  (cents) 5. 706 

Operating  revenues  per  car-day $22. 76753 

I  Operating  expenses  per  car-mile  (cents) 4. 143 

Operating  expenses  per  car-day $16. 52929 

Net  operating  revenue  per  car-mile  (cents) 1. 563 

Net  operating  revenue  per  car-day $6. 23823 

Average  nvmiber  of  car-miles  per  car-day... 399 

EQUIPMENT  (OWNED  OR  LEASED)  IN  SERVICE  ON  JUNE  30, 1911. 

y 

Standard  sleeping  cars 4, 155 

Tourist  sleeping  cars 744 

Parlor  cars 807 

Dining  cars 24 

Composite  cars 142 

Private  cars 36 

Miscellaneous  cars 4 

Total 5, 912 


The  Falling  Rate  of  Mortality  in  American  Railway  Travel 

2t- 
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New  York  Times  Annalist. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


259 


EXPRESS  COMPANIES. 
In  its  Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
publishes  a  statement  of  the  income  account  of  express  companies  as  reported 
to  it  for  the  years  endinj  June  30,  1910,  1911  and  1912,  the  salient  features  of 
which  are  as  follows  : 


Item 

1912 

1911 

1910 

Number  of  Companies 

12 
248,618 

$160,121,932 

78,576,274 

13 
243,472 

$152,612,880 
73,936,018 

13 

237,868 

$146,116,315 
69,917,562 

Express  Operations: 

Gross  Receipts  from  Operation 

Lesj  Express  Privileges 

$81,545,658 
73,225,682 

$78,676,862 
67,089,233 

$76,198,753 

61,690,473 

$  8,289,976 
fa)         46,622 

$11,587,629 
13,117 

$14,508,280 

Net  Revenue  from  Outside  Operations 

10,527 

Total  Net  Revenue 

$  8,243,353 
1,430,809 

$11,600,740 
1,315,973 

$14,518,807 

1,126,726 

$  6,812,544 
5,369,822 

$10,284,773 
6,315,842 

$13,392,081 

5,633,792 

Gross  Income 

$  12,182,366 
1,237,996 

16,600,615 
1,234,006 

19  025  873 

1.037,316 

$10,944,370 
4,625,832 

$15,366,609 
5.848,082 

$17,988,557 
5,928.103 

Dividends  Declared     . . 

(a)  Deficit. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    MILEAGE    COVERED     BY    OPERATIONS    OF 
EXPRESS  COMPANIES  ON  JUNE  30,  1911. 


Name  of  carrier. 

Total 
mileage. 

Steam-road 
mileage. 

Electric-line 
mileage. 

Steamboat- 
line 
mileage. 

1911 

1911 

1911 

1911 

Total            

270,666.37 

243,721.41 

7,291.94 

18,939.65 

36,560.52 

56,877.95 

7,230.31 

3,391.80 

2,903.63 

8,803.54 

1,640.25 

7,625.88 

16,980.65 

32,580.60 

32,748.28 

58,471.56 

4,851.40 

32,784.94 

54,344.00 

6,400.31 

3,369.80 

2,903.63 

8.466.15 

1,422.25 

7,310.48 

15.938.11 

31,654.60 

28,836.99 

45,446.75 

4.843.40 

314.58 

590.70 

66.00 

22.00 

3,438.00 

American  Express  Co               

Canadian  Express  Co 

1,919.75 
737.00 

Canadian  Northern  Express  Co      .  .  . 

Globe  Express  Co         

Great  Northern  Express  Co 

National  Express  Co 

Northern  Express  Co 

197.39 

70.00 

54.00 

539.20 

80.00 

3.444.59 

1,909.08 

4.00 

140.00 
148.00 
261  00 

503  34 

Southern  Express  Co       

846  00 

United  States  Express  Co         

"Weils  Fargo  &  Co           

466.70 

10,475.86 

4.00 

"Western  Express  Co            

260 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STREET     AND     ELEVATED     RAILWAYS:     MILEAGE,    NUMBER    OF 
CARS,  AND  CAPITALIZATION  BY   STATES. 

[Source:  The  Electric  Railway  Journal.] 


State. 


Number 
of  com- 
panies. 


Electric 
railways, 

track 
mileage. 


Number 
of  cars. 


Capital  stock 
outstanding. 


Funded  debt 
outstanding. 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho  

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky ^ 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina -. 

North  Dakota 

Ohio... 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota. 

Tennessee i 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

"West  Virginia, 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming , 

Total,  1911 


11 
5 
9 
45 
16 
10 
6 
6 
7 

12 
6 
72 
35 
27 
15 
10 
8 
15 
12 
56 
23 
10 
11 
19 
7 
6 
2 
19 
50 
3 
139 
13 
3 
95 
15 
7 
245 
12 
6 
3 

13 
29 
4 
9 
18 
19 
21 
24 
2 


299.66 
57.50 
106. 80 

2, 250. 59 
449. 85 

1,264.72 

56.25 

312. 04 

128.10 

410.24 

88.00 

3,264.08 

2,245.71 
751.06 
258. 95 
459.36 
265.86 
514.50 
713.68 

3, 449. 22 

1,494.06 
505.97 
116.10 

1.080.59 

154.68 

242.50 

10.30 

267. 10 

1,371.14 
10.50 

4, 749. 83 

181.23 

23.50 

4,048.93 
231.86 
399.89 

4, 325. 33 
438.50 
118.20 
20.00 
364.88 
642.72 
241.30 
101. 75 
456.27 
931.79 
411.86 
720.55 
22.00 


606 

41 

247 

4,241 

735 

2,841 

87 

1,514 

233 

702 

54 

■8.104 

2,138 

1,436 

370 

958 

728 

781 

2,025 

10,409 

2,663 

1,000 

186 

2,594 

166 

560 

12 

368 

2,874 

U 

17,342 

251 

59 

5,909 

281 

1,223 

9,359 

1,269 

178 

32 

868 

1,048 

341 

124 

893 

1,947 

590 

1,042 

21 


Dollars. 
18,232,000 

2,550,000 

5,859,600 

331,642,300 

19,429,400 

60,137,800 

8, 870, 000 
30, 492, 800 

6, 266, 000 
60, 989, 600 

4, 784, 000 
153,991,500 
83,216,630 
37,256,925 

5, 683, 220 
•22,824,300 
31,380,000 
16,016,500 
22,731,550 
108,569,900 
45,410,200 
25,589,000 

6,932,670 
82,771,480 

3, 179, 615 
12,647,500 

1,042,000 

4,212,700 

67,472,390 

.400,000 

408,845,674 

23,483,800 

440,000 

204,279,875 

10, 046,-300 

40,740,000 

'248,7a5,799 

22,285,100 

8,379,950 

600.000 

21,508,000 

32,454,700 

7,877,725 

2,880,800 
28,068,650 
61,463,900 
17,740,100 
23,729,200 
75,000 


Dollars. 

16, 025, 000 

50,000 

6, 919, 500 

143,604,500 

29,671,000 

38,884,000 

4,979,000 

33, 618, 019 

4,482,500 

26,412,500 

1,413,000 

266, 020, 303 

84,071,650 

36,538,500 

6,013,000 

22, 819, 800 

34,321,500 

14, 925, 226 

70,437,800 

76,054,200 

72,631,000 

23,261,000 

6,441,000 

114,695,700 

1, 890, 000 

11,449,000 

135,000 

3,732,000 

92, 106, 100 

150,000 

646,213,437 

10,867,400 

200, 000 

128,761,940 

7,241,000 

47,960,000 

220.602,546 

16, 191, 118 

5,474,000 

200,000 

27,297,000 

23,433,000 

6,996,000 

2,800,000 

33,905,100 

44,095,000 

17, 792, 700 

40,532,500 

20,000 


41,028.49 


91,457 


2, 433, 186, 153 


2, 424, 334. 1 


NOTES  TO  PAGE  261. 

♦The  net  capital  liability  of  the  Canadian  railways,  exclusive  of  Government  owned  roads, 
in  1912  was  $1,378,937,726  or  $51,593  per  mile,  which  is  far  below  their  "capital  cost." 

In  1912  the  railways  of  Canada  paid  $2,200,528  taxes.  In  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns- 
wick they  are  exempt  from  taxation. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


261 


RAILWAYS  OF  CANADA. 

Statistics  of  the  Railways  of  the  Dominion  for  the  Years  Ending 
June  30,  1908,  1911  and  1912. 


1908               1 

1911 

1912 

22,966 
1,211 
4,546 

25,400 
1,610 
5,550 

26,727 

Second  Track              

1,752 

Yard  Track  and  Sidings 

6,149 

All  Tracks                    

28,723 

$607,425,349 
631,869,604 
109,423,104 
166,291,482 

32,560 

$749,207,687 
779,481,514 
119,615,666 
202.179,254 

34,629 

Capital  Cost* 

$770,459,351 

Funded  Debt                       

818,478,175 

133,306,218 

Subsidies 

204,932,573 

Total  Capital  Cost  

$1,515,009,559 
65,968 

34,044,992 

2,081,960,864 

61 

54 

31,950,349 

6.210,807 

$39,992,503 

1.920 

63,019,900 

12,961,512,519 

200 

40,476,370 

278 

$93,746,655 

7.23 

$13,179,155 

$1,850,484,121 
72,854 

37,097,718 

2,605,968,924 

70 

60 

36,985,911 

6.277,468 

$50,566,894 

1.944 

79,884,282 

16,048,478,295 

200 

52,498.800 

305 

$124,743,015 

7.77 

$13,423,585 

$1,926,906,317 

Per  Mile  of  Line  

72,129 

Passenger  Traffic 

41.124,181 

Passeno'ers  Carried  1  Mile  

2,910,251,636 

Average  Journey  (miles) 

71 

Average  Passengers  per  Train 

62 
40,440,393 

Mileage  of  Mixed  Trains        

6,473,882 

Receipts  from  Passengers  

$56,543,664 

Receipts  per  Passenger  Miic  (cents). . . 

Freight  Traffic 
Tons  Carried                           

1.943 
89,444,331 

Tons  Carried  1  Mile         

19,558,190,527 

218 

Freight  Train  Mileage 

60,120,023 

Average  Tons  per  Train        

325 

Receipts  from  Frcigh*^        

$148,030,260 

Receipts  per  Ton  Mile  (mills) 

7.57 

Miscellaneous  Receipts 

$14,829,819 

Total  Receipts 

$146,918,313 

$20,778,610 
20,273,626 

$188,733,493 

$29,245,093 
26,127,638 

4,831,744 
66,343,270 

4,487,039 

$219,403,752 

Expenses  of  Operation 
Way  and  Structures        

$31,514,098 

Maintenance  of  Equipment 

29,811,510 

Traffic  Expenses 

5,293,700 

62,486,270 
3,765,636 

78,969,543 

General  Expenses 

5,137,688 

Total  Expenses 

$107,304,142 

73.04% 

$39,614,171 

2.61% 

$6,398 

4,672 

106,404 

$60,376,607 

41.10% 

66.27% 

$569 

$131,034,784 

69.44% 

$57,698,709 

3.12% 

$7,430 

5,158 

141,224 

$74,613,738 

39.53% 

56.94% 

$528 

$150,726,539 

68.7% 

Net  Receipts 

$68,677,213 

Percentage  to  Capital  Cost 

4.27% 

Gross  Receipts  per  Mile 

$8,209 

5,639 

155,901 

Compensation 

$87,299,639 

29.79^; 

Proportion  of  Operating  Expenses 

Average  per  Employe  per  Year 

57.92% 
$560 

262  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 

CANADIAN  RAILWAYS. 

ACCIDENTS,  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS.— In  1911  the  killed  numbered  11  passengers, 
8  employees,  83  others;  total  102.  Injured,  1,784  passengers,  300  employees,  586  others;  total 
2,670. 

ACCIDENTS,  STEAM  RAILWAYS,  1911.— Passengers,  28  killed,  288  injured;  employees, 
202  and  1,314;  trespassers,  185  and  154;  non-trespassers,  48  and  135;  postal  clerks,  2  and  15; 
total  killed  465;  injured,  1906. 

CAPITAL  INVESTED  IN  CANADIAN  STEAM  RAILWAYS.— In  1911  the  total  capi- 
tal invested  in  Steam  Railways  was  $1,528,689,201,  composed  of  shares,  $749,207,687,  and 
funded  debt,  $779,481,514;  in  Electric  Railways,  $111,532,347,  including  shares  $62,251,203, 
and  funded  debt,  $49,281,144. 

EARNINGS  OF  STEAM  RAILWAYS.— Net  earnings  for  all  railways  in  1911,  $57,698,709; 
operating  expenses,  $131,034,785. 

ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  STATISTICS.— In  1911,  paid-up  capital  invested,  $111,532,347; 
mileage,  1,224;  gross  earnings,  $20,356,951;  operating  expenses,  $12,096,134;  net  earnings, 
$9,944,153.     Passengers  carried,  426,296,792.     Freight  carried,  2,496,072  tons. 

EXPRESS  AND  TELEGRAPH  COMPANIES.— The  Dominion  Express  Co.  and  the 
C.  P.  R.  Telegraph  operate  along  the  lines  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Ry.  The  Canadian  Northern 
Express  Co.  and  the  Canadian  Northern  Telegraph  Co.  along  the  lines  of  the  Canadian  Northern 
Ry.,  and  the  Canadian  Express  Co.  (Pres.,  Chas.  M.  Hays;  Vice-Pres.,  James  Bryce),  with  the 
Great  North-Western  Telegraph  Co.,  operates  along  the  lines  of  the  G.  T.  Ry.  This,  the  first 
Express  Co.  in  Canada,  was  founded  as  the  British  N.  American  Co.  in  1854,  and  reorganized 
in  1865. 

GRAND  TRUNK  PACIFIC— The  main  line,  Moncton,  N.  B.,  to  Prince  Rupert,  B.  C, 
with  3,560  miles,  will  be  entirely  on  Canadian  soil,  forming  a  link  on  the  proposed  All-Red 
Route.  The  line  between  Winnipeg  and  Edson,  923  miles,  also  between  Westfort  and  Lake 
Superior  Junction,  189  miles,  is  completed.  The  section  between  Winnipeg  and  Lake  Superior 
Junction  i.s  also  nearing  completion.  This  will  give  a  continuous  track  from  Port  Arthur  and 
Ft.  William  to  Edson,  1,370  miles.  Construction  easterly  from  Prince  Rupert  was  begun  early 
in  1908,  and  steel  has  been  laid  on  100  miles  of  completed  grade,  and  will  be  laid  a  distance  of 
140  miles  more  before  the  close  of  1911.  Commercial  telegraph  service  of  G.  T.  P.  Tel.  Co. 
now  in  operation  between  Winnipeg  and  Edmonton,  Alta.,  792  miles.  Branch  lines  contem- 
plated aggregate  5,000  miles.  The  G.  T.  P.  will  operate  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Lake  fleets  of 
steamers.  A  new  daily  passenger  service  was  inaugurated  between  Winnipeg  and  Edmonton, 
in  July,  1910,  with  standard  sleeping  cars,  parlor-library,  cafe  car,  and  modern  day  coaches. 

HUDSON  BAY  ROUTE. — From  varied  expert  opinions,  optimistic  and  the  reverse,  it 
may  be  fairly  concluded  that  the  route  is  open  for  navigation  from  about  15th  July  to  about 
15th  October.  The  Canadian  Northern  Railway  have  built  a  line  from  Winnipeg  to  The  Pas 
on  the  Saskatchewan  River.  From  there  to  Fort  Churchill  the  distance  is  465  miles;  to  Port 
Nelson,  397  miles.  This  route  will  effect  an  average  shortening  of  the  distance  from  the  Western 
wheat  fields  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  970  miles.  The  distance  to  Liverpool  from  Churchill 
is  2,946  miles,  from  Montreal  via  Belle  Isle  2,761,  and  via  Cape  Race,  2,927  miles,  from  New 
York  3,079  miles.  The  freight  upon  grain  from  the  wheat  belt  to  Hudson  Bay  would  approxi- 
mate 10  cents  a  bushel,  a  saving  of  15  cents  on  carriage  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  or  $3,000,000 
annually  on  an  export  trade  of  20  million  bushels  via  this  route.  On  cattle  shipments  from  Cal- 
gary there  would  be  effected  a  saving  in  freight  of  60  cents  per  100  lbs.,  as  well  as  a  saving  in 
deterioration.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor  at  Fort  Churchill  is  about  2,000  ft.  wide,  with  a 
minimum  depth  of  10  fathoms.  More  dredging  would  have  to  be  done  at  Port  Nelson  than 
Ft.  Churchill,  but  reports  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  1824  to  1894,  show  that  on  an  average 
Ft.  Churchill  harbor  is  open  5  months,  and  Port  Nelson  7  months  in  the  year. 

MILEAGE  STEAM  RAILWAYS  IN  OPERATION.— 16  miles  in  1836,  date  of  first 
railway;  16  in  1846;  1,414  in  1856;  2,278  in  1866;  5,218  in  1876;  11,793  in  1886;  16,270  in  1896; 
21,353  in  1906;  22,452  in  1907;  22,966  in  1908;  24,104  in  1909;  24,731  in  1910;  25,400  in  1911. 

TRAFFIC  STEAM  RAILWAYS.— In  1875  there  were  carried  5,190,416  passengers  and 
5,670,837  tons  of  freight  (2,000  lbs.).  In  1885,  9,672,599  and  14,659,271;  in  1895,  13,987,580 
and  21,524,421;  in  1906,  27,989,782  and  57.966,713;  in  1907,  32,137,319  and  63,866,135;  in 
1908,  34,044,992  and  63,071,167;  in  1909,  32,688,309  and  66,842,258;  in  1910,  35,895,575  pas.sen- 
gers  and  74,482,866  tons  of  freight,  and  in  1911,  37,097,718  passengers  and  79,884,282  tons  of 
freight. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


263 


NATIONAL  TRANSCONTINENTAL  RAILWAY.— Under  agreements  dated  29th 
July  1903,  and  18th  February,  1904,  ratified  by  Parliament  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Co.  agreed 
in  respect  of  the  construction  of  a  railway  between  Moncton,  N.  B.,  and  Port  Simpson,  or  some 
other  port  in  B.  C. — the  eastern  division,  from  Winnipeg  to  Moncton,  to  be  constructed  by  the 
Dominion  Government  under  four  Commissioners,  and  leased  for  50  years  at  a  rental  of  3  per 
cent,  on  cost  of  construction,  the  first  7  years  to  be  free;  the  western  division,  from  Winnipeg 
to  Prince  Rupert,  B.  C,  to  be  constructed  by  the  company.  The  Government  to  guarantee  the 
company's  bonds  sufficient  to  meet  cost  of  construction,  such  not  to  exceed  $13,000  per  mile  on 
the  prairie  section.  The  entire  line  between  Winnipeg  and  Moncton,  1,804.84  miles,  is  under 
contract.  The  work  between  Winnipeg  and  Moncton,  N.  B.,  is  well  under  way,  and  the  section 
between  Winnipeg  and  Lake  Superior  Junction  is  open  for  operation.  The  total  expenditure 
by  the  Commission  up  to  31st  March,  1911,  amounted  to  $95,406,697.61. 

QUEBEC  BRIDGE.— It  is  expected  that  the  new  bridge  on  the  I.  C.  R.  across  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  near  Quebec  will  be  ready  for  traffic  in  1915.  The  contract  has  been  let  to  the 
St.  Lawrence  Bridge  Co.,  a  Canadian  concern.  Total  estimated  cost,  $12,000,000.  The  length 
of  the  central  span  is  to  be  1,800  ft.,  90  ft.  longer  than  the  span  of  the  Forth  bridge,  total  length 
3,228  ft.,  width  88  ft.  The  bridge  will  accommodate  a  double-track  railway,  and  has  a  4  ft. 
footpath  on  each  side.     This  is  the  largest  cantilever  bridge  in  the  world. 

LONG  RAILWAY  TUNNELS. 

Mis.  Yds. 

Simplon,  Switzerland-Italy 12  458 

St.  Gothard,  Switzerland 9  564 

Mont  Cenis,  Italy-France 7  1730 

Arlberg,  Austria 6  404 

Hoosac,  U.  S.  A 4  1320 

Severn,  Great  Western 4  624 

Totley,  Midland 3  950 

Trans-Adine,  Valparaiso-Buenos-Ayres 5 

Standedge,  North  Western 3  62 

Woodhead,  Great  Central 3  17 

Box,  near  Bath,  Great  Western  (old) 1  1320 


The  Office  of  Public  Roads  estimates  the  total  mileage  of  all  public  roads  in  the  United 
States  in  1909  at  2,199,388  and  the  miles  of  road  per  square  mile  of  area  at  0.74  miles.  The 
population  per  mile  of  road,  ba.sing  the  road  mileage  of  1909  on  the  pooulation  of  1910,  was  41. 
Of  all  the  roads  in  the  United  States  only  8.66  per  cent,  were  improved  in  1909. 

The  total  estimated  expenditures  for  public  roads  for  the  year  1911  is  $142,144,191,  making 
a  total  of  $64.63  per  mile  of  public  road  and  of  $1.55  per  inhabitant. 


Copyright   1911,    Munn   &   Co.,    Inc. 

NEW  GRAND  CENTRAL  TERMINAL,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 


264 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright  1912,   Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

COMPARISON  SHOWING  THE   HUGE  AMOUNT  OF  EXCAVATION 
FOR  COMPLETED  PANAMA  CANAL. 

The  total  of  195,000,000  cubic  yards  would  build  about  8  miles  of  Pyramids  each  of  the 
size  of  Great  Pyramid  of  Cheops.  Loaded  on  flat  cars  it  would  represent  a  train  96,000  miles 
in  length. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL. 

Compiled  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 


The  entire  length  of  the  Panama  Canal 
from  deep  water  in  the  Atlantic  to  deep  water 
in  the  Pacific  is  about  50  miles.  Its  length 
from  shore-line  to  shore-line  is  about  40  miles. 
In  passing  through  it  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  a  vessel  will  enter  the  approach 
channel  in  Limon  Bay,  which  will  have  a 
bottom  width  of  500  feet  and  extend  to  Gatun, 
a  distance  of  about  seven  miles.  At  Gatun, 
it  will  enter  a  series  of  three  locks  in  flight  and 
be  lifted  85  feet  to  the  level  of  Gatun  Lake. 
It  may  steam  at  full  speed  through  this  lake, 
in  a  channel  varying  from  1,000  to  500  feet 
in  width,  for  a  distance  of  about  24  miles,  to 
Bas  Obispo,  where  it  will  enter  the  Culebra 
Cut.  It  will  pass  through  the  Cut,  a  distance 
of  about  nine  miles,  in  a  channel  with  a  bottom 
width  of  300  feet,  to  Pedro  Miguel.  There  it 
will  enter  a  lock  and  be  lowered  30  M  feet  to  a 
small  lake,  at  an  elevation  of  54  %  feet  above 
sea  level,  and  will  pass  through  this  for  about 
1}4  miles  to  Miraflores.  There  it  will  enter 
two  locks  in  series  and  be  lowered  to  sea 
level,  passing  out  mto  the  Pacific  through  a 
channel  about  8}^  miles  in  length,  with  a 
bottom  width  of  500  feet.  The  depth  of  the 
approach  channel  on  the  Atlantic  side,  where 
the  maximum  tidal  oscillation  is  2>^  feet, 
will  be  41  feet  at  mean  tide,  and  on  the 
1^  Pacific  side,  where  the  maximum  oscillation 
m  is  21  feet,  the  depth  will  be  45  feet  at  mean 
tide. 

Throughout  the  first  16  miles  from  Gatun, 
the  width  of  the  Lake  channel  will  be  1,000  feet; 
then  for  4  miles  it  will  be  800  feet,  and  for  4 
miles  more  to  the  northern  entrance  of 
Culbra  Cut  at  Bas  Obispo,  it  will  be  500  feet. 
The  depth  will  vary  from  85  to  45  feet.  The 
water  level  in  the  Cut  will  be  that  of  the  Lake, 
the  depth  45  feet,  and  the  bottom  width  of  the 
channel  300  feet. 

Three  hundred  feet  is  the  minimum  bottom 
width  of  the  Canal.  This  width  begins  about 
half  a  mile  above  Pedro  Miguel  locks  and  ex- 
tends about  8  miles  through  Culebra  Cut,  with 
the  exception  that  at  all  angles  the  channel 
is  widened  sufficiently  to  allow  a  thousand- 
foot  vessel  to  make  the  turn.  The  Cut  has 
eight  angles,  or  about  one  to  every  mile. 
The  300-foot  widths  are  only  on  tangents 
between  the  turning  basins  at  the  angles. 
The  smallest  of  these  angles  is  7°  36'  and  the 
largest  30°. 

In  the  whole  Canal  there  are  22  angles,  the 
total  curvature  being  600°  51'.  Of  this 
curvature,  281°  10'  are  measured  to  the  right, 
going  south,  and  319°  41'  to  the  left.  The 
sharpest  curve  occurs  at  Tabernilla,  and  is 
67°  10'. 


GATUN  DAM. 

The  Gatun  Dam,  which  will  form  Gatun 
Lake  by  impounding  the  waters  of  the  Chagres 
and  its  tributaries,  will  be  nearly  1 3^  miles 
long,  measured  on  its  crest,  nearly  J^  mile 
wide  at  its  base,  about  400  feet  wide  at  the 
water  surface,  about  100  feet  wide  at  the  top, 
and  its  crest  as  planned,  will  be  at  an  elevation 
of  115  feet  above  mean  sea  level,  or  30  feet 
above  the  normal  level  of  the  Lake.  Of  the 
total  length  of  the  Dam  only  500  feet,  or  Vm, 
will  be  exposed  to  the  maximum  water  head 
of  85  feet.  The  interior  of  the  Dam  will  be 
formed  of  a  natural  mixture  of  sand  and  clay, 
dredged  by  hydraulic  process  from  pits  above 
and  below  the  Dam,  and  placed  between  two 
large  masses  of  rock  and  miscellaneous 
material  obtained  from  steam  shovel  ex- 
cavation at  various  points  along  the  Canal. 
The  top  and  upstream  slope  will  be  thoroughly 
riprapped.  The  entire  Dam  will  contain 
about  21,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material. 

The  Spillway  is  a  concrete  lined  opening, 
1,200  feet  long  and  300  feet  wide,  cut  through 
a  hill  of  rock  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  Dam, 
the  bottom  of  the  opening  being  10  feet  above 
sea  level.  It  will  contain  about  225,000 
cubic  yards  of  concrete.  During  the  con- 
struction of  the  Dam,  all  the  water  discharged 
from  the  Chagres  and  .its  tributaries  flowed 
through  this  opening.  Construction  has  now 
advanced  sufficiently  to  permit  the  Lake  to 
be  formed,  and  the  Spillway  has  been  closed 
with  a  concrete  dam,  which  is  being  fitted 
with  gates  and  machinery  for  regulating  the 
water  level  of  the  Lake. 

WATER  SUPPLY  OF  GATUN  LAKE. 

Gatun  Lake  will  impou-nd  the  waters  of  a 
basin  comprising  1,320  square  miles.  When 
the  surface  of  the  water  is  at  85  feet  above 
sea  level,  the  Lake  will  have  an  area  of  about 
164  square  miles,  and  will  contain  about  206 
billion  cubic  feet  of  water.  During  eight  or 
nine  months  of  the  year,  the  lake  will  be  kept 
constantly  full  by  the  prevailing  rains,  and 
consequently  a  surplus  will  need  to  be  stored 
for  only  three  or  four  months  of  the  dry 
season.  The  smallest  run-off  of  water  in  the 
basin,  during  the  past  21  years,  as  measured 
at  Gatun,  was  about  146  billion  cubic  feet. 
In  1910  the  run-off  was  360  billion  cubic  feet, 
or  a  sufficient  quantity  to  fill  the  lake  one  and 
a  half  times.  The  water  surface  of  the  Lake 
will  be  maintained  during  the  rainy  season  at 
87  feet  above  sea  level,  making  the  minimum 
channel  depth  in  the  Canal  47  feet.  As 
navigation  can  be  carried  on  with  about  41 
feet  of  water,   there  will  be  stored  for  dry 


265 


266 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


season  suiplxis  over  five  feet  of  water.  Mak- 
ing due  allowance  for  evaporation,  seepage, 
leakage  at  the  gates,  and  power  consumption, 
this  would  be  ample  for  41  passages  daily- 
through  the  locks,  using  them  at  full  length, 
or  about  58  lockages  a  day  when  partial 
length  is  used,  as  would  usually  be  the  case, 
and  when  cross  filling  from  one  lock  to  the 
other  through  the  central  wall  is  employed. 
This  would  be  a  larger  number  of  lockages 
than  would  be  possible  in  a  single  day.  The 
average  number  of  lockages  through  the 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  on  the  American  side 
was  39  per  day  in  the  season  of  navigation  of 
1910,  which  was  about  eight  months  long. 
The  average  number  of  ships  passed  was  about 
1  Yq,  per  lockage.  The  freight  carried  was 
more  than  26,000,000  tons.  The  Suez  Canal 
passed  about  12  vessels  per  day,  with,  a  total 
tonnage  for  the  year  of  16,582,000. 

DAMS  ON  PACIFIC  SIDE. 

The  water  level  of  Gatun  Lake,  extending 
through  the  Culebra  Cut,  will  be  maintained 


at  the  south  end  by  an  earth  dam  connecting 
the  locks  at  Pedro  Miguel  with  the  high 
ground  to  the  westward,  about  1,400  feet  long, 
with  its  crest  at  an  elevation  of  105  feet  above 
mean  tide.  A  concrete  core  wall,  containing 
about  700  cubic  yards,  will  connect  the  locks 
with  the  hills  to  the  eastward;  this  core  wall 
will  rest  directly  on  the  rock  surface  and  is 
designed  to  prevent  percolation  through  the 
earth,  the  surface  of  which  is  above  the  Lake 
level. 

A  small  lake  between  the  locks  at  Pedro 
Miguel  and  Miraflores  will  be  formed  by  dams 
connecting  the  walls  of  Miraflores  locks  with 
the  high  ground  on  either  side.  The  dam 
to  the  westward  will  be  of  earth,  about  2,700 
feet  long,  having  its  crest  about  15  feet  above 
the  water  in  Miraflores-  Lake.  The  east  dam 
will  be  of  concrete,  containing  about  75,000 
cubic  yards;  will  be  about  500  feet  long,  and 
will  form  a  spillway  for  Miraflores  Lake,  with 
crest  gates  similar  to  those  at  the  Spillway  of 
the  Gatun  Dam. 


Copyright,    Munn    &   Co.,    Inc. 

DIAGRAMMATIC  COMPARISON  SHOWING  SUPERIORITY  OF  LOCK  CANAL  TO  ONE 

AT  SEA  LEVEL. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


267 


THE  LOCKS. 

There  will  be  6  double  locks  in  the  Canal; 
three  pairs  in  flight  at  Gatun,  with  a  com- 
bined lift  of  85  feet;  one  pair  at  Pedro  Miguel, 
with  a  lift  of  30  3-^  feet,  and  two  pairs  at 
Miraflores,  with  a  combined  lift  of  54%  feet 
at  mean  tide.  The  usable  dimensions  of  all 
are  the  same — a  length  of  1,000  feet,  and 
width  of  110  feet.  Each  lock  will  be  a  cham- 
ber, with  walls  and  floor  of  concrete,  and 
mitering  gates  at  each  end. 

The  side  walls  will  be  45  to  50  feet  wide  at 
the  surface  of  the  floor;  will  be  perpendicular 
on  the  face,  and  will  narrow  from  a  point  243^ 
feet  above  the  floor  until  they  are  8  feet  wide 
at  the  top.  The  middle  wall  will  be  GO  feet 
wide,  approximately  81  feet  high,  and  each 
face  will  be  vertical.  At  a  point  423^  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  floor,  and  15  feet 
above  the  top  of  the  middle  culvert,  this  wall 
will  divide  into  two  parts,  leaving  a  space 
down  the  center  much  like  the  letter  "U," 
which  will  be  19  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and 
44  feet  wide  at  the  top.  In  this  center  space 
will  be  a  tunnel  divided  into  three  stories,  or 
galleries.  The  lowest  gallery  will  be  for 
drainage;  the  middle,  for  the  wires  that  will 
carry  the  electric  current  to  operate  the  gate 
and  valve  machinery  installed  in  the  center 
wall,  and  the  upper  will  be  a  passageway  for 
the  operators. 

The  lock  gates  will  be  steel  structures  7  feet 
thick,  65  feet  long,  and  from  47  to  82  feet  high. 


They  will  weigh  from  390  to  730  tons  each. 
Ninety-two  leaves  will  be  required  for  the 
entire  Canal,  the  total  weighing  60,000  tons. 
Intermediate  gates  will  be  used  in  the  locks, 
in  order  to  save  water  and  time,  if  desired,  in 
locking  small  vessels  through,  the  gates  being 
so  placed  as  to  divide  the  lo^ks  into  chamoers 
600  and  400  feet  long,  respectively.  Ninety- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  vessels  navigating  the  high 
seas  are  less  than  600  feet  long.  In  the  con- 
struction of  the  locks,  which  are  now  prac- 
tically completed,  it  is  estimated  that  there 
has  been  used  approximately  4,200,000  cubic 
yards  of  concrete,  requiring  about  the  same 
number  of  barrels  of  cement. 

Electricity  will  be  used  to  tow  all  vessels 
into  and  through  the  locks,  and  to  operate 
all  gates  and  valves,  power  being  generated 
by  water  turbines  from  the  head  created  by 
Gatun  Lake.  Vessels  will  not  be  permitted 
to  enter  or  pass  through  the  locks  under  their 
own  power,  but  will  be  towed  through  by 
electric  locomotives  running  on  cog-rails  laid 
on  the  tops  of  the  lock  walls.  There  will  be 
two  towing  tracks  for  each  flight  of  locks,  one 
on  the  side  and  one  on  the  middle  wall.  On 
each  [side  wall  there  will  be  one  return  track 
and  on  the  middle  wall  a  third  common  to 
both  of  the  twin  locks.  All  tracks  will  run 
continuously  the  entire  length  of  the  respective 
flights  and  will  extend  some  distance  on  the 
guide  approach  walls  at  each  end.  The 
number  of  locomotives  used  will  vary  with 


'  [jk^^mm 


LOOKING  THROUGH  ONE  OF  THE 

GATUN  LOCKS. 

Width,  110  feet;  length  of  one  chamber, 

1000  feet. 


LOCK  GATES  AT  GATUN  LOCKS. 
7  feet  thick  and  76  feet  high. 


268 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


the  size  of  the  vessel.  The  usual  number  re- 
quired will  be  four;  two  ahead,  one  on  each 
wall,  imparting  motion  to  the  vessel,  and  two 
astern,  one  on  each  wall,  to  aid  in  keeping 
the  vessel  in  a  central  position  and  to  bring  it 
to  rest  when  entirely  within  the  lock  chamber. 
They  will  be  equipped  with  a  slip  drum,  towing 
windlass  and  hawser  which  will  permit  the 
towing  line  to  be  taken  in  or  paid  out  without 
actual  motion  of  the  locomotive  on  the  track. 

The  locks  will  be  filled  and  emptied  through 
a  system  of  culverts.  One  culvert  254  sq.  ft. 
in  area  of  cross  section,  about  the  area  oi  the 
Hudson  River  tunnels  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  extends  the  entire  length  of  each  of 
the  middle  and  side  walls  and  from  each  of 
these  large  culverts  there  are  several  smaller 
culverts,  33  to  44  sq.  ft.  in  area,  which  extend 
under  the  floor  of  the  lock  and  communicate 
with  the  lock  chamber  through  holes  in  the 
floor.  The  large  culverts  are  controlled  at 
points  near  the  miter  gates  by  large  valves 
and  each  of  the  small  culverts  extending  from 
the  middle  wall  culvert  into  the  twin  chambers 
is  controlled  by  a  cylindrical  valve.  The  large 
culvert  in  the  middle  wall  feeds  in  both 
directions  through  laterals,  thus  permitting 
the  passage  of  water  from  one  twin  lock  to 
another,  effecting  a  saving  of  water. 

To  fill  a  lock  the  valves  at  the  upper  end  are 
opened  and  the  lower  valves  closed.  The 
water  flows  from  the  upper  pool  through  the 
large  culverts  into  the  small  lateral  culverts 
and  thence  through  the  holes  in  the  floor  into 
the  lock  chamber.  To  empty  a  lock  the 
valves  at  the  upper  end  are  closed  and  those 
at  the  lower  end  are  opened  and  the  water 
flows  into  the  lower  lock  or  pool  in  a  similar 
manner.  This  system  distributes  the  water 
as  evenly  as  possible  over  the  entire  horizontal 
area  of  the  lock  and  reduces  the  disturbance 
in  the  chamber  when  it  is  being  filled  or 
emptied. 

The  depth  of  water  over  the  miter  sills  of 
the  locks  will  be  40  feet  in  salt  water  and  41  >^ 
feet  in  fresh  water. 

The  average  time  of  filling  and  emptying  a 

By  French  Companies 

French  excavation  useful  to  present  Canal. .  .  . 
By  Americans — 

Dry  excavation 

Dredges 


lock  will  be  about  fifteen  minutes,  without 
opening  the  valves  so  suddenly  as  to  create 
disturbing  currents  in  the  locks  or  approaches. 
The  time  required  to  pass  a  vessel  through  all 
the  locks  is  estimated  at  3  hours;  one  hour 
and  a  half  in  the  three  locks  at  Gatun,  and 
about  the  same  time  in  the  three  locks  on  the 
Pacific  side.  The  time  of  passage  of  a  vessel 
through  the  entire  Canal  is  estimated  as 
ranging  from  10  to  12  hours,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  ship,  and  the  rate  of  speed  at  which 
it  can  travel. 

EXCAVATION. 

The  total  excavation,  dry  and  wet,  for  the 
Canal,  as  originally  planned,  was  estimated 
at  103,795,000  cubic  yards,  in  addition  to  the 
excavation  by  the  French  companies. 
Changes  in  the  plan  of  the  Canal,  made  sub- 
sequently by  order  of  the  President,  increased 
the  amount  to  174,666,594  cubic  yards.  Of 
this  amount,  89,794,493  cubic  yards  were  to 
be  taken  from  the  Central  Division,  which 
includes  the  Culebra  Cut.  In  July,  1910, 
a  further  increase  of  7,871,172  cubic  yards 
was  made,  of  which  7,330,525  cubic  yards 
were  to  allow  for  slides  in  Culebra  Cut,  for 
silting  in  the  Chagres  section,  and  for  lowering 
the  bottom  of  the  Canal  from  40  to  39  feet 
above  sea  level  in  the  Chagres  section.  These 
additions  increased  the  estimated  total  ex- 
cavation to  182,537,766  cubic  yards.  In  1911, 
a  further  increase  of  12,785,613  cubic  yards 
was  made,  of  which  5,257,281  cubic  yards 
were  for  slides  in  Culebra  Cut,  and  the  re- 
mainder for  additional  excavation  and  silting 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  entrances,  raising 
the  grand  total  of  estimated  excavation  to 
195,323,379  cubic  yards.  In  1912  a  still 
further  increase  of  17,180,621  cubic  yards  was 
made,  of  which  3,450,000  cubic  yards  was  for 
slides  in  Culebra  Cut  and  the  remainder  for 
dredging  excavation  at  Gatun  locks,  silting 
in  the  Atlantic  entrance,  and  for  the  Balboa 
terminals,  bringing  the  grand  total  of  esti- 
mated excavation  to  212,504,000  cubic  yards. 
Records  of  all  excavation  to  May  1,  1911,  are 
appended : 

78,146,960 

29,908,000 


May  4  to  December  31,  1904 

January  1  to  December  31,  1905. 
January  1  to  December  31,  1906. 
January  1  to  December  31,  1907. 
January  1  to  December  31,  1908. 
January  1  to  December  31,  1909. 
January  1  to  December  31,  1910. 
January  1  to  December  31,  1911. 
January  1  to  December  31,  1912. 


188.280,312 


SLIDES    AND    BREAKS 

There  have  been  in  all  26  slides  and  breaks 
in  Culebra  Cut;  17  covered  areas  varying 
from  1  to  75  acres  and  9  covered  areas  of  less 
than  1  acre  each,  making  in  all  a  total  of 
225  acres.  One  variety  of  slide  is  caused  by 
the  slipping  of  the  top  layer  of  clay  and  earth 
on  a  smooth  sloping  surface  of  a  harder 
material.  The  largest  slide  of  this  character 
is  that  known  as  Cucaracha  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Canal  just  south  of  Gold  Hill.  This 
gave  the  French  company  trouble  during  the 
final  years  of  its  operation.  It  first  gave  the 
Americans  trouble  in  1905,  and  between  that 


date  and  July  1,  1912,  nearly  3,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  material  were  removed  from  the 
Canal  because  of  it.  It  broke  nearly  1,900 
feet  back  from  the  axis  of  the  Canal  and 
covers  an  area  of  47  acres.  Another  variety 
of  slide,  properly  called  break,  is  due  to  the 
steepness  of  the  slopes  and  the  great  pressure 
of  the  superincumbent  material  upon  the 
underlying  layers  of  softer  material.  The 
largest  slide  or  break  of  this  kind  is  on  the 
west  side  of  the  cut  at  Culebra  just  north  of 
Contractor's  Hill,  and  covers  an  area  of  75 
acres.  Over  7,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material 
have  been  removed  from  this  slide,  apd  it  is 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


269 


Courtesy  of   "The   Sphere." 

WHERE  CANAL  MEETS  ATLANTIC. 
Limon  Bay  is  on  the  right,  through  which  the  extended  canal  entrance  leads  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  left. 


thought  that  by  the  time  the  Canal  shall 
have  been  completed  something  like  10,000,- 
000  cubic  yards  will  have  been  taken  out. 
On  the  east  side  of  the  cut  a  similar  slide 
covers  an  area  of  50  acres,  breaking  back 
about  1,300  feet  from  the  center  of  the  Canal. 
About  a  half  million  cubic  yards  have  been 
taken  out  of  this  slide,  and  more  remains  to 
be  removed.  It  is  estimated  that  the  total 
amount  of  material  removed  from  the  Canal 
because  of  the  slides  will  aggregate  between 
21,000,000  and  22,000,000  cubic  yards. 

CAPACITY  OF  STEAM  SHOVELS  AND  DIRT  TRAINS. 

There  are  several  classes  of  steam  shovels 
engaged  in  excavating  work,  equipped  with 
dippers  ranging  in  capacity  from  1  %  cubic 
yards  to  5  cubic  yards,  and  a  trenching 
shovel,  which  has  a  dipper  with  a  capacity 
of  %  of  a  cubic  yard. 

Each  cubic  yard,  place  measurement,  of 
average  rock  weighs  about  3,900  pounds;  of 
earth,  about  3,000  pounds;  of  "the  run  of  the 
cut,"  about  3,600  pounds,  and  is  said  to 
represent  about  a  two-horse  cart  load.  Con- 
sequently, a  five  cubic  yard  dipper,  when  full, 
carries  8.7  tons  of  rock,  6.7  tons  of  earth,  and 
8.03  tons  of  "the  run  of  the  cut." 

Three  classes  of  cars  are  used  in  hauling 
spoil— flat  cars  with  one  high  side,  which  are 
unloaded  by  plows  operated  by  a  cable  upon  a 
winding  drum,  and  two  kinds  of  dump  cars, 
one  large  and  one  small.  The  capacity  of  the 
fiat  cars  is  19  cubic  yards;  that  of  the  large 
dump  cars,  17  cubic  yards,  and  that  of  the 
small  dump  cars,  10  cubic  yards.  The  flat 
car  train  is  ordinarily  composed  of  20  cars  in 
hauling  from  the  cut  at  Pedro  Miguel,  and  of 
21  cars  in  hauling  from  the  cut  at  Matachin. 
The  large  dump  train  is  compo.sed  of  27  cars, 
and  the  small  dump  train  of  35  cars. 

The  average  load  of  a  train  of  flat  cars,  in 
hauling  the  mixed  material  known  as  "the 
run  of  the  cut,"  is  610.7  tons  (based  on  a  20- 
car  train);  of  a  tram  of  large  dump  cars, 
737.68  tons,  and  of  a  train  of  small  dumps, 
562.5  tons. 

The  average  time  consumed  in  unloading 


a  train  of  flat  cars  is  from  7  to  15  minutes; 
in  unloading  a  train  of  large  dump  cars,  15  to 
40  minutes;  and  in  unloading  a  train  of  small 
dump  cars,  6  to  56  minutes.  The  large  dump 
cars  are  operated  by  compressed  air  power 
furnished  by  the  air  pump  of  the  locomotive, 
while  the  small  dump  cars  are  operated  by 
hand. 

The  record  day's  work  for  one  steam  shovel 
was  that  of  March  22,  1910,  4,823  cubic 
yards  of  rock  (place  measurement),  or  8,395 
tons.  The  highest  daily  record  in  the 
Central  Division  was  on  March  11,  1911,  when 
51  steam  shovels  and  2  cranes  equipped  with 
orange  peel  buckets  excavated  an  aggregate 
of  79,484  cubic  yards,  or  127,742  tons. 
During  this  day,  333  loaded  trains  and  as 
many  empty  trains  were  run  to  and  from  the 
dumping  grounds. 

BREAKWATERS. 

Breakwaters  are  under  construction  at  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  entrances  of  the  Canal. 
That  in  Limon  Bay,  or  Colon  harbor,  extends 
into  the  bay  from  Toro  Point  at  an  angle  of  42 
degrees  and  53  minutes  northward  from  a 
base  line  drawn  from  Toro  Point  to  Colon 
light,  and  will  be  10,500  feet  in  length,  or 
11,700  feet,  including  the  shore  connection, 
with  a  width  at  the  top  of  fifteen  feet  and  a 
height  above  mean  .sea  level  of  ten  feet.  The 
width  at  the  bottom  will  depend  largely  on 
the  depth  of  water.  It  will  contain  ap- 
proximately 2,840,000  cubic  yard.s  of  rock, 
the  core  being  formed  of  rock  quarried  on  the 
mainland  near  Toro  Point,  armored  with  hard 
rock  from  Porto  Bello.  Work  began  on  the 
breakwater  in  August,  1910,  and  on  Dec.  1, 
1912,  the  trestle  and  fill  were  completed  to 
full  length,  11,500  feet.  On  the  same  date, 
about  one-seventh,  or  1,643  feet  of  the  rock 
armour  had  been  placed.  The  estimated  cost 
is  $5,500,000.  A  second  breakwater  has  been 
proposed  for  Limon  Bay,  but  this  part  of  the 
project  has  not  been  formally  acted  upon. 
The  purpose  of  the  breakwaters  is  to  convert! 
Limon  Bay  into  a  safe  anchorage,  to  protect 
shipping  in  the  harbor  of  Colon,  and  vessels 


270 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


making  the  north  entrance  to  the  Canal,  from " 
the  violent  northers  that  are  likely  to  prevail 
from  October  to  January,  and  to  reduce  to  a 
minimum  the   amount   of  silt   that   may  be 
washed  into  the  dredged  channel. 

The  breakwater  at  the  Pacific  entrance  will 
extend  from  Balboa  to  Naos  Island,  a  distance 
of  about  17,000  feet,  or  a  Httle  more  than 
three  miles.  It  will  lie  from  900  to  2,700 
feet  east  of  and  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
distance  nearly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
Canal  prism;  will  vary  from  20  to  40  feet  in 
height  above  mean  sea  level,  and  will  be  from 
50  to  3,000  feet  wide  at  the  top.  It  is 
estimated  that  it  will  contain  about  18,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  earth  and  rock,  all  of  which 
will  be  brought  from  Culebra  Cut.  It  is  con- 
structed for  a  two-fold  purpose;  first,  to  divert 
cross  currents  that  would  carry  soft  material 
from  the  shallow  harbor  of  Panama  into  the 
Canal  channel;  second,  to  insure  a  more 
quiet  harbor  at  Balboa.  Work  was  begun 
on  it  in  May,  1908,  and  on  November  6,  1912, 
the  last  piles  were  driven  connecting  Naos 
Island  with  the  mainland.  On  the  same  date 
about  one-half  mile  of  trestle  remained  to  be 
filled. 

CANAL  FORCE,  QUARTERS  AND  SUPPLIES. 

The  Canal  force  is  recruited  and  housed  by 
the  Quartermaster's  Department  which  has 
two  general  branches,  labor  and  quarters, 
and  material  and  supplies.  Through  the 
labor  and  quarters  branch  there  have  been 
brought  to  the  Isthmus  44,394  laborers,  of 
whom  11,797  came  from  Europe,  19,448  from 
Barbados,  the  balance  from  other  islands  in 
the  West  Indies  and  from  Colombia.  No 
recruiting  is  required  at  present,  the  supply 
of  labor  on  the  Isthmus  being  ample. 

On  December  1,  1912,  the  total  force  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  and  Panama 
Railroad  Company,  actually  at  work,  was 
divided  as  follows: 


Gold 

Silver 

Total 

Isthmian     Canal     Com- 

4,475 
630 
257 

26,199 

4,256 

923 

30,594 

Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany   

Panama  Railroad  Com- 

4,886 
1,180 

Totals 

5,362 

31,298 

36,660 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  were  in  the 
employ  of  contractors  on  the  Isthmus,  454 
•gold  and  3,045  silver  employees,  a  total  of 
3,499. 

The  gold  force  is  made  up  of  the  officials, 
clerical  force,  construction  men,  and  skilled 
artisans  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company.  Prac- 
tically all  of  them  are  Americans.  The 
silver  force  represents  the  unskilled  laborers  of 
the  Commission  and  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company.  Of  these,  about  4,500  are 
Europeans,  mainly  Spaniards,  with  a  few 
Italians  and  other  races.  The  remainder, 
about  25,000,  are  West  Indians,  about  5,000 
of  whom  are  employed  as  artisans  receiving 
16,  20,  and  25  cents,  and  a  small  number,  32 
and  44  cents,  an  hour,  and  7,000  on  a  monthly 
basis.  The  standard  rate  of  the  West  Indian 
laborer  is  10  cents  an  hour,  but  a  few  of  these 
doing  work  of  an  exceptional  character  are 


paid  16  and  20  cents.  The  larger  part  of  the 
Spaniards  are  paid  20  cents  an  hour,  and  the 
rest  16  cents  an  hour. 

The  material  and  supply  branch  carries  in 
eight  general  storehouses  a  stock  of  supplies 
for  the  Commission  and  Panama  Railroad 
valued  approximately  at  $4,500,000.  About 
$12,000,000  worth  of  supplies  are  purchased 
annually,  requiring  the  discharge  of  one 
steamer  er  ch  day. 

FOOD,  CLOTHING  AND  OTHER  NECESSARIES. 

The  Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  forces  are 
supplied  with  food,  clothing  and  other  neces- 
saries through  the  Subsistence  Department, 
which  is  divided  into  two  branches — Com- 
missary and  Hotel.  It  does  a  business  of 
about  seven  million  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars  per  annum.  The  business  done  by 
the  Commissary  Department  amounts  to 
about  $6,000,000  per  annum,  and  that  done  by 
the  hotel  branch  to  about  $1,500,000  per 
annum. 

The  Commissary  system  consists  of  22 
general  stores  in  as  many  Canal  Zone  villages 
and  camps  along  the  relocated  line  of  the 
Panama  Railroad,  it  is  estimated  that  with 
employees  and  their  dependents,  there  are 
about  65,000  people  supplied  daily  with  food, 
clothing,  and  other  necessaries.  In  addition 
to  the  retail  stores,  the  following  plants  are 
operated  at  Cristobal:  cold  storage,  ice 
making,  bakery,  coffee  roasting,  ice  cream, 
laundry  and  packing  department. 

A  supply  train  of  21  cars  leaves  Cristobal 
every  morning  at  4  a.  m.  It  is  composed  of 
refrigerator  cars  containing  ice,  meats  and 
other  perishable  articles,  and  ten  containing 
other  supplies.  These  are  delivered  at  the 
stations  along  the  line  and  distributed  \o  the 
houses  of  employees  by  the  Quartermaster's 
Department. 

The  hotel  branch  maintains  the  Hotel 
Tivoli  at  Ancon,  and  also  18  hotels  along  the 
line  for  white  gold  employees  at  which  meals 
are  served  for  thirty  cents  each.  At  these 
18  hotels  there  are  served  monthly  about 
200,000  meals.  There  are  seventeen  messes 
for  European  laborers,  who  pay  40  cents  per 
ration  of  three  meals.  There  are  served  at 
these  messes  about  200,000  meals  per  month. 
There  are  also  operated  for  the  West  Indian 
laborers  sixteen  kitchens,  at  which  they  are 
served  a  ration  of  three  meals  for  27  cents  per 
ration.  There  are  about  100,000  meals 
served  monthly  at  these  kitchens.  The 
supplies  for  one  month  for  the  fine  hotels, 
messes  and  kitchens  cost  about  $85,000;  labor 
and  other  expenses  about  $16,500.  The 
monthly  receipts,  exclusive  of  the  revenue 
from  the  Hotel  Tivoli,  amount  to  about 
$105,000. 

VALUE  OF  THE  $40,000,000  FRENCH  PURCHASE. 

Excavation,     useful     to     the 

Canal,      29,708,000      cubic 

yards $25,389,240.00 

Panama  Railroad  Stock 9,644,320.00 

Plant  and  material,  used  and 

sold  for  scrap 2,112,063.00 

Buildings,  used 2,054,203.00 

Surveys,     plans,     maps    and 

records 2,Q00,000.00 

Land 1.000,000.00 

Clearings,  roads,  etc 100,000.00 

Ship  channel  in  Panama  Bay, 

four  years'  use 500,000.00 

Total $42,799,826.00 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


271 


PANAMA  CANAL 


SUEZ   CANAL 


/      ^  ^IL/JPOET  SAID 


EtufKsTv  Miles 


272 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  CANAL  ZONE. 

The  Canal  Zone  contains  about  436  square 
miles.  It  begins  at  a  point  three  niarine 
miles  from  mean  low  water  mark  in  each 
ocean,  and  extends  for  five  miles  on  each  side 
of  the  center  line  of  the  ^  route  of  the  Canal. 
It  includes  the  group  of  islands  in  the  Bay  of 
Panama  named  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra,  and 
Flamenco.  The  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon 
are  excluded  from  the  Zone,  but  the  United 
States  has  the  right  to  enforce  sanitary- 
ordinances  in  those  cities,  and  to  maintain 
public  order  in  them  in  case  the  Republic  of 
Panama  should  not  be  able,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  United  States,  to  do  so. 

Of  the  436  square  miles  of  Zone  territory, 
the  United  States  owns  about  363,  and  73  are 
held  in  private  ownership.  Under  the  treaty 
with  Panama,  the  United  States  has  the  right 
to  acquire  by  purchase,  or  by  the  exercise  of 
the  right  of  eminent  domain,  any  lands,  build- 
ings, water  rights,  or  other  properties  neces- 
sary and  convenient  for  the  construction, 
maintenance,  operation,  sanitation,  and  pro- 
tection of  the  Canal, and  it  can,  therefore, at  any 
time  acquire  the  lands  within  the  Zone  bound- 
aries which  are  owned  by  private  persons. 

RELOCATED    PANAMA    RAILROAD. 

The  new,  or  relocated  Une  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  is  47.1  miles  long,  or  739  feet  longer 
than  the  old  line.  From  Colon  to  Mindi,  4.17 
miles,  and^  from  Corozal  to  Panama,  2.83 
miles,  the  old  location  is  used,  but  the  re- 
maining 40  miles  are  new  road.  From  Mindi 
to  Gatun  the  railroad  runs,  in  general,  parallel 
to  the  Canal,  and  ascends  from  a  few  feet 
above  tide  water  elevation  to  nearly  95  feet 
above.  At  Gatun  the  road  leaves  the  vicinity 
of  the  Canal  and  turns  east  along  Gatun  Ridge 
to  a  point  about  4^  miles  from  the  center 
Une  of  the  Canal,  where  it  turns  southward 
again  and  crosses  the  low  Gatun  Valley  to 
Monte  Lirio,  from  which  point  it  skirts  the 
east  shore  of  Gatun  Lake  to  the  beginning 
of  Culebra  Cut,  at  Bas  Obispo.  In  this  sec- 
tion there  are  several  large  fills,  occurring 
where  the  line  crosses  the  Gatun  Valley  and 
near  the  north  end  of  Culebra  Cut,  where  the 
line  was  located  so  as  to  furnish  waste  dumps 
for  the  dirt  from  the  Canal.  Originally  it  was 
intended  to  ,  carry  the  railroad  through 
Culebra  Cut  on  a  40-foot  berm,  10  feet  above 
the  water  level,  but  the  numerous  slides  have 
made  this  plan  impracticable  and  a  line  is 
now  being  constructed  around  the  Cut, 
known  locally  as  the  Gold  Hill  Line.  Leaving 
the  berm  of  the  Canal  at  Bas  Obispo,  the  Gold 
Hill  Line  gradually  works  into  the  foot  hills, 
reaching  a  distance  from  the  center  line  of  the 
Canal  of  two  miles  opposite  Culebra;  thence 
it  runs  down  the  Pedro  Miguel  Valley  to 
Paraiso,  where  it  is  only  800  feet  from  the 
center  line  of  the  Canal.  This  section  of  the 
line  is  located  on  maximum  grade  of  1.25 
per  cent,  compensated,  and  has  a  total  length 
of  9?^  miles.  The  sharpest  curve  on  the 
whole  line  is  7°.  From  the  south  end  of 
Culebra  Cut  to  Paraiso,  the  railroad  runs 
practically  parallel  with  the  Canal  to  Panama, 
with  maximum  grade  of  0.45  per  cent.  Where 
the  railroad  crosses  the  Gatun  River,  a 
bascule  steel  bridge  is  to  be  erected,  and  a 
steel  girder  bridge,  M  niile  long,  with  200-foot 
through  truss  channel  span,  is  in  use  across 
the  Chagres  River  at  Gamboa.  Small 
streams  are  crossed   on   reinforced   concrete 


culverts.  Near  Miraflores,  a  tunnel  736  feet 
long  has  been  built  through  a  hill.  Total 
cost  of  new  line  has  been  $8,866,392.02. 

THE  EQUIPMENT  FOR  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
THE  CANAL. 

The  Equipment  consists  of  the  latest  and 
most  efficient  appliances,  the  quality  of 
which  has  been  demonstrated  by  the  re- 
markable totals  of  excavation  which  have 
been  recorded  during  the  progress  of  the 
work.  It  includes  100  steam  shovels,  most  of 
which  are  of  from  70  to  105  tons  weight  and 
3  to  5  cubic  yards  bucket  capacity;  161 
American  locomotives  of  from  106  to  117  tons 
weight;  104  small  French  locomotives  of  20  to 
30  tons;  42  narrow  gauge  and  electric  loco- 
motives; 553  drills;  4,572  cars;  79  spreaders, 
track-shifters,  unloaders,  etc.,  20  dredges;  47 
cranes;  11  tugs;  72  barges,  scows,  etc.  and 
24  launches.  The  Panama  Railroad  has  62 
locomotives;  57  coaches  and  1,434  freight  cars. 

CANAL    STATISTICS 

Length  from  deep  water  to  deep 

water  (miles) 50 

Length  from  shore-line  to  shore- 
line (miles) 40 

Bottom  width  of  channel,  maxi- 
mum (feet) 1,000 

Bottom  width  of  channel,  mini- 
mum, 9  miles,  Culebra  Cut  (ft.)  300 

Locks,  in  pairs 12 

Locks,  usable  length  (feet) ....  1,000 

Locks,  usable  width  (feet) 110 

Gatun  Lake,  area  (square  miles)  164 

Gatun  Lake,  channel  depth  (feet)  85  to  45 

Culebra  Cut,  channel  depth  (ft.)  45 

Excavation,  Canal  Proper,  esti- 
mated total  (cubic  yards) 203,710,000 

Excavation,  permanent  struc- 
tures, estimated  (cubic  yards)  8,794,000 

Excavation,  grand  total,  esti- 
mated (cubic  yards) 212,504,000 

Excavation,  due  to  slides  and 
breaks,  estimated  (cubic 
yards),  about 22,000,000 

Excavation  accomplished  Janu- 
ary 1,  1913  (cubic  yards) 188,280,312 

Excavation,  remaining.  Canal 
Proper,  January  1,  1913  (cubic 
yards) 23,426,713 

Excavation     by     the     French, 

(cubic  yards) 78,146,960 

Excavation  by  French,  useful  to 

present  Canal  (cubic  yards) .  .        29,908,000 

Excavation  by  French,  esti- 
mated value  to  Canal $25,389,240 

Value  of  all  French  property $42,799,826 

Concrete,    total    estamated    for 

Canal  (cubic  yards) 5,000,000 

Time  of  transit  through  com- 
pleted Canal  (hours) 10  to  12 

Time  of  passage  through  locks 

(hours) 3 

Relocated     Panama     Railroad, 

total  cost $8,866,392 

Relocated     Panama     Railroad, 

length  (miles) 47.1 

Canal  Zone,  area  (square  miles)  436 

Canal    and    Panama     Railroad 

force  actually  at  work  (about)  36,000 

Canal    and    Panama    Railroad 

force,  Americans  (about) 5,000 

Cost  of  Canal,  estimated  total .  .    $375,000,000 

Work  begun  by  Americans May  4,     1904 

Date  of  completion Jan.  1,    1915 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


273 


COALING  STATIONS  OF  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


274 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


277 


DISTANCES  FROM  ATLANTIC  TO  PACIFIC  PORTS  BY  THE  PRESENT  ROUTES. 

(In  Nautical  Miles.) 

(Prepared  expressly  for  The  Ameritan  Almanac  by  Cdptain  W.  H.  H.  Sutherland,  Hydrographer,  U.  S.  Navy.) 


I 


From. 


is 


a  rt 

CO  o 
rt.o 


New  York. . . 

Norfolk 

Charleston . . 
Port  Tampa. 
New  Orleans 
GalTeston . . . 
Liverpool ... 
Hamburg. . . 
Antwerp.  . . . 
Bordeaux . . . 
Gibraltar 


14.019 
13,945 
13,954 
14,119 
14,419 
14,601 
14.619 
15,019 
14,754 
14,474 
13,518 


13,244 
13,170 
13,179 
13,344 
13.644 
13,826 
13,844 
14,244 
13,979 
13,691 
12,743 


10,423 
10,349 
10,358 
10,523 
10,823 
11,005 
11,023 
11,423 
11.1.58 
10, 
9,922 


9,702 
9,628 
9,637 
9, 
10,102 
10,284 
10,302 
10,702 
10,437 
10,157 
9,211 


9,221 
9,147 
«,156 
9,321 
9.021 
9,803 
9,821 
10,221 
9,956 
9,6- - 
8,720 


8,461 
8,387 
8,396 
8,561 
8.861 
9,043 
9,061 
9,461 
9,196 


7,860 
7,786 
7,795 
7,960 
8,260 
8,442 
8,460 
8.860 
8,595 


5.916  8,315 
7,960' 7,359 


17,780 
17,706 
17,715 
17,880 
18,180 
18,362 
18,380 
18,780 
18,515 
18.235 
7.009 


18,910 
18,836 
18,845 
19,010 
19,310 
19,492 
19,510 


19,530 
19,456 
19,465 
19.630 
19,930 
20,112 
20,130 


19,910  20.580 
19.645  20,265 
19,365  19,985 
18,409  19,0.30 


14,5 

14,486 

14,495 

14,660 

14,960 

15,142 

15,-'-" 

15,560 

15,295 

15,015 

14,059 


15,135 
15,061 
15,070 
15,235 
15,535 
15,717 
15,735 
16,135 
15,870 
15,590 
14,634 


13,000 
13,526 
13,535 
13,700 
14,000 
14,182 
14,200 
14.600 
14,335 
14,055 
13.099 


DISTANCES  FROM  ATLANTIC   PORTS  TO  PACIFIC  PORTS,  VIA  THE  PANAMA   CANAL.   WHEN  CON- 
STRUCTED. 
(From   a   special   report  by    the    United   States   Treastiry    Department.) 


Piom. 


New  York... 
Norfolk...... 

Charleston . . . 
Port  Tampa. 
New  Orleans. 
Galveston . . . . 

Liverpool 

Hamburg. . . . 

Antwerp 

Bordeaux . . . . 
Gibraltar...  T 


6,074 
5,872 
5,673 
5,328 
5,477 
5,574 
8,813 
9,242 

8,447 


5,097 
4,898 
4.553 
4,698 
4,799 
8,038 
8,467 
8,188 
7,938 
7,672 


^ 

3 

C 

U 

o 

o 

H 

H 

2,864 

3,359 

2,662 

3,157 

2,098 

2  593 

2.263 

2,758 

2.364 

2,858 

5,603 

6,098 

6  0.32 

6  527 

5.753 

6,248 

5,503 

5,998 

5,237 

5,723 

4,021 
3,819 
3,638 
3,255 
3,420 
3,520 
6,700 
7,189 
6,910 
6,660 
6,394 


4,630 
4,428 
4,229 
3,864 
4,029 
4,129 
7,369 
7,798 
7,519 
7,269 
7,003 


4,838 
4,636 
4,437 
4,072 
4,237 
4,3.38 
7,577 
8,006 
7,727 
7,477 
7.211 


9,835 
9,6.34 
9,344 
9,069 
9,2.34 
9,3.35 
12,574 
13,003 
12,724 
12,474 
12,208 


10,885111,585 
10,684  11, .384 
10,.367  10,809 
10,119  10,819 
10,284  10,984 
10,.385  11,085, 
13,624-14,324 
14,053  14,753 
13,774  14,474 
13,524|l4,224 
13,2.58113,958 


9.852 
9,650 
9,451 
9,086 
9,251 
9,352 
12,591 
13,020 
12,741 
12,491 
12,221 


10,427 
9,858 
10,006 
9.661 
9,826 
9,927 
13,166 
13,595 
13,316 
13,060 
11,168 


8,892 
8,690 
8.491 
8,126 
8,291 
8,392 
11,631 
12,060 
11,781 
11,471 
11,265 


•  Via  Honolulu,  add  252  miles. 

t  Omitting  Tahiti  reduces  voyage  from  Brito  by  52  miles. 

J  Voyage  frora  Brito.  to  Sydney  by  way  of  Wellington  is  232  miles  less  than  by  way  of  Tahiti;  from 
Panama  it  Is  405  rniles  less. 

§  Voyage  from  Brito  to  Wellington  direct  is  185  miles  sliorter  than  via  Tahiti,  and  from  Panama  it  Is 
358  miles  shorter. 


VIEW  AT  ATLANTIC  ENTRANCE. 


'^tW^M^ti 


t«  ;.      n  n  ,f 


mmmi 


mm^^m^m^^ 


Copyright  1912,    Munn    &    Co.,    Inc. 

THE  NEW  MUNICIPAL  BUILDING  OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 

This  building  houses  many  departments  of  the  city  government  and  saves  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars  annually  in  rent. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


TELEGRAPHS   AND   CABLES. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  DOMESTIC  TELEGRAPH  MESSAGES. 


A  message  to  be  transmitted  by  telegraph 
should  be  written  upon  the  blank  provided  by 
the  Telegraph  Company  for  that  purpose;  or 
it  should  be  attached  to  such  blank  by  the 
sender,  or  by  the  one  presenting  the  message 
as  the  sender's  agent,  so  as  to  leave  the  printed 
heading  in  full  view  above  the  written  mes- 
sage. 

Write  the  whole  message,  date,  address, 
body  and  signature  as  clearly  as  possible. 
Avoid  changes,  corrections  and  unusual  ab- 
breviations. Figures,  counted  and  charged 
for  at  the  rate  of  one  word  for  each,  may  be 
used,  but  words  to  represent  them  are  less 
liable  to  cause  error. 

Addresses  are  not  charged  for,  therefore 
they  should  be  full  and  clear  and  written  so  as 
to  be  easily  understood.  If  the  person  ad- 
dressed is  known  to  be  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  office,  or  in  some  locality  where 
the  services  of  a  special  messenger  may  be 
required  to  reach  him,  this  fact  should  be 
made  known  to  the  Telegraph  Company. 
By  such  notice  a  quicker  delivery  of  the 
message  may  be  often  effected. 

If  the  sender's  address  is  not  known  to  the 
Telegraph  Company,  it  should  be  written  on 
the  back  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  blank.  This 
will  enable  the  Telegraph  Company  to  reach 
him  either  with  a  reply,  should  one  be  received 
or  for  any  possible  question  which  might  arise 
in  reference  to  the  transmission  or  delivery 
of  his  message. 

Rules  for  counting  messages,  which  will 
completely  cover  all  the  usual  and  unusual 
words,  abbreviations  and  combinations  used 
in  telegraph  messages,  cannot  be  given  here. 
A  charge  is  made  for  the  first  ten  words  or  less, 
and  a  reduced  rate  for  each  word  over  ten. 
The  address  and  signature  are  not  charged  for. 

In  counting  a  message  "dictionary"  words 
(i.  e.,  words  taken  from  one  of  the  following 
languages,  namely,  English,  German,  French, 
Italian,  Dutch,  Portuguese,  Spanish  and 
Latin),  initial  letters,  surnames  of  persons, 
names  of  cities,  towns,  villages,  states  or  terri- 
tories, or  names  of  the  Canadian  provinces, 
will  be  counted  and  charged  for  each  as  one 
word.  The  abbreviations  for  the  names  of 
towns,  villages,  states,  territories  and  prov- 
inces will  be  counted  and  charged  for  the 
same  as  if  written  in  full.     Abbreviations  of 


weights  and  measures  in  common 
counted  each  as  one  word. 

use  will  be 

Examples: 
Al 

Examples: 

X9n8. 

Signatory  (English) 

Auf  wiedersehen  {German) 

A  bon  march  e  {French) 

Erba  mala  presto  cresce  {Italian) 

1  word 

2  words 

3  " 

4  " 

74% 

4442 

44,  42 

165  East  22d  St. 

El  corazdn  menda  las  cames  {Spanish)  Sworda 

Errare  himianum  est  {Latin)  3      " 

J  G  M  Jones,  Jr.  5     " 

Van  Dome 

McGregor 

O'Connor 

District  of  Columbia  (or  D.  C.) 

New  York  (or  N.  Y.) 

New  York  State 

St.  Louis 

East  St.  Louis 

New  Mexico  (or  N. 

Nova  Scotia  (or  N. 

Lbs. 

Hhds. 

Cwt. 

In  names  of  coimtries  or  counties  all  the 
words  will  be  counted  and  charged  for. 


Examples: 

United  States  of  Colombia 
U.  S.  A. 
North  America 
Queen  Anne  County 


M.) 
S.) 


4  words 
3       " 

2  " 

3  " 

AH  groups  of  letters,  when  such  groups  do 
not  form  dictionary  words,  and  are  not  com- 
binations of  dictionary  words,  will  be  counted 
at  the  rate  of  five  letters  or  fraction  of  five 
letters  to  a  word.  When  such  groups  are 
made  up  of  combinations  of  dictionary  words, 
each  dictionary  word,  so  used  will  be  counted. 

Examples: 


Ukugu  {artificial) 
Babelu  (artificial) 

1  word 

2       " 

Bacyzafyih  {artificial) 

2       " 

Abycazfybgk  {artificial) 

3       " 

Hhgga  {artificial) 

1       " 

Doyou  {improperly  combined) 

2       " 

Canhe  {improperly  combined) 
Allright  (or  alright) 

2       " 

(improperly  combined) 

2       " 

Housemate  {dictionary  word) 

1       " 

Figures,  decimal  points  and  bars  of  division 
will  be  counted,  each  separately,  as  one  word. 
In  groups  consisting  of  letters  and  figures, 
each  letter  and  figure  will  be  counted  as  one 
word. 


2  words 
5  " 

3  " 
5  " 

4  " 

5  " 
8  " 


279 


280 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Exceptions: 
A   M.                                                          1 

L  word 

In  ordinal  numbers  the  affixes  st,  nd,  rd  and 
th  will  each  be  counted  as  one  word. 

P.  M. 

F.  O.  B.  (or  fob) 

C.  0.  D.  (or  cod)                                       ] 
C.  I.  F.  or  C.  F.  I.                                    ] 
(or  cif  or  cfi)                                         ] 
C.  A.  F.  (or  caf) 
O.K. 
Per  cent  (or  percent) 

Examples: 

1st                                                              2  words 
2nd                                                                 2       " 
3rd                                                                2       " 
4th                                                                  2       " 

fi'M '' 

1 

.ft 

t 

r^'— >-~~...„..r-^... 

r. 

_^^ 

H^ 

1! 

1 

}i&;s63,ooo.  :s  WKKKKKKk 

Mm  'M 

^#> 

m    m 

^^l^^^ullt"::                 i'-'Plt^'^ 

Copyright  1909,  Munn  &  Co. 

RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERN- 
MENT FOR  THE  FISCAL  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1908. 

While   the   amounts  shown   are   usually   increasing  annually,   the  relation  they  bear  to  each  other 
is  craotieallv   constant  and   hence   the  drawinc  is  useful  as  a  means  of  comnarlson. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN   REFERENCE   BOOK 


281 


LAND  LINES  OF  THE  WORLD 

Below  are  given  such  particulars  as  we  have  been  able  to  obtain  of  the  land  line 
telegraphs  throughout  the  world,  corrected  up  to  December,   1912: 


Countries. 


Length  of  Lines  in  Miles. 


A"™'-      gYSund.     Total. 


Length  of  Conductors  in  Miles.  (  pQg„_ 

matic 
Tubes. 
(Yards) 


Aerial. 


Under- 
ground. 


Total. 


America  (United 

States  of) — 

Commercial  Cable 

Co 

iWestern  Union 
Tel.  Co 

Argentine  Republic. 

Austria 

Belgium. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

British  East  Africa. . 

British  Guiana 

British  India 

British  North  Borneo 

Bulgaria 

Canada— Gt.  N.-W. 

Tel.  Co 

Canadian  Pacific 

Telegraphs 

'  Government    Tel. 

Service 

WesternUnionTel. 
Co 

Ceylon 

Chih 

China 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica 

Cuba 

^Denmark 

Dominican  Republic 

East  African  Pro- 
tectorate   

Ecuador 

Egypt I 

Prance  and  Corsica. . 

French  Guiana 
(Cayenne) 

French  Indo-China 
(Cochin-China, 
Cambodgia,  An- 
nan, Tonkin  and 
Laos) 

Freach  Guinea 

French  Ivory  Coast . 

French  Dahomey. .  . 

French  Congo  and 
Dependencies 

'Germany 


Great  Britain  and 
Ireland 


Greece . 


Carried  forward. 


27,921 

207,520 

13,596 

28,872 

4,694 

1,795 

20,241 

,1,039 

350 

72,553 

800 

4,043 

10.818 

.12.255 

8,383 

2.707 

1,830 

7,473 

25,308 

620 

835 

7,119 

3,242 

1,728 

1,016 

3,754 

3,871 

86,214j 

195' 


8.417 
1.430 
1,584 
1,143 

1,600 
139.450 


56,039* 
5,029 


183 

446 
20 

184 
19 


14 


193 
'  '2 


64 


4,315 


4,045 


6,3005 


28,104 

207,966 

13,616 

29,056 

4,713 

1,795 

20,255 

1,039 

350 

72,746 

800 

4,045 

10,818 

12,257 

8,383 

2,718 

1,832 

7,473 

25,314 

620 

835 

7,119 

3,306 

1.728 

1,016 

3,758 

3,871 

90,529 

195 


8,425 
1,430 
1,584 
1,143 

1,600 
143.495 


62,239 
5,029 


202,850 

1,459,160 

32,779 

141,918 

24,451 


10,031   212,881 


11,066 


57,178i  1,496,338 

80    32,859 

4,265  146,183  95,534 

1,074  25,525    1,032 


775,484!   15,818!  791,202 


37,166 

2,284 

2,05l! 

284,0671 

900 

9,436, 

52,199! 

75,872 

7,900 

13,979 

4,940 

13,408 

41,805 


94 


3,199 


67 


886 


102 


37,260 

2,284 

2,051 

287,266 

900 

9,503 

52.199 

76,758 

7,900 

14,023 

4,9901 

13,408 

41,907 


23,731 
50 


7,119 
7,339: 

1,728; 

2,26l' 


230  i 


7,119 
7,569 
1,728 

2,261 


12,762 
329,525 


195 


14,231 
1,430 
1,584 
1,143 

! 

1,600 
401,716 


29,706 
/teleg'phV 

171,5341  129,743 
^telep'ne.f  1,661.232 
V  726,028J| 


12.762 
355,042 


195 


14,339 
1,430 
1.584 
1,143 


354,987 


l,600l 

431,422  287,627 


2,688,537 


175,194 


4,087,360  1,923,606    5,990,966'  949,221 

I  I  I 


'^Inclusive  of  388  miles  ot  .submarine  cable,  with  45  conductors. 
^Exclusive  of  206  miles  of  river  cables  and  526  miles  of  conductors. 
'Including  inter-urban  telephone  lines. 

*No  distinction  can  be  made  between  telegraph  and  telephone  line  mileages,  as  the 
lines  largely  carry  both  telegraph  and  telephone  conductors. 
*Miles  of  single  pipe. 


282 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK 


LAND  LINES  OF  THE  WORLD 

Below  are  given  such  particulars  as  we  have  been  able  to  obtain  of  the  land  line 
telegraphs  throughout  the  world,  corrected  up  to  December,   1912: 


Length  of  Lines  in  Miles. 

Length  of  Conductors  in  Miles. 

Pneu- 
matic 

Countries. 

Aerial. 

Under- 
ground. 

Total. 

Aerial. 

Under- 
ground. 

Total. 

Tubes. 
(Yards) 

Brought  forward. . 

775,484 

15,818 

791,202 

4,087,360 

1,923,606 

5,990,966 

949,221 

^Holland 

6,312 

301 

6,613 

67,608 

1,413 

69,021 

Hungary 

15,825 

78 

15,903 

15,902 

1,593 

17,495 

Indo-European  Per- 

sian Gulf  System 

(Mekran  Coast) .  . 

1,122 

1,122 

2,195 

2,195 

Indo-European 

Teheran,  Bushire 

and  Central  Lines 

1,605 

.  .  . 

1,605 

4,799 

4,799 

Italy 

31,994 

37 

32,031 

193,208 

1,335 

194,543 

Jamaica 

992 
23,008 

27 

992 
23,035 

2Japan 

110,159 

1,723 

111,822 

2,507 

Luxemburg 

456 

455 

715 

715 

Madagascar           .    . 

2,380 

2,380 

2,380 

2  380 

Malay  States   (Fed- 

erated)   

1,632 

5K 

1.637  M 

5,135 

5,135 

Mauritius 

184 

25 

209 

463 

100 

563 

Mexico 

22,771 

3 

22,774 

50,344 

3 

50,347 

Netherlands  India.  . 

6,114 

155 

6,269 

10,635 

182 

10,817 

New  Caledonia 

632 

632 

966 

966 

New  South  Wales. . . 

18,045 

257 

18,302 

111,578 

26,549 

138,127 

1,485 

New  Zealand 

13,343 

12M 

13355 H 

77,242 

5,682 

82,924 

^Nicaragua 

3,4713 
11,254 

oi 

3,4713 
11,345 

Norway 

64,876 

39,589 

104,465 

44 

Peru 

8,666 

8,666 

10,092 

10,092 

Portugal 

5,708 

5,708 

12,564 

12,564 

Portuguese  Colonies. 

2,055 

2,055 

2,155 

2,155 

Queensland 

10,568 

79 

10,647 

23,525 

174 

23,699 

470 

Roumania 

4,517 

16 

4,533 

11,707 

196 

11,903 

Russia 

108,106 

162 

108,268 

385,612 

1,087 

386,699 

Senegal : — 

Senegal 

1,357 

4 

1.361 

1,897 

4 

1,901 

H.  L.  S6n6gal 

Niger 

3,337 

3,337 

4,023 

4,023 

Servia 

4,349 

3 

4,352 

8,289 

76 

8,363 

South  Australia 

6,491 

43 

6,534 

23,169 

18,716 

41,885 

66i 

Spain 

21,738 

70,010 

21,808 

49,148 

340 

49,488 

Straits  Settlements. . 

1,292^ 

1,292 

1,292 

1,292 

Sudan 

4,777 

4,777 

9,896 

9,896 

Sweden 

5,976 

41 

6,017 

19,397 

768 

19,865 

Switzerland 

54,217 

272 

54,489 

43,547 

2,785 

16,332 

Tasmania 

2,137 

8 

2,145 

4,320 

1,271 

5,591 

Tunis 

2,077 

5 

2,082 

5,905 

60 

5,965 

Turkey 

Uganda  Protectorate 

27,560 

27,560 

46,876 

46,876 

859 

859 

1,017 

1,017 

Union   of    South 

Africa 

17,216 

11 

17,227 

62,531 

546 

63,077 

683 

Uruguay 

4,898 

4,898 

4,898 

4,898 

\rictoria:— 

Postal  Dept 

4,044 

10 

4,054 

11,810 

610 

12,420 

3,967 

Railway  Dept .... 

3,218 

2 

3,220 

5,851 

108 

5,959 

Western  Australia:— 

Postal  Dept 

6,975 

35 

7,010 

10,498 

5,498 

22,996 

23 

Railway  Dept 

2,598 

2,598 

7,022 

7,022 

Total 

1,251,359 

87,511 

1268830 

5,578,606 

2,034,014 

7,563,258 

959,061 

^Inclusive  of  193  nautical  miles  of  river  cables  and  504  miles  of  conductors. 
"Exclusive  of  23,611  nautical  miles  of  river  cables  and  45,321  miles  of  conductors. 
^Exclusive  ot  1}4  miles  of  submarine  cable. 
/Including  telephone  lines. — From  Electric  Trades  Directory. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


283 


TELEGRAPH  RATES— NORTH  AMERICA 

BETWEEN    NEW   YORK   CITY   AND    PLACES   IN   UNITED    STATES   AND 

CANADA. 

Day  rate  40-3,  means  40  cents  for  ten  words  and  3  cents  for  each  additional  word; 
Night  rate  30-2,  means  30  cents  for  ten  words  and  2  cents  for  each  additional  word,  etc. 
Address  and  signature  are  free.     Western  Union  and  Postal  Rates  are  uniform. 


Rate. 

Places 

Rate. 

Places. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day. 

Night. 

60-4 

3.80-35 
2.60-23 
4.80^5 
4.30-40 
2.40-21 
2.90-26 
3.40-31 
1.00-7 

to 
1.25-8 
1.00-7 
60-4 

1.00-7 

3.25-24 

2.75-19 

1.00-7 

75-5 

25-2 

30-2 

30-2 
40-3 
60-4 
60-4 
1.00-7 
50-3 
50-3 
60-4 
60-4 
50-3 
60-4 
35-2 
40-3 
to 

50-3 
75-5 

30-2 
35-2 
30-2 

to 
40-3 
25-2 

to 
30-2 

40-3 
50-3 

to 
60-4 
60-4 
60-4 

50-3 

3.80-35 

2.60-23 

4 . 80-45 

4 . 30-40 

2.40-21 

2 . 90-26 

3.40-31 

75-5 

to 

1.00-7 

1.00-7 

50-3 

1.00-7 

3.25-24 

2.75-19 

1.00-7 

60-4 

25-1 

25-1 

25-1 
30-2 
50-3 
50-3 
1.00-7 
40-3 
40-3 
50-3 
50-3 
40-3 
50-3 
25-1 

)     30-2 

[     to 

)  40-3 
60-4 

25-1 

25-1 

)     25-1 

y    to 

.      30-2 
i    25-1 

30-2 

I     40-3 

■{       to 

/     50-3 

50-3 

50-3 

Missouri  : 

St.  Louis 

50-3 
60-4 
75-5 
60-4 

1.00-7 
50-3 

1 . 10-9 
30-2 

to 
35-2 
25-2 
75-5 

20-1 
25-2 

to 
35-2 
50-3 
75-5 
50-3 
40-3 
75-5 

40-3 

60-4 

50-3 

to 

1.00-7 

1.00-7 

25-2 

to 
40-3 

75-5 
50-3 
30-2 

1.00-7 
to 

1.25-8 
60^ 
75-5 
50-3 
75-5 
75-5 
30-2 

to 

35-2 

40-3 

.    to 

50-3 

1.00-7 
40-3 
50-3 
60-4 
75-5 

4.00-27 

Alaska: 

40-3 

Eagle  City 

50-3 

Juneau     

Montana 

60-4 

Nebraska 

50-3 

St  Michael       

Nevada 

1  00-7 

Sitka 

40-3 

Newfoundland:  St.  John's.  . 
New  Hampshire < 

1  00-9 

Valdez 

) 

>    25-1 

Alberta • 

New  Jersey           

i 

25-1 

Arizona             

New  Mexico 

60-4 

New  York: 

New  York  City 

British    Columbia:    Grand 

20-1 

Forks,  Nelson,  New  West- 
minster,   Rossland,    Van- 
couver Victoria      .  ■  . 

All  other  places < 

North  Carolina 

'    25-1 

Atlin           

40-3 

60-4 

California       

Nova  Scotia 

40-3 

Ohio                

30-2 

Connecticut          

Oklahoma 

60-4 

Ontario: 

District  of  Columbia: 

30-2 

Sault  Ste   Marie 

50-3 

All  other  places 

All  other  places -( 

40-3 
to 

75-5 

1 . 00-7 

Pennsylvania < 

Prince  Edward  Island: 
Charlotte  town 

/     25-1 

V      to 

\     30-2 

Kansas 

Kentucky         

65-5 

40-3 

Maine:  Portland     

Rhode  Island 

25-1 

Other  places \ 

f 
Manitoba:  Winnipeg 

Saskatchewan ^ 

South  Carolina            

75-5 
to 
1.00-7 
50-3 

Maryland:  Annapolis,  Bal- 

60-4 

timore,     Frederick,      Ha- 

Tennessee 

40-3 

gerstown   .           

Texas 

60-4 

60-4 

All  other  places < 

Massachusetts < 

Michigan  :    Detroit,    Mount 

Vermont < 

Virginia < 

^Vashington            

I    25-1 

/     30-2 
[      to 
)     40-3 
1  00-7 

30-2 

Wisconsin  :  Milwaukee 

40-3 
50-3 

^         1 

W^YOMING                  

60-4 

Minnesota 

Yukon : 

4 . 00-27 

284 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NIGHT  LETTERS  AND  DAY  LETTERS. 

Table  of  Tolls  for  1  to  200  Words. 


When  Day 

When  Day 

When  Day 

When  Day 

Message 

Rate  is 

Message 

Rate  is 

Message  Rate  is 

Message  Rate  is 

25  and  2 

30  and  2 

35  and  2 

40  and  3 

Wor 

ds 

Night 

Day 

Night 

Day 

Night 

Day 

Night 

Day 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

1  to 

60 

$0.25 

$0.38 

$0.30 

$0.45 

$0.35 

$0.53 

$0.40 

$0.60 

51    " 

60 

.30 

.45 

.36 

.54 

.42 

.63 

.48 

.72 

61    « 

70 

.35 

.53 

.42 

.63 

.49 

.74 

.56 

.84 

71    " 

80 

.40 

.60 

.48 

.72 

.56 

.84 

.64 

.96 

81    « 

90 

.45 

.68 

.54 

.81 

.63 

.95 

.72 

1.08 

91    « 

100 

.50 

.75 

.60 

.90 

.70 

1.05 

.80 

1.20 

101    « 

110 

.55 

.83 

.66 

.99 

.77 

1.16 

.88 

1.32 

111    " 

120 

.60 

.90 

.72 

1.08 

.84 

1.26 

.96 

1.44 

121    « 

130 

.65 

.98 

.78 

1.17 

.91 

1.37 

1.04 

1.56 

131    " 

140 

.70 

1.05 

.84 

1.26 

.98 

1.47 

1.12 

1.68 

141    " 

150 

.75 

1.13 

.90 

1.35 

1.05 

1.58 

1.20 

1.80 

151    " 

160 

.80 

1.20 

.96 

1.44 

1.12 

1.68 

1.28 

1.92 

161    " 

170 

.85 

1.28 

1.02 

1.53 

1.19 

1.79 

1.36 

2.04 

171    " 

180 

.90 

1.35 

1.08 

1.62 

1.26 

1.89 

1.44 

2.16 

181    « 

190 

.95 

1.43 

1.14 

1.71 

1.33 

2.00 

1.52 

2.28 

191    « 

200 

1.00 

1.50 

1.20 

1.80 

1.40 

2.10 

1.60 

2.40 

When  Day 

When  Day 

When  Day 

When  Day 

Message 

Rate  IS 

Message 

Rate  IS 

Message 

Rate  is 

Message  Rate  is 

50  and  3 

60  and  4 

75  and  5 

100  and  7 

Words 

Night 

Day 

Night 

Day 

Night 

Day 

Night 

Day 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Letter 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

1  to     50 

$0.50 

$0.75 

$0.60 

$0.90 

$0.75 

$1.13 

$1.00 

$1.50 

51    «      60 

.60 

.90 

.72 

1.08 

.90 

1.'35 

1.20 

1.80 

61    "      70 

.70 

1.05 

.84 

1.26 

1.05 

1.58 

1.40 

2.10 

71    "      80 

.80 

1.20 

.96 

1.44 

1.20 

1.80 

1.60 

2.40 

81    '^     90 

.90 

1.35 

1.08 

1.62 

1.35 

2.03 

1.80 

2.70 

91    "    100 

1.00 

1.50 

1.20 

1.80 

1.50 

2.25 

2.00 

3.00 

101    «    110 

1.10 

1.65 

1.32 

1.98 

1.65 

2.48 

2.20 

3.30 

111    «    120 

1.20 

1.80 

1.44 

2.16 

1.80 

2.70 

2.40 

3.60 

121    "    130 

1.30 

1.95 

1.56 

2.34 

1.95 

2.93 

2.60 

3.90 

131    «    140 

1.40 

2.10 

1.68 

2.52 

2.10 

3.15 

2.80 

4.20 

141    «    150 

1.50 

2.25 

1.80 

2.70 

2.25 

3.38 

3.00 

4.50 

151    «    160 

1.60 

2.40 

1.92 

2.88 

2.40 

3.60 

3.20 

4.80 

161    «    170 

1.70 

2.55 

2.04 

3.06 

2.55 

3.83 

3.40 

5.10 

171    «    180 

1.80 

2.70 

2.16 

3.24 

2.70 

4.05 

3.60 

5.40 

181    «    190 

1.90 

2.85 

2.28 

3.42 

2.85 

4.28 

3.80 

5.70 

191    «    200 

2.00 

3.00 

2.40 

3.60 

3.00 

4.50 

4.00 

6.00 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


285 


Night  Messages. 

Night  messages  are  accepted  at  the  follow- 
ing rates. 

NIGHT  MESSAGE  RATES. 

Where  the  The  Night 

Day  Rate  is  Rate  is 

20—1 20—1 

25—2 25—1 

30—2 25—1 

35—2 25—1 

40—3 30—2 

50—3 40—3 

60—4 50—3 

65—4 50—3 

75—5 50—3 

75—5 60—4 

75—5 75—5 

85—6 60—4 

85—6 85—6 

90—6 .        60—4 

1.00—7 75—5 

1.00—7 1.00—7 

1.15—8 1.00—7 

1.2&— 8 1.00—7 

1.25—8 1.25—8 

Night  Letters  or  "Lettergrams." 

Both  of  the  large  telegraph  companies  have 
inaugurated  the  night  service  which  has  been 
highly  useful  to  the  pubUc,  and  which  serves 
to  utilize  hues  at  night  which  would  otherwise 
be  idle. 

Night  letters  may  be  accepted  for  all  offices 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  also 
including  many  telephone  points. 

The  charge  for  night  letters  of  fifty  words 
or  less  will  be  the  regular  day  rate  for  ten 
words,  and  one-fifth  {\i)  of  this  rate  will  be 
charged  for  each  additional  ten  words  or  less. 

Night  letters  must  be  written  in  plain 
English.  Code  or  cipher  is  not  permitted. 
Night  letters  should  be  written  on  special 
night  letter  blanks.  Night  letters  will  be 
delivered  as  early  as  convenient  the  next 
morning. 

The  instructions  that  night  letters  must  be 
written  in  "plain  English  language"  do  not 
disqualify  words'  of  an  artificial  character 
representing  trade  names  or  terms,  trade 
designations  of  cotton  shipments,  brands  or 
grades  of  flour,  and  other  manufactured  pro- 
ducts. Trade  names  and  trade  designations 
are  accepted  without  question,  provided  they 
are  used  in  their  natural  sense,  and  are  not 
used  to  convey  a  hidden  meaning  as  code  or 
cipher  words  do.  For  example,  the  expression 
"Uneeda"  is  the  name  of  a  product  of  a 
biscuit  company.  "  XXX"  is  used  to  express 
a  certain  brand  or  grade  of  flour.  "FHC," 
"AFC,"  "HLPH,"  represent  cotton  shippers' 
brands. 

Day  Letters. 

The  d^  letter  service,  offered  only  by  the 
Western  Union  Telegraph  Co.,  is  similar  in  all 
respects  to  the  night  letter  service  excep  t  that 
delivery  is  made  the  same  day,  subject  only 
to  such  delay  as  is  involved  in  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  message  to  full  paid  traffic,  and 
the  tariff  for  fifty  words  or  less  is  one  and  one 
half  times  the  regular  day  rate  for  ten  words. 

The  combined  telegraph  and  telephone 
service  is  proving  very  useful.     The  plan  is 


to  allow  those  telephone  subscribers  whose 
local  telegraph  office  is  closed  for  the 
night  to  call  up  "Central"  and  be  placed  in 
communication  with  the  nearest  open  tele- 
graph office.  If  the  service  of  the  Western 
Union  Co.  is  desired  it  is  only  necessary  to 
say  "  Western  Union."  The  Postal  Telegraph 
Co.  must  be  asked  for  by  name  also.  This 
arrangement  makes  every  telephone  sub- 
scribers' station  an  always  open  telegraph 
office. 

Money  by  Telegraph. 

All  telegraph  companies  accept  orders,  both 
domestic  and  foreign,  for  immediate  transfer 
of  money  by  telegraph  and  cable.  It  is  some- 
times imperative  to  obtain  large  or  small  sums 
at  the  shortest  possible  moment,  certainly 
within  twenty-four  hours.  Formerly  this 
branch  of  the  business  was  in  the  hands  of 
bankers,  but  now  the  cable  companies  and 
telegraph  companies  are  able  to  pay  money 
in  places  all  over  the  world.  The  organiza- 
tion of  telegraph  and  cable  companies  is  a 
most  complicated  one,  and  there  are  many 
factors  which  control  the  rates. 

Reduced  charges  for  the  transfer  of  money 
by  telegraph  to  offices  in  the  United  States 
are  as  follows: 

First:     For  $25.00  or  less 25c 

25.01   up  to  $50.00 35c 

50.01      "     "    75.00 60c 

75.01      "     "100.00 85c 

For  amounts  above  $100.00  add  (to  the 
$100.00  rate)  25c  per  hundred  (or  any  part  of 
$100.00)  up  to  $3,000.00.  For  amounts 
above  $3,000.00  add  (to  the  $3,000.00  rate) 
20c  per  hundred  (or  any  part  of  $100.00.) 

Second:  To  the  above  charges  are  to  be 
added  the  tolls  for  a  fifteen-word  day  message 
from  the  office  of  deposit  to  the  office  of  p?iy- 
ment. 

Miscellaneous  Service. 

Persons  who  wish  to  be  notified  of  the  ar- 
rival of  steamers  can  make  arrangements  with 
the  two  telegraph  companies  to  notify  them 
of  the  arrival.  The  companies  maintain 
signal  stations  at  Fire  Island,  The  Highlands, 
and  Sandy  Hook;  also  at  Quarantine,  for  the 
purpose  of  reporting  and  sighting  the  arrival 
of  steamers  from  foreign  ports.  To  those  who 
live  in  New  York,  or  in  nearby  towns  and 
cities,  the  notice  will  be  received  in  ample 
time  to  reach  the  dock  by  the  time  the  steamer 
warps  in.  The  service  for  New  York,  New 
Jersey  and  Hoboken  is  $1.00.  Parties  in 
other  places  who  are  interested  in  incoming 
steamers  can  be  notified  by  paying  this  fee  of 
$1.00,  plus  the  usual  telegraiph  tolls  for  the 
ordinary  ten-word  message.  For  places  not 
adjacent  to  New  York,  the  notice  conveys  the 
intelligence  of  the  near  approach  of  home-com- 
ing steamers. 


A  cable  between  Syracuse  and  Tripoli  was 
completed  in  July,  1912.  It  has  a  total 
length  of  280  nautical  miles,  and  is  composed 
of  five  sections  of  different  diameters.  Tha 
middle  portion  measures  19  mm.,  the  two 
intermediate  lengths  28  mm.,  and  those 
adjacent  to  the  coast  35  mm. 


286 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TOLLS  ON  MESSAGES  OF  FROM  10  TO  50  WORDS. 


No.  of 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Words. 

20-1 

25-1 

25-2 

30-2 

35-2 

40-3 

50-3 

60-4 

75-5 

100-7 

10 

20 

25 

25 

30 

35 

40 

50 

60 

75 

100 

11 

21 

26 

27 

32 

37 

43 

53 

64 

80 

107 

12 

22 

27 

29 

34 

39 

46 

56 

68 

85 

114 

13 

23 

28 

31 

36 

41 

49 

59 

72 

90 

121 

14 

24 

29 

33 

38 

43 

52 

62 

76 

95 

128 

15 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

55 

65 

80 

100 

135 

16 

26 

31 

37 

42 

47 

58 

68 

84 

105 

142 

17 

27 

32 

39 

44 

49 

61 

71 

88 

110 

149 

18 

28 

33 

41 

46 

51 

64 

74 

92 

115 

156 

19 

29 

34 

43 

48 

53 

67 

77 

96 

120 

163 

20 

30 

35 

45 

50 

55 

70 

80 

100 

125 

170 

21 

31 

36 

47 

52 

57 

73 

83 

104 

130 

177 

22 

32 

37 

49 

54 

59 

76 

86 

108 

135 

184 

23 

33 

38 

51 

56 

61 

79 

89 

112 

140 

191 

24 

34 

39 

53 

58 

63 

82 

92 

116 

145 

198 

25 

35 

40 

55 

60 

65 

85 

95 

120 

150 

205 

26 

36 

41 

57 

62 

67 

88 

9,8 

124 

155 

212 

27 

37 

42 

59 

64 

69 

91 

101 

128 

160 

219 

28 

38 

43 

61 

66 

71 

94 

104 

132 

165 

226 

29 

39 

44 

63 

68 

73 

97 

107 

136 

170 

233 

SO 

40 

45 

65 

70 

75 

100 

110 

140 

175 

240 

31 

41 

40 

67 

72 

77 

103 

113 

144 

180 

247 

32 

42 

47 

69 

74 

79 

106 

116 

148 

185 

254 

33 

43 

48 

71 

76 

81 

109 

119 

152 

190 

261 

34 

44 

49 

73 

78 

83 

112 

122 

156 

105 

268 

35 

45 

50 

75 

80 

85 

115 

125 

160 

200 

275 

36 

46 

51 

77 

82 

87 

118 

128 

104 

205 

282 

37 

47 

52 

79 

84 

89 

121 

131 

168 

210 

289 

38 

48 

53 

81 

86 

91 

124 

134 

172 

215 

296 

39 

49 

54 

83 

8'8 

93 

127 

137 

176 

220 

303 

40 

50 

55 

85 

90 

95 

130 

140- 

180 

225 

310 

41 

51 

56 

87 

92 

97 

133 

143 

184 

230 

317 

42 

52 

57 

89 

94 

99 

136 

146 

188 

235 

324 

43 

53 

58 

91 

96 

101 

139 

149 

192 

240 

331 

44 

54 

59 

93 

98 

103 

142 

152 

196 

245 

338 

45 

55 

60 

95 

100 

105 

145 

155 

200 

250 

345 

46 

6Q 

61 

97 

102 

107 

148 

158 

204 

255 

352 

47 

57 

62 

99 

104 

109 

151 

161 

208 

260 

359 

48 

58 

63 

101 

106 

111 

154 

164 

212 

265 

366 

49 

59 

64 

103 

108 

113 

157 

167 

216 

270 

373 

50 

60 

65 

105 

110 

115 

160 

170 

220 

275 

380 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


287 


288 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUBMARINE  CABLES. 
SUMMARY_OP  CABLES  OWNED  BY  GOVERNMENT  ADMINISTRATIONS. 


Number 
of  Cables 
with  one 

or  .more 
cores. 

Length  in  Nautical  Miles. 

Country. 

Of  Cables. 

Of 
Conductors. 

Argentine  Republic 

22 
83 

41 
30 

8 

157 

1 

51 

2 

3« 

1421 

491 

16 

84.000 

681.300 

211.000 

100.900 

44.441 

23.000 

1,988.652 

0.538 

258.000 

66.000 

955.400 

540.7792 

2,596.070 

8,479.839 

1.078 

2,946.631 

2,720.160 

59.702 

241.543 

9,279.000 

1,431.708 

3.773.765 

357.698 

2,741.900 

73.996 

367.502 

1,376.579 

115.050 

53.510 

177.000 

892.300 

18.151 

54.000 

3,129.813 

196.496 

10.685 

4.500 

4.312 

460.844 

6.614 

8.954 

380.995 

13.550 

240  000 

Austria 

685.000 

Bahamas 

211.000 

Belgium 

462  216 

Brazil 

80  798 

British  Guiana 

50.000 

British  India,   Indo-European  Telegraph   Depart- 
ment Government  Administration 

1.988.652 

Bulgaria  (Widdin  Cable) 

0  538 

Canada 

258  000 

Ceylon  and  India  (Joint) 

66.000 

China 

955  400 

Denmark  (Telegraphs  and  Telephones) 

1,760.842 

France  and  Algeria 

2,680.244 

France     (Principal      International     and     French 
Colonial  Cables) 

8  479  839 

(French)  Dahomey  and  Dependencies 

1  078 

Germany '. 

971 

220^ 

13 

32 

6 

59 

120 

6 

17 

239 

35 

8961 

4 

22 

6.201  078 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

8  498  809 

Greece 

58.818 

Holland 

780  449 

Inter-Colonial  System 

9,279.000 
1,585  981 

Italy 

Japan 

4  495  948 

Mexico 

434  681 

Netherlands  (Indies) 

2,741  900 

New  South  Wales 

505  272 

New  Zealand 

373.219 

Norway 

2,293  316 

Portugal 

115  050 

Queensland 

56.930 

Rovunania 

189  000 

Russia  in  Europe,  and  the  Caucasxxs 

21 
1 
3 
25 
26 
2 
4 

1,039.260 

Russia  in  Asia 

56.800 

South  Au.stralia 

54  000 

Spain 

3  129  813 

Sweden 

346.361 

Switzerland 

15  057 

Tasmania 

11.500 

Tunis 

4  312 

Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia 

24 
2 
5 

3     • 
3 

479  637 

Union  of  South  Africa 

14.501 

Uruguay 

8.954 

Victoria 

380  995 

Western  Australia ..'. 

23.350 

2,457^ 

46,927.955 

61.083.598 

.  ilncluding  half  of  cables  owned  jointly  with  other  Administrations. 
Iceland,  with  13  cables  of  17  nautical  miles  and  28  miles  of  conductors, 
miles  of  subfluvial  cable.     ^Exclusive  of  several  small  river  cables. 


'Exclusive  of 
'Including  20 


In  1866  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Co. 
had  only  37,380  miles  of  Hne,  and  75.686 
miles  of  wire.  The  same  year  they  had  only 
2,250  offices.  The  next  year  the  number  of 
offices  had  increased  to  2.565,  and  5,879,282 
messages  were  transmitted.  For  the  year 
ending   Jun«    30,    1912,    there    wer«   235,807 


miles  of  line,  1,5.32,161.40  miles  of  wire  and 
25,392  offices.  There  were  84,901,657  mes- 
sages .sent,  not  including  those  over  leased 
wires  or  under  railroad  contracts.  The  re- 
ceipts amounted  to  $42,987,807.15  and  the 
expenses  were  $36,063,836.10.  The  profits 
were  $6,923,971.06. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


289 


SUMMARY  OF  CABLES  OWNED  BY  PRIVATE  COMPANIES. 


Number 

Length 

of  Cables 

of  Cables 

with  one 

in 

or  more 

Nautical 

cores. 

Miles. 

9 

3,026 

19 

1,304 

18 

9,548 

10 

102  3^ 

21 

11,793 

15 

17.274 

6 

10.010 

1 

1,285 

24 

11,430 

12 

,1,540 

5 

9,661 

3 

3,416 

3 

5,811 

3 

710 

3 

3,171 

2 

1,276 

137 

43,012 

31 

24,783 

18 

10,517 

2 

1,057 

29 

8,039 

1 

851 

3 

21 

3 

2,188 

1 

185 

4 

220 

5 

3,916 

1 

1.415 

8 

1,471 

7 

1,973 

22 

4,355 

45 

23,837 

9 

10,796 

480 

230,053  y^ 

African  Direct  Telegraph  Company 

Amazon  Telegraph  Company 

Anglo-American  Telegraph  Company 

Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  Company 

Central  and  South  American  Telegraph  Company 

Commercial  Cable  Company 

Commercial  Pacific 

Commercial  Cable  Company  of  Cuba 

Compagnie  Francaise  des  Cables  Telegraphiques 

Cuba  Submarine  Telegraph  Company 

Deutsch  Atlantische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaf t 

Deutsch-Niederlandische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 

Deutsch  Sudamerikanische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 

Direct  Spanish  Telegraph  Company 

Direct  United  States  Cable  Company : 

Direct  West  India  Cable  Company 

Eastern  Telegraph  Company 

Eastern  Extension,  Australasia  and  China  Telegraph  Company 

Eastern  and  South  African  Telegraph  Company 

Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Company 

Great  Northern  Telegraph  Company 

Halifax  and  Bermudas  Cable  Company 

Indo-European  Telegraph  Company 

Mexican  Telegraph  Company 

Osteuropaische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 

River  Plate  Telegraph  Company 

South  American  Cable  Company .  .  . 

United  States  and  Hayti  Telegraph  and  Cable  Company 

West  African  Telegraph  Company 

West  Coast  of  America  Telegraph  Company 

West  India  and  Panama  Telegraph  Company 

Western  Telegraph  Company^ 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company 

Total 


A  new  Western  Union  cable,  4,200  miles  long,  was  laid  in   19li,  and  is  not  included 
in  above. 

GENERAL  SUMMARY. 


Number 
of  Cables 
with  one 

or  more 
cores. 

Length 
of  Cables 

in 
Nautical 

Miles. 

Government  Administrations .... 

2.457  Yi 
480 

61,083  >^ 

Private  Companies 

230,053  H 

Total 

2,9373^ 

291,137 

Partly  extracted  from   the  Official  Documents  issued  by   the  Internationa    Bureau  of 
Telegraphic  Administrations,  Berne. — Electrical  Trades  Directory. 


This  table  and  that  showing  "Land  Lines  of  the  World"  are  the  best  obtainable,  but  i 
are  not  believed  to  be  free  from  error.  ' 


290 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WEST  INDIES, 
MEXIOO,  CEN.  A.MERICA 

AND  NORTHERN  PART  OF 

SOUTH  AMERICA 


NORTHWEST 
TERRITORIES 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


291 


RULES  FOR  CABLE  MESSAGES. 


1.  Every  message  must  be  prepaid,  un- 
less otherwise  specially  authorized,  and  all 
words  in  the  address,  text  and  signature  are 
counted  and  charged  for.  No  charge  is  made 
for  the  transmission  of  the  name  of  the 
originating  office. 

ADDRESSES. 

2.  In  the  address  of  any  message,  the  name 
of  the  office  of  destination,  the  name  of  the 
country  and  the  name  of  the  territorial  sub- 
division are  each  counted  as  one  word,  no 
matter  how  many  letters  are  employed. 

3.  The  address  of  every  message  must  con- 
sist of  at  least  two  words,  the  first  indicating 
the  name  of  the  receiver  and  the  second  the 
name  of  the  office  of  destination. 

4.  The  sender  is  responsible  for  an  incor- 
rect or  insufficient  address.  Corrections  and 
alterations  can  only  be  made  by  a  paid  service 
message. 

5.  No  message  can  be  accepted  (except  at 
"Sender's  Risk")  when  addressed  to  the  care 
of  a  registered  address  unless  the  words  "  care" 
or  "care  of,"  or  their  equivalent,  be  placed 
between  the  addressee's  name,  or  destination, 
and  the  registered  address;  thus  a  message 
for  "Meyer,  Berlin,"  to  be  delivered  to  the 
registered  address  "Dervish,  Berlin,"  should 
be  addressed  "Meyer,  care  (or  'care  of) 
Dervish.  Berlin." 

6.  It  an  indication  of  any  particular  route 
be  given  by  the  sender  and  considered 
necessary  by  the  company,  it  will  be  for- 
warded free;  such  indication,  when  given, 
must  be  transmitted  immediately  after  the 
address;  that  is,  as  a  part  of  the  address,  and 
before  the  text  of  the  message. 

7.  Messages  destined  for  places  beyond 
the  lines  of  telegraph  must  contain  in- 
structions as  to  the  name  of  the  place  from 
which  they  are  to  be  posted.  Such  instruc- 
tions must  be  inserted  as  a  part  of  the  address, 
and  must  be  paid  for. 

PLAIN  MESSAGES. 

8.  Plain  messages  (i.  e.,  neither  C!ode  nor 
Cipher)  may  be  written  in  any  language  that 
can  be  expressed  in  Roman  letters.  In  such 
messages  each  word  of  fifteen  letters  or  less 
is  counted  as  a  word,  and  words  of  over  fifteen 
letters  are  counted  at  the  rate  of  fifteen 
letters  or  fractions  of  fifteen  letters  to  a  word. 

CODE  MESSAGES. 

9.  Code  messages  may  contain  words 
belonging  to  one  or  more  of  the  following 
languages:  English,  French,  German,  Italian, 
Dutch,  Portuguese,  Spanish  and  Latin.  The 
use  of  words  of  other  languages  is  not  allowed. 
Code  messages  may  also  contain  artificial 
words — that  is,  groups  of  letters  so  combined 
as  to  be  pronounceable  in  at  least  one  of  the 
eight  admitted  languages.  In  code  messages 
each  code  word  (whether  genuine  or  artificial) 
of  ten  letters  or  less  is  counted  as  a  word,  and 
no  code  word  of  more  than  ten  letters  can  be 
accepted.  If  any  words  in  plain  language, 
and  of  more  than  ten  letters  each,  are  used 
in  code  messages,  they  are  counted  at  the 
rate  of  ten  letters  or  fraction  of  ten  letters 
to  a  word. 


CIPHER  MESSAGES. 

10.  In  cipher  messages,  which  may  be 
composed  of  groups  of  figures  or  of  groups 
of  letters,  the  groups  are  counted  at  the  rate 
of  five  figures  or  letters,  or  fraction  thereof,  to 
a  word. 

COUNTING  OF  WORDS,  ETC. 

11.  Every  isolated  figure,  letter  or  char- 
acter counts  as  one  word. 

12.  Words  joined  by  a  hyphen  or  separated 
by  an  apostrophe  are  counted  as  so  many 
separate  words. 

13.  Signs  of  punctuation,  hyphens  and 
apostrophes  are  not  counted  or  sent  except 
upon  formal  demand  of  the  sender,  in  which 
case  they  will  be.charged  for  as  one  word  each. 

14.  When  the  letters  "ch"  come  together 
in  the  spelling  of  a  word,  they  are  counted  as 
one  letter.  In  artificial  words,  however,  the 
combination  is  counted  as  two  letters. 

15.  Abbreviated  and  misspelled  words 
and  illegitimate  compound  words  and  words 
combined  in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  usages 
of  any  of  the  languages  authorized  by  Rule  9, 
also  unpronounceable  groups  of  letters  (not 
trade-marks  or  marks  of  commerce),  are  in- 
admissible, but  if  they  should  accidentally 
appear  in  a  message  the  unpronounceable 
groups  will  be  counted  at  the  rate  of  five 
letters,  or  fraction  of  five  letters,  as  one  word, 
and  the  others  in  accordance  with  the  number 
of  words  they  actually  contain. 

16.  Inverted  commas,  the  two  signs  of  the 
parenthesis  and  each  separate  figure,  letter 
or  underline  will  be  counted  as  one  word. 
Groups  of  figures  will  be  counted  and  charged 
for  at  the  rate  of  five  figures,  or  fraction 
thereof,  as  one  word. 

17.  Decimal  points  and  commas,  used  in 
the  formation  of  numbers,  also  bars  of 
division  and  letters  added  to  figures  to  form 
ordinal  numbers,  are  to  be  counted  as  a  figure, 
and  charged  for  at  the  rate  of  five  figures,  or 
fraction  thereof,  as  one  word. 

18.  The  following  examples  will  determine 
the  interpretation  of  the  rules  to  be  followed 
in  counting: 

Alright 2 

Unconstitutional     (16    letters)..  2 

A-t-il    3 

Aujourdhui    1 

Aujourd'hui     2 

Newyork    1 

New    York     2     1 

Frankfort    Main    2     1 

Frankfurtmain    1     1 

Starokonstantinow     (Town    in 

Russia)    2     1 

Emmingen   Wurtemberg    2     1 

Van  de  Brande    3 

Vandebrande     1 

Dubois   1 

Du    Bois    2 

Hyde    Park     2 

Hydepark   (contrary  to  usage  of 

the   language)     2 

(Continued  on  page  293.) 


292 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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EUROPE  WITH  CONNECTING 
LINES  AND  CABLES  TO 

ASIA.  AFRICA.  NORTH 

AMERICA  AND  SOUTH 

AMERICA. 

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The  general  day  and  night  press  cable  rate 
between  London  and  New  York  is  7  cents  a 
word,  with  the  following  reduction  at  certain 
hours:     London  to  New  York,  12  midnight  to 


6  A.  M.  (London  time),  5  cents  a  word;  New 
York  to  London,  12  midnight  to  6  A.  M.  and 
1  P  M.  to  4  P.  M.  (New  York  time),  5  cents 
a  word. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


293 


(Continued  from  page  291) 

Saintjames  Street    2 

Saint   James   Street    3 

44%    (4   figures  and  sign) 1 

444,55  (5  figures  and  sign) 2 

$100 2 

Onehundred    dollars    2 

10   fr.    50    3 

llh    30    3 

44     1 

44/2     1 

2%     1 

Two  hundred  and  thirty  four.  .  5 
Twohundredandthirtyfour    (23 

letters)     2 

State  of  Maryland   (name  of 

ship) 3 

Stateofmaryland   (name  of  ship)   1 

Emvchf    (6   letters)     2 

Ch   23    (trade  mark)    1 

iE  ..         1 

ra 
3 
—  "  1 

C.    H.    F.    45 2 

The    business    is    urgent,    start    at    once 
(7  words  and  2  underlines) .  .    9 

Send  reply    (if  any)   by  mail    (6  words 
and    parentheses) 7 

Explain  "reversal"  (2  words  and 
inverted    commas    3 

REPETITIONS. 

19.  At  the  time  of  filing  a  message  its 
sender  may,  upon  payment  of  a  quarter  rate 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  tolls,  order  it 
repeated,  in  which  case  the  various  relay 
offices  en  route  repeat  it  to  each  other  as  it 
passes.  The  words  "repetition  paid,"  or 
the  indication  "T.  C,"  must  be  inserted 
immediately  after  the  address;  that  is,  as  a 
part  of  the  address  and  before  the  text,  and 
IS  charged  for. 

The  indication  "T.  C."  counts  as  one  word. 

20.  If  repetition  of  a  doubtful  word  or 
words  be  requested  by  the  addressee  of  a 
message,  the  same  may  be  procured  by  free 
service  message  to  the  office  at  which  the 
message  reached  the  lines,  pr  to  the  Cable 
Department,  New  York. 

21.  Every  message  exchanged  between 
two  telegraph  offices  to  rectify  a  mistake  of 
the  sender  is  charged  for  at  full  rates. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT  OF  RECEIPT. 

22.  The  sender  may  request  that  notice  of 
the  date  and  time  at  which  his  message  is 
delivered  to  the  addressee,  or,  when  posted  to 
destination,  the  date  and  time  handed  to  the 
Post  Office,  be  transmitted  to  him  by  telegraph 
or  Postal  Card.  The  words  "acknowledg- 
ment PAID,"  or  the  indication  "P.  C,"  if 
notice  is  to  be  given  by  telegraph,  or  "P.  C.  P.," 
if  notice  is  to  be  given  by  Postal  Card,  besides 
being  transmitted  in  the  check  free,  must  be 
inserted  immediately  after  the  address,  and  is 
charged  for.  The  indications  "P.  C."  and 
"P,  C.  P."  count  each  as  one  word. 


The  charge  for  a  telegraphic  "acknowledg- 
ment of  receipt"  is  equal  to  that  for  a  message 
of  five  words  to  same  destination  by  same 
route. 

PREPAID  REPLIES. 

23.  The  sender  of  a  message  may  pay  for 
a  reply  thereto,  but  he  must  decide  as  to  the 
length  of  the  reply  paid  for.  The  indications 
"R.  P."  (meaning  Reply  Paid),  together  with 
the  number  of  words  prepaid,  miist  be  in- 
serted immediately  before  the  address,  that 
is,  as  a  part  of  the  address,  and  is  charged 
for.  The  indication  "R.  P.  5,"  "R.  P.  10," 
"R.  P.  14,"  etc.,  counts  as  one  word. 

When  accepting  a  message  for  which  a 
reply  has  been  prepaid,  the  originating  office 
will  collect,  in  addition  to  the  charges  there- 
for, the  full  charges  for  the  reply  as  indicated. 

The  sender  of  such  a  message  should  under- 
stand that  the  toll  paid  for  the  reply  is  not  a 
deposit,  but  is  practically  a  remittance  to  his 
correspondent,  to  whom  the  foreign  telegraph 
administrations  deliver  with  the  message  a 
voucher  specifying  the  amount  and  number 
of  words  paid  for,  which  voucher  entitles 
him  to  send  free  of  charge,  within  the  limits 
of  the  amount  prepaid,  a  telegram  to  any 
destination  whatever,  and  from  any  office 
of  the  administration  whose  office  issued  the 
voucher. 

TABLE  OF  CABLE  WORD  RATES. 

Following  is  a  brief  list  of  rates  to  some  of 
the  principal  countries.  The  rate,  of  course, 
varies  according  to  the  location  of  the  city  or 
town  in  the  United  States.  Thus,  the  rate 
from  New  York  City  to  the  Argentine  Republic 
is  65  cents  a  word,  while  the  rate  from  Mexico 
would  be  74  cents  a  word.  It  is  not  feasible 
to  give  the  rates  from  all  of  the  states,  as  this 
can  be  readily  obtained  from  the  rate  books 
of  telegraph  companies.  The  following  rates 
give  the  cost  per  word  from  New  York  City: 

Argentine  Republic  . .  .  , $0.65 

Austraha  and  New  Zealand 66 

Austria ; 32 

Barbados 91 

Belgium 25 

British  Guiana 1.08 

Chili 65 

China, 

Macao 1.27 

Other  places 1.22 

Cuba,  Havana 15 

Cuba,  other  cities 20 

Denmark 35 

England 25 

France 25 

Germany 25 

Greece 36 

Holland 25 

Honolulu 47 

Hungary 32 

India 74 

Ireland 25 

Italy 31 

Jamaica 48 

Japan 1.33 

Norway 35 

Panama  Republic 40 

Peru 65 

Philippines  (Manila) 1.12 

Porto  Rico 50 

Portugal..^ •. .39 


294 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Russia  in  Europe $0.43 

Scotland 25 

Spain,    Prov.    of    Barcelona,    Gerona, 

Lerida  and  Tarragona 38 

Spain,  other  offices 40 

Sweden 38 

Switzerland 30 

Turkey  in  Europe 36 

Uruguay 65 

Wales 25 

The  rate  from  New  York  City  to  Great 
Britain,  Ireland,  France,  Germany,  Belgium 
and  Holland  is  25  cents  a  word.  The  rate  in 
very  few  cases  is  increased  more  than  31 
cents  a  word  from  inland  places,  except  such 
states,  etc.,  as  Arizona,  British  Cblumbia, 
California,  Idaho,  Nevada,' Oregon,  Utah  and 
Washington,  where  the  rate  is  37  cents  per 
word.  Arkansas,  Colorado,  most  places  in 
Florida,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Louisiana,  Manitoba, 
Minnesota,  Missouri  (other  than  St.  Louis  and 
a  few  other  places),  Montana,  Nebraska,  New 
Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  South 
Dakota,  Texas  and  Wyoming  have  a  rate  of 
34  cents  a  word.  The  rate  from  all  the  other 
states  is  31  cents  or  less. 

There  are  many  places,  particularly  in 
Eastern,  Northern  and  Southern  Africa, 
which  are  very  difficult  to  reach  by  cable  and 
the  rate  is  very  high,  amounting  in  some  cases 
to  as  much  as  $4.86  per  word.  Any  telegraph 
cable  office  will  be  glad  to  give  specific  infor- 
mation relative  to  such  rates.  The  cable 
rates  to  the  West  Indies  in  some  cases  are  very 
high,  as  for  instance,  Santo  Domingo  and 
Curacao  to  which  the  rates  are  $1.32  and 
$1.38  per  word  respectively  from  New  York. 
The  rates  to  South  America  are  apt  to  be  very 
high,  particularly  to  Peru.  The  rate  to 
Bermuda  from  New  York  City  is  42  cents  per 
word;  to  Turk's  Island,  56  cents  per  word. 

CABLE  LETTERS. 

Cable  Letters,  accepted  at  any  hour,  are 
taken  at  the  low  rate  of  75  cents  for  12  words 
and  5  cents  for  each  additional  word  plus 
small  additional  charges  beyond  the  cable 
stations  and  points  of  original  destination. 
They  must  be  written  in  plain  language  of  the 
country  of  origin  or  destination.  They  are 
deliverable  at  the  convenience  of  the  company 
within  24  hours  of  the  time  of  filing.  Because 
of  the  additional  charges  beyond  these  places 
all  Cable  Letters  not  destined  to  London  or 
Liverpool  will  be  mailed  beyond  London  un- 
less otherwise  arranged  by  sender. 

If  destined  to  points  in  Great  Britain  other 
than  London  or  Liverpool  the  added  charge 
for  telegraphic  delivery  will  be  12  cents  for 
12  words  or  less,  cable  count,  and  1  cent  for 
each  additional  word.  If  sent  by  telegraph 
to  France  the  added  charge  will  be  7H  cents 
per  word,  cable  count;  to  Germany  9  cents 
per  word,  cable  count;  to  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium 5  cents  per  word,  cable  count,  and  so  on. 

Plain  EngUsh,  or  Anglicized  foreign  words 
in  common  use  such  as  Chauffeur,  Au  revoir, 
etc.,  as  used  in  a  plain  English  message,  may 
be  accepted.  No  code  words  except  those  in 
registered  addresses  will  be  allowed. 

Figures  may  be  used  in  their  natural  sense 
in  Cable  Letters,  and  are  counted  as  in  regular 
cable  messages. 

The  indication  "  R.  P."  including  the  num- 
ber of  words  prepaid  is  counted  and  charged 
for  as  one  word. 


The  term  "deferred  rate"  should  not  be 
used  in  connection  with  Cable  Letters. 

DEFERRED  CABLE  SERVICE 

Commencing  January  1,  1912,  a  deferred 
cable  service  was  inaugurated  subject  to  all 
the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  regular  cable 
service  with  the  following  exceptions: 

1.  Messages  must  be  in  plain  language, 
either  French  or  the  language  of  country  of 
origin  or  destination  authorized  for  inter- 
national correspondence.  The  use  of  two  or 
more  languages  in  the  same  message  is  not 
permitted. 

2.  All  numbers  except  those  used  in  ad- 
dress must  be  written  in  words  at  full  length. 

3.  The  messages  must  contain  at  least  one 
text  word. 

4.  Senders  must  in  every  case  write  before 
the  address  and  pay  for  as  one  word  the 
letters  LCF,  LCO  or  LCD,  as  in  the  nature 
of  a  declaration  that  the  communication  is  in 
the  French  language  or  the  language  of 
country  of  origin  or  destination  as  case  may 
be. 

5.  Messages  are  liable  to  be  deferred  in 
favor  of  those  paid  for  at  full  rates,  for  a  period 
not  exceeding  24  hours.  If  delayed  beyond 
that  time  they  take  their  turn  with  full  paid 
traffic. 

6.  Rate  charged  for  deferred  cables  is  one- 
half  the  rate  charged  for  full  paid  cables 
between  the  same  terminals  except  between 
points  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  on  the  one 
hand  and  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  on 
the  other,  when  the  deferred  rate  is  3^  cents 
less  than  half  the  regular  rate  from  Hoboken 
and  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  New  York  City  and 
Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Eastern  Canada  and  New 
England  States  3  cents  less  than  half  rate 
from  other  places. 


Aden,  Arabia. 

Algeria. 

Angola. 

Argentine  Republic. 

Ascension  Island. 

AustraUa. 

Austria. 

Azores. 

Balearic  Islands. 

Bathurst,  British  W. 

Africa. 
Belgium.  , 
Belgian  Congo. 
Borneo  (British). 
Brazil. 
British    East  Africa 

and  Uganda. 
Burmah. 
Canary  Islands. 
Cape  Colony. 
Cape  Verde  Island. 
Ceylon. 
Chile. 
China: 

Amoy. 

Chefoo. 

Foochow. 

Hankow. 

Hong  Kong. 

Macao. 

Pekin. 

Shanghai. 


Tientsin. 
Tsingtau. 
Weihaiwei. 
Cochin  China. 

Cocos  Island. 

Cyprus. 

Dahomey. 

Denmark. 

Egypt. 

Fanning  Islands. 

Fiji  Islands. 

France. 

French  Guinea. 

French  Indo  China. 

French  West  Africa. 
French  Soudan. 
Mauretania. 
Senegal. 

Germany. 

German     East     Africa 
(except    Bismarck- 
burg  and  Udjidji.) 

Gibraltar. 

Gold  Coast,  Africa. 

Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. 

Greece. 

Guinea     Portuguese 

Holland. 

Hungary. 

Iceland. 

India  (British). 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


295 


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296 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Rhodesia  Northern 
(except  Abercom, 
Fife,  Rhodesia  and 
Fort  Jameson). 

Rhodesia. 
(Southern) . 

Rodrigues  Island. 

St.  Helena  Island. 

St.    Thomas    Island. 

Senegal. 

Servia. 

Seychelles. 

Sierra  Leone. 

Somaliland  (British). 

South    African    Union. 

Spain. 

Straits     Settlements 
(Velantan  excepted) 
and  Malay  States. 

Sudan. 

Sweden. 

Switzerland. 

Tasmania. 

Transvaal. 

Tunis. 

Uruguay. 

Zanzibar. 


Indo  China. 

Italy. 

Ivory  Coast. 

Labuan  Island. 

Luxemburg. 

Madagascar. 

Madeira  Is. 

Malta. 

Mauritius  Island. 

Morocco  (except  Casa- 
blanca,   Mogador 
and  Rabat) . 

New  Zealand. 

Nigeria. 

Norfolk  Island. 

Norway. 

Obok. 

Orange  River  Colony. 

Paraguay. 

Perim  Island. 

Peru. 

Portugal. 

Portuguese    East 
Africa 

Portuguese    West 
Africa 

Principe  Island. 

Reunion  Island. 

WEEK  END  LETTERS 
Week  End  Letters  filed  before  midnight 
Saturday  are  dehverable  the  following  Monday 
morning.  The  rate  is  $1.15  for  24  words  and 
5  cents  for  each  additional  word,  plus  small 
additional  charges  between  the  cable  stations 
and  points  of  destination.  Week  end  letters 
must  be  written  in  plain  language  of  the 
country  of  origin  or  destination. 

All  Week  End  Letters  not  destined  to 
London  or  Liverpool  will  be  mailed  beyond 
London  unless  otherwise  arranged  by  sender. 
If  destined  to  points  in  Great  Britain  other 
than  London  or  Liverpool  the  added  charge  for 
telegraphic  delivery  will  be  as  given  under 
"Cable  Letters,"  same  rules  also  apply  for 
words,  etc.  

A  nine-word  message  has  been  despatched 
from  a  newspaper  office  in  New  York  back  to 
the  starting  point,  the  lapse  of  time  being 
exactly  sixteen  and  one-half  minutes.  The 
message  traveled  via  Honolulu,  Manila,  Hong 
Kong,  Singapore,  Bombay,  Suez,  Gibraltar 
and  the  Azores.  _ 

The  first  telegraph  line  in  the  United 
States  was  opened  for  business  in  1844;  the 
telephone  was  introduced  in  1876  by  Prof. 
A.  G.  Bell. 


THE  FIRST  ATLANTIC  CABLE. 

August  5th  of  1908  was  the  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  the  Atlantic  Cable,  that  being  the 
day  of  the  month  in  1858  on  which — contrary 
to  authoritative  opinion — the  engineer  of  one 
of  the  greatest  achievements  of  the  nineteenth 
century  completed  the  laying  of  the  submarine 
line  between  Ireland  and  Newfoundland,  the 
length  being  over  two  thousand  miles,  and 
the  depth  nearly  three  miles  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  distance.  The  projectors  were  Mr. 
John  Watkins  Bright,  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir 
Charles)  Bright  and  Mr.  Cyrus  West  Field. 
Mr.  Bright  was  also  the  engineer-in-chief 
of  the  undertaking,  and  he  received  the  honor 
of  knighthood  in  recognition  of  his  services 
to  the  country  in  connection  therewith,  at 
the  unprecedented  age  of  26. 

Electrical  theories  were,  however,  mistaken 
at  that  time,  and  the  electricians  applied  far 
too  much  power  for  the  transmission  of  signals, 
the  result  being  that  the  insulation  suffered 
by  degrees,  until  after  three  months'  useful 
work  the  cable  gradually  succumbed. 

After  a  number  of  cables  had  been  laid  by 
Sir  Charles  Bright,  Mr.  H.  C.  Forde,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Siemens  and  others  to  India,  Gibraltar, 
Alexandria,  &c.,  another   Atlantic  Cable  ex- 

f)edition  started  in  1865.  This  was  the  first 
ine  that  was  laid  by  the  manufacturers  of  the 
cable,  these  contractors  being  the  Telegraph 
Construction  and  Maintenance  Company,  with 
Mr.  (afterward  Sir  Samuel)  Canning  for  their 
chief  engineer,  whilst  Sir  Charles  Bright  and 
Mr.  Latimer  Clark  acted  as  consulting  en- 
gineers to  the  proprietors.  Notwithstand- 
mg  the  extra  knowledge  and  experience  gained 
in  regard  to  the  subject  generally,  this  ex- 
pedition met  with  as  many  mishaps  as  the 
first"  expedition  of  1857;  but  in  1866 — as 
in  1858 — the  same  arrangements  ultimately 
achieved  success,  since  which  the  construction, 
laying,  and  working  of  submarine  telegraphs 
has  passed  from  the  pioneer  stage  to  that  of 
ordinary  routine. 

The  engineering  methods  were  similar  to 
those  adopted  eight  years  previously;  but  the 
line  proved  a  lasting  success,  owing  to  the 
advances  made  in  electrical  science  and  in  the 
practical  working  of  cables.  On  the  electrical 
side,  in  addition  of  the  late  Lord  Kelvin,  the 
names  of  Varley  and  Willoughby  Smith  must 
always  be  honorably  associated  with  the 
subject,  and  the  late  Sir  John  Pender  did  more 
than  any  man  for  the  commercial  develop- 
ment of  submarine  telegraphy. 


THE  CABLE  ALPHABET. 


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The  cut  above  shows  the  Morse  Code  as  recorded  by  a  syphon  recorder.  Syphon  recorders 
are  used  for  receiving  cable  messages.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  spaces  are  represented  by 
horizontal  lines,  dots  by  loops  above  the  space  lines,  and  dashes  by  loops  below  the  space  lines. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


297 


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AFRICA  AND 

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AND  SO.AMERJCA 

298 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


S 

'  SA VK ' 


o 

our' 


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'souls' 


WIRELESS  ROOM  OF  U.  S.  REVENUE  CUTTER  "GRESHAM. 


CHAPTER  X. 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY, 


Wireless  telegraphy  is,  in  theory,  closely 
"allied  to  heliography,  or  signaling  with  flashes 
of  light.  The  light  used,  however,  is  produced 
electrically  and  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  made  up  of  very 
long  waves,  called  Hertzian  waves,  which  vi- 
brate too  slowly  to  affect  the  retina.  The  eye 
can  onlv  discern  waves  which  make  from 
4,000  billions  to  7,000  billions  vibrations  per 
minute.  However,  the  Hertzian  ray  resem- 
bles light  in  that  it  can  be  reflected  by  a 
metallic  plate  and  can  be  refracted  by  a  prism 
of  pitch,  can  be  brought  to  a  focus  with  a 
pitch  lens,  and  may  be  polarized.  Owing  to 
the  great  length  of  the  Hertzian  waves,  almost 
all  substances  are  transparent  to  them.  The 
Hertzian  waves  were  discovered  by  Professor 
Heinrich  Hertz,  a  young  German  philosopher, 
during  his  experiments  with  the  spark  dis- 
charge of  Leyden  jars  and  of  the  Ruhmkorff 
coil  in  1886  and  1887. 

He  found  that  when  a  spark  leaped  the  gap 
between  the  terminals,  electric  oscillations 
took  place  in  these  terminals  which  set  up 
magnetic  waves  in  the  surrounding  space, 
capable  in  turn  of  setting  up  similar  oscilla- 
tions in  any  adjacent  conductor  lying  at  an 
angle  to  them.  The  waves  were  detected  by 
using  a  "resonator,"  which  was  merely  a  circle 
or  a  rectangle  of  copper  wire  formed  with  a 
gap  in  one  side.  When  the  induction  coil  was 
in  operation  and  the  resonator  coil  was  held 
near  the  coil,  a  tiny  stream  of  sparks  would 
leap  across  the  resonator  gap.  To  better 
understand  this  phenomenon  take  as  a  crude 
example  two  vertical  rods  in  a  pool  of  water 
and  on  each  a  float  free  to  slide  vertically  on 
the  rod.  Now,  if  one  of  these  floats  be  moved 
up  and  down  upon  its  rod,  it  produces  waves 
in  the  water  just  as  the  electric  oscillation 
produces  waves  in  the  ether.  These  spread 
out  in  all  directions  and  on  reaching  the  other 
float  cause  it  to  oscillate  up  and  down,  just 
as  the  magnetic  waves  produce  electric  oscilla- 
tions in  the  resonator. 

Without  going  into  a  detailed  history  of 
the  development  of  wireless  telegraphy  from 
Hertz's  experiments,  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  essential  diff'erence  between  the  apparatus 
used  by  Hertz  in  his  experiments  and  the 
several  systems  now  commonly  in  use  Hes  in 
the  receiver.  The  transmitter  is  practically 
the  same.  A  vertical  wire  called  the  antenna 
i.s  connected  to  one  terminal  of  the  coil,  and 
the  other  terminal  is  connected  with  the  earth, 
the  purpose  being  to  increase  the  electrical 
capacity  of  the  terminal  rods  .and  produce 
larger  waves.  Instead  of  producing  the  oscil- 
lations by  means  of  an  induction  coil,  they 


are  now  ordinarily  produced  by  a  dynamo  and 
a  step-up  transformer  except  for  telegraphing 
over  short  distances.  But  even  with  these 
changes  we  would  not  be  able  to  telegraph 
over  any  appreciable  distance  if  dependent 
upon  the  Hertz  resonator  for  receiving  a  mes- 
sage, for,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  waves 
spread  out  in  all  directions  from  the  trans- 
mitting antenna,  the  receiving  antenna  is 
acted  upon  by  a  very  small  proportion  of  the 
power  expended  by  the  transmitter,  and  this 
proportion  decreases  very  rapidly  as  the  dis- 
tance between  the  transmitter  and  the  receiver 
increases.  In  order  then  to  detect  the  rays 
at  long  distances,  a  very  sensitive  instrument 
called  the  "coherer"  has  been  invented.  The 
coherer  in  its  usual  form  consists  of  a  glass 
tube  with  two  metal  pistons  fitted  therein  be- 
tween which  a  quantity  of  nickel  filings  is 
placed.  The  latter  forms  an  imperfect  elec- 
trical contact  between  the  pistons,  and  takes 
the  place  of  the  spark  gap  in  the  receiving 
antenna.  When  the  oscillations  are  set  up  in 
the  antenna  by  the  Hertzian  waves,  due  to 
their  high  pressure  or  voltage,  they  break 
through  the  imperfect  contact  of  the  coherer, 
causing  the  filings  therein  to  cohere  or  string 
together  and  thus  produce  a  much  better 
electric  path  through  the  coherer.  The  action 
is  microscopic  and  cannot  be  detected  with 
the  naked  eye.  However,  the  coherer,  aside 
from  being  a  part  of  the  antenna  circuit,  is 
also  made  a  part  of  a  local  battery  circuit, 
which  contains  a  telegraph  receiver,  and  when- 
ever the  electric  oscillations  open  a  good  path 
through  the  filings  for  the  local  circuit,  the 
telegraph  instrument  will  be  energized  by  the 
local  battery  only.  In  order  to  break  this 
path  after  tlie  oscillations  have  ceased,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  cause  the  filings  to  decohere, 
they  are  constantly  jarred  apart  by  means  of 
the  "tapper,"  which  is  in  reahty  an  electric 
bell  with  the  gong  removed  and  the  clapper 
striking  the  coherer  tube  instead.  Carbon 
granules  may  be  substituted  for  metallic  fil- 
ings, and  in  this  case  no  tapper  is  necessary, 
the  coherer  being  self-restoring. 

In  transmitting  messages  a  telegraph  key 
in  the  primary  circuit  of  the  induction  coil  is 
operated  according  to  the  usual  Morse  code, 
and  this  causes  sparks  to  leap  the  spark  gap 
at  corresponding  intervals.  These  signals  will 
then  be  transmitted  by  the  Hertzian  waves  to 
the  receiving  station,  where  they  will  be  re- 
corded by  the  telegraph  receiver.  The  co- 
herer is  not  by  any  means  the  only  wave  de- 
tector in  use.  Every  wireless  telegraph  com- 
pany has  one  or  more  different  types  of 
detectors. 


299 


300 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


The  Dover-Calais  and  Folkestone-Boulogne 
turbine  steamers  have  been  equipped  with  the 
Marconi  wireless  apparatus,  llhe  expense  for 
telegrams  from  the  ship  to  any  part  of  Eng- 
land is  6  cents,  with  a  minimum  charge  of 


62  cents;  to  any  part  of  France,  Germany  or 
Belgium,  9  cents  a  word;  to  Switzerland,  Italy 
and  Austria,  10  cents  a  word,  and  to  Denmark, 
Sweden  and  Nonvay,  1 1  cents  a  word,  with  a 
minimum  charge  in  each  case  of  75  cents. 


MARCONI  WIRELESS  STATIONS  FOR  THE  IMPERIAL  TELEGRAPH  SERVICE. 


MARCONI   HIGH   POWER  STATION   AT 

SOUTH  WELLFLEET,  MASS. 

(CAPE  COD.) 


NAVY  STATION  AT  ARLINGTON,  VA. 

Observed  time  will  be  sent  out  regularly 

from  this  station. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


301 


WIRELESS  STATIONS. 


A  complete  list  of  wireless  telegraph  sta- 
tions of  the  world,  including  shore  stations, 
merchant  vessels,  revenue  cutters  and  vessels 
of  the  United  States  Navy,  is  published  peri- 
odically by  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering 
of  the  Department  of  the  Navy.  The  edition 
for  January  1,  1912,  consists  of  165  pages. 
Copies  of  this  pubUcation  can  be  obtained 
from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
United  States  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
D.  C,  at  a  cost  of  15  cents.  The  section  de- 
voted to  wireless  telegraphy  in  this  book  as 
regards  the  United  States  is  taken  from  this 
work  and  is  corrected  to  June  12,  1912,  but 
many  who  would  like  to  have  the  call  letters, 
etc.,  of  foreign  wireless  shore  stations,  also  the 
call  letters,  etc.,  of  vessels  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  the  United  States  Army,  revenue  cut- 
ters, and  all  steamships  which  are  equipped 
with  wireless,  should  purchase  this  inexpen- 
sive pamphlet.  Space  forbade  the  publica- 
tion of  this  list  in  full. 

Wireless  communication  was  an  established 
fact  for  more  than  ten  years  before  the  ships 
"Republic"  and  "Florida"  collided  on  Jan- 
uary 23,  1909.  The  wonderful  salvage  opera- 
tion which  was  only  rendered  possible  by  the 
prompt  action  of  the  vessel  summoned  by 
wireless  called  instant  attention  to  the  im- 
portance of  wireless  as  a  safeguard  from  the 
dangers  of  the  sea.     The  "Republic"  might 


have  gone  down  to  the  bottom  without  news 
of  the  disaster  and  with  none  of  the  passengers 
and  crew  saved,  except  possibly  a  few  of  them 
who  escaped  by  life  boats,  had  it  not  been  for 
this  most  practical  invention.  It  was  two 
days  after  "La  Bourgoyne"  sank  before  the 
story  of  the  catastrophe  became  known.  The 
next  interesting  use  of  the  wireless  was  per- 
haps the  detection  and  arrest  of  Dr.  Crippen 
for  the  crime  of  murder.  There  is  no  more 
weird  story  in  the  annals  of  crime  than  how 
the  unseen  wireless  brought  Dr.  Crippen  to 
the  noose.  Stations  that  were  practically  un- 
known became  suddenly  vitaHzed,  and  to-day 
Cape  Sable,  Belle  Isle,  Fame  Point  and  Father 
Point  are  household  words. 

On  the  14th  of  April,  at  11.46  P.  M.,  ship's 
time,  the  "Titanic"  struck  an  iceberg.  Within 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  the  Captain  visited 
the  wireless  room  and  instructed  the  operator 
to  get  assistance.  The  two  calls  "C.Q.D." 
and  "S.O.S."  began  to  flash  from  the  aerials, 
and  the  message  of  despair  from  the  sinking 
vessel  was  heard  by  the  "Mount  Temple, "  the 
"Frankfurt''  and  the  "Carpathia."  "The  Cap- 
tain of  the  "Carpathia"  immediately  turned 
arbund  and  succeeded  in  reaching  the  "Ti- 
tanic" after  she  sank,  and  rescued  a  portion 
of  her  passengers  and  crew.  Had  it  not  been 
for  the  wireless  the  probabilities  are  that  very 
few,  if  any,  survivors  would  have  remained  to 
tell  the  awful  tale. 


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WIRELESS  STATIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA.     A  GREAT 
CENTER  OF  WIRELESS  ACTIVITY. 


302 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH  SHORE  STATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  AND  CANADA. 


Name  and  Location 
of  Station. 


Call 
Letters. 


Range  in 
Nautical 

Miles. 


Power 

in 

Kilowatts. 


Wave 

Length  in 

Meters. 


Character  of 
Station. 


UNITED  STATES. 

ATLANTIC    AND    GULF    COASTS. 

Eastport,  Me 

Portland,  Me 

Fort  Levitt,  Me 

Portsmouth,  N.  H 

Amesbury,  Mass 

Cambridge,  Mass 

Fort  Andrews,  Mass 

Brant  Rock,  Mass 

Chatham,  Mass 

Chelsea,  Mass 

Boston,  Mass 

Boston,  Mass 

Boston,  Mass 

Cape  Cod,  Mass 

Cape  Cod,  South  Wellfleet» . 

Cape  Cod,  Mass 

Siasconsett,  Mass .  . 

Quincy,  Mass 

Quincy,  Mass 

Nantucket  Shoals  Lightship . 

Newport,  R.  I 

Providence,  R.  I 

Point  Judith,  R.  I 

Block  Island,  R.  I 

New  London,  Conn 

Sea  Gate,  N.  Y 

Sagaponack,  N.  Y 

Fire  Island,  N.  Y 

N.  Y.  (42  Broadway) 

N.  Y.  (Ill  Broadway) 

N.  Y.  (Wanamaker's) 

N.  Y.  (Herald,  Battery) 

N.  Y 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Fort  H.  G.  Wright,  N.  Y.. .  . 

Fort  Totten,  N.  Y 

Fort  Wood,  N.  Y 

Fort  Hancock,  N.J 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J 

Cape  May,  N.  J 

Camden,  N.  J 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  (Wana- 
maker's)   

Philadelphia.  Pa.  (Bellevue- 
Stratford) 

Philadelphia.  Pa 

Cape  Henlopen,  Del 

Sparrows  Point,  Md 

Annapolis,  Md 

Washington,  D.  C 

Washington,  D.  C 

Washington,  D.  C.  (Mills 
Building) 

Washington.  D.  C.  (Bureau 
of  Standards) 

Arlington,  Va.2   

Fort  Monroe,  "Va 

Fort  Monroe,  Va 

Norfolk,  Va 

Norfolk,  Va 


400-1,000 


400-1,000 


180-500 


300-600 


150-500 


500 
'350 


150 


5 
4 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
7  V2  and  100 
5 


800-1,500 
1,000 


1,000 


Variable. 
480 


Variable. 

1.000 
Variable. 

1,000 


1,500 
350 
550 


400 
1,000 


325 
280 
480 
350 
350 
1,000 
350-1,000 
425 


640 
3,000 
1,000 


700 
550 


2 
100 

1 
2 
2 
5 


550 
1,000 
1,000 

750 
1,000 
1,000 


580 
1,000 


Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Gov.  (Army). 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Experimental. 

Do. 
Gov.  (Army). 
Experimental. 
Commercial. 
Experimental. 

Do. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Experimental. 

Do. 
Commercial. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Private. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Do. 
Commercial. 

Do. 
Private. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Commercial. 

Do. 
Private. 

Do. 
Experimental. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Gov.  (Army). 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Private. 

Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Do. 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Do. 
Experimental. 

Gov.  (Army). 

Do. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Gov.  (Army). 

Do 

Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 


'  High  Power  Marconi  Station. 

'Under  construction  three  large  wireless  towers. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


303 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPH   SHORE    STATIONS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES   AND 

CANADA. — Continued. 


Name  and  Location 
of  Station. 


Call 
Letters. 


Range  in 

Nautical 

Miles. 


Power 

in 

Kilowatts. 


Wave 

Length  in 

Meters. 


Character  of 
Station. 


ATLANTIC  AND   GULF 

COASTS — Continued. 

Beaufort,  N.  C 

Diamond  Shoals 

Cape  Hatteras,  N.  C . .  .  . 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Frying  Pan  Shoals 

Savannah,  Ga 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

St.  Augustine,  Fla 

Jupiter,  Fla 

Key  West,  Fla 

Tampa,  Fla 

Pensacola,  Fla 

Mobile,  Ala 

Fort  Morgan,  Ala 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  Orleans,  La 

Burrwood,  La 

Grand  Island,  La 

Port  Arthur,  Tex 

Port  Arthur,  Tex 

Galveston,  Tex 

Fort  Sam  Houston,  Tex.' 

INTERIOR. 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans 

Fort  Riley,  Kans 

Fort  Omaha.  Neb 

GREAT   LAKES. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

Tuvie,  Pa 

Ashtabula,  Ohio 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Toledo,  Ohio 

Detroit,  Mich 

Detroit,  Mich 

Detroit,  Mich 

Detroit,  Mich 

Port  Huron,  Mich 

Bay  City,  Mich 

Saginaw,  Mich 

Mackinac  Island,  Mich. . 

Ludington,  Mich 

Harbor  Beach,  Mich 

Isle  Royal,  Mich 

Grand  Haven,  Mich 

Benton  Harbor,  Mich 

Chicago,  111.  (Hotel) 

Chicago,  111 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Manitowoc,  Wis 

Waupaca,  Wis 

Scandinavia,  Wis 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich. . 

Marquette,  Mich 

Frankfort,  Mich 

Manistjque,  Mich 

Calumet,  Mich 

Duluth.  Minn 

Grand  Marais,  Minn . .  .  . 


450-1,000 


150-600 
150-300 


500-1,500 


100 

300-500 

700 


75 

450-1,000 

200 


200-400 


75 


150 

iso 


100 
150 


100 

100 

150-200 


200 
150 


250 


150 
150 
150 


150 


25  and  2 
5 

5 
2 
2 

I 

5  and  25 
5 

iy2 

2 

2 


1.000 
400 
600 

1,000 
400 
450 
600 

1,000 

1,000 

1,000-2,000 

600 

1.000 
400 
350 
500 

1,750 

1,000 
250 

1,000 
450 


10 


450 


Variable. 


500 
Variable. 
1,000 


5 
5 
10 
5 
5 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

7^ 
5 
2 
2 
1 
5 

7K 
2 
2 
2 
5 
2 


Variable. 

Variable. 

Variable. 
750 
850 
750 
500 

Variable. 

Variable. 

Variable. 

Variable. 

Variable. 

Variable. 

Variable. 
900 

Variable. 

Variable. 


Variable. 

900 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 


Gov.  (Navy). 

Do. 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Do. 
Commercial. 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Do. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Commercial. 

Do. 

Do. 
Private. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Private. 
Commercial. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Gov.  (Army). 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Commercial. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Experimental. 
Commercial. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


^Projected. 


304 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAI'H    SHORE    STATIONS   OF   THE    UNITED    STATES    AND 

CANADA. — Continued. 


Name  and  Location 
of  Station. 

Call 
Letters. 

Range  in 

Nautical 

Miles. 

Power 

in 

Kilowatts. 

Wave 

T;ength  in 

Meters. 

Character  of 
Station. 

PACIFIC    COAST. 

Friday  Harbor,  Wash 

Q 

H 
H 

O 

< 

o 

m 
w 

Q 
< 

o 

< 

B 

o 

m 
< 

2 
5 
5 
4 
4 
5 
2 
5 

10 
1 
2 
2 
1 
5 
5 
5 
5 

10 
1 
2 
5 
2 
3 
5 
2 
2 
1 
2 
5 

3 

5 

10 

3 

10 

20 

3 

5 

5 

10 

3 

1 

10 

10 

1 

1 

2 

2 

5 

2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

Commercial 

1,500 
500 

Do. 

Seattle  Wash                  .    ... 

Do. 

Seattle   Wash 

Private 

Do. 

Bremerton   Wash 

1,000 

400 

1,000 

1,000 

Gov.  (Navy;. 
Commercial. 

Gov.  (Navy). 
Do 

North  Head   Ilwaco  Wash. 

Gov.  (Army). 
Commercial 

Astoria   OrcK               

20C 

425 

Marshfleld   Oree 

Do 

Do. 

Cape  Blanco,  Denmark,  Ore. 

1,000 

425 

1,000 

1,000 

600 

Gov.  (Navy). 

Eureka   Cal         .        

Gov.  (Navy). 

Faro  Hon  Islands   Cal 

S    F     Cal    (Presidio) 

Gov.  (Army). 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Do 

Yerba  Buena  Island,  S.  F..  . 

600 

1,000 

100 

1,000 

425 

425 

500 

500 

425 

1.000 

1,000 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000 

Mare  Island,  Cal 

San  Luis  Obispo,  Cal 

Point  Arguello,  Surf,  Cal. .  .  . 
San  Pedro   Cal   

Commercial 

Gov.  (Navy). 
Commercial 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Do. 

Do. 

Avalon   Cal         

Do 

Avalon    Cal 

Do 

San  Diego,  Cal 

Gov.  (Navy). 

Gov.  (Navy). 
Do 

ALASKA. 

Pribilof  Islands               .    .    . 

Dutch  Harbor 

Unalga  Island'     

Do 

Kodiak 

Do. 

Do 

Sitka             

Do 

Circle  City 

Do. 

Fort  Egbert 

Do 

Fairbanks 

Do. 

Fort  Gibbon 

Do. 

Fort  St.  Michael       

Do 

Kotlik 

Do. 

Nome 

Do. 

Nulato                  

Do 

Petersburg 

Do. 

Wrangell 

Do 

Ketchikan 

■     H 

Do. 

Karluk     

Do 

Kogginung 

Do. 

Chignik 

Do 

Nushagak 

Do 

Clarks  Point 

Do. 

Nak  Nek 

Do 

CANADA. 
Indian  Harbor,  Labrador...  . 

Domino  Island,  Labrador. . . 

150 

220 

Do. 

American  Tickle,  Labrador. . 

Do. 

Venison  Island,  Labrador. .  . 

150 
150 

220 
.    220 

Do 

Battle  Harbor,  Labrador. . .  . 

Do. 

'Projected. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


305 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPH   SHORE    STATIONS   OF  THE    UNITED   STATES   AND 

CANADA. — Continued. 


Name  and  Location 
of  Station. 

Call 
Letters. 

Range  in 

Nautical 

Miles. 

Power 

in 

Kilowatts. 

Wave 

Length  in 

Meters. 

Character  of 
Station. 

Canada — Continued. 
Chateau  Bay,  Labrador 

O 

< 

w 

q 

Si 

w  o 

s 

Go  vernirien  t 

230 
230 
270 
350 
135 
230 
135 
230 
230 

600 
600 
600,   1,600 
600,   1,600 
300 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
300 
300 
600 
600 
300 

Do. 

Do. 

Cape  Ray,  Newfoundland  .  .  . 
Cape  Race,  Newfoundland.... 

Harrington,  Quebec 

Heath  Point,  Anticosti  Isd. . 

Do 

Do. 



Do. 

Do. 

Grindstone,  Magdalen  Isd... . 

Fame  Point,  Quebec 

Clarke  City,  Quebec 

Father  Point   Quebec. .     .    . 

Do. 

Do 

Do. 

230 
100 
100 
135 
100 
135 

Do. 

Grosse  Isle,  Quebec 



Do. 

(Quebec  Quebec 

Do. 

Three  Rivers,  Quebec ; 

Commercial. 
Do. 

North  Sydney     

Do. 

Cape  Breton,  Glace  Bay 

Pictou,  Nova  Scotia 

Government 

100 
230 
300 
230 

300 
600 

Do. 

Camperdown,  Nova  Scotia .  . 
Sable  Island,  Nova  Scotia.  .  . 

Cnmmp.rpinl 

600  Govemmfint. 

Cape  Sable,  Nova  Scotia   . 

600 
600 
600 
400 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 

Do. 

St.  John.  Partridge  Island .  .  . 

230 
350 

Do. 

Port  Arthur,  Ontario 

Do. 

St.  Thomas,  Ontario 

5 

Commercial. 

Prince  Rupert,  B.  C 

250 
225 
250 

Government. 

Dead  Tree  Point,  B.  C. 

Do. 

Ikeda  Head,  B.  C 

Do. 

Triangle  Island,  B.  C 

Cape  Lazo,  Vancouver,  B.  C. 

350 
175 
100 
100 
250 
200 

Do. 
Do. 

Estevan,  Vancouver,  B.  C.  . 

Do. 

Point  Grey,  Vancouver,  B.C. 
Pachena,  Vancouver,  B.  C.  . 

Do. 
Do. 

Victoria,  B.  C 

Do 

COMMERCIAL  TELEGRAPH  STATIONS  CONSTRUCTED  BY  MARCONI'S  WIRELESS 
TELEGRAPH  CO.  LTD.,  AND  IN  OPERATION. 


306 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


On  June  12,  1912,  there  were  1,577  mer- 
chant ships  equipped  with  wireless  telegraph 
installations.  The  total  number  of  commer- 
cial coast  stations  was  286. 

Under  the  Imperial  Wireless  System  all  of 
the  stations  will  be  fitted  with  apparatus  for 
the  automatic  transmission  and  receipt  of 
messages,  guaranteeing  a  speed  of  not  less 
than  fifty  words  a  minute.  Arrangements  are 
progressing  and  the  work  will  be  carried  out 
as  expeditiously  as  possible  for  the  construc- 
tion of  stations  placing  Great  Britain  in  direct 
communication  with  New  York,  instead  of 
having  the  messages  pass  through  Glace  Bay; 
also  for  the  construction  of  stations  in  San 
Francisco  for  communication  through  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  with  the  Philippines,  China 
and  Japan.  Arrangements  are  also  being 
made  for  stations  to  send  messages  from 
New  York  south  to  Cuba,  Panama,  and 
subsequently  to  each  South  American  State. 

The  New  York  Times  has  made  more  use 
of  the  wireless  station  than  perhaps  any  other 
paper  in  the  world,  and  nearly  all  of  their 
foreign  news  in  the  Sunday  edition  is  trans- 
mitted by  wireless.  When  the  new  stations 
in  London  and  New  York  are  completed  wire- 
less messages  will  be  received  in  less  than  ten 
minutes  from  the  time  of  their  dispatch,  inde- 
pendent between  these  two  points.  When  the 
stations  are  completed  the  Marconi  Company 
will  be  independent  of  land  lines  and  will  pro- 
vide a  service  which  will  not  be  surpassed  for 
speed  and  accuracy.  The  world's  rights  in 
the  wireless  compass  of  Messrs.  Bellini  and 
Tosi  has  also  been  acquired  by  the  Marconi 
Company.  This  will  undoubtedly  prove  of 
considerable  value  when  worked  in  conjunc- 
tion with  existing  wireless  installations  aboard 
ships,  enabling  the  Captain  to  define  the  posi- 
tion of  an  approaching  ship  or  of  the  land  in 
a  dense  fog. 

The  United  States  Navy  is  now  planning 
the  construction  of  a  chain  of  wireless  stations 
embracing  two  oceans  and  a  continent  within 
the  range  of  this  chain,  so  that  naval  vessels, 
whether  near  the  African  coast  or  in  Chinese 
waters,  will  be  under  direct  control  from 
Washington  by  aerial  communication.  Funds 
for  this  plan  were  not  forthcoming  at  the  last 
session  of  Congress.  The  first  section  is  now 
in  course  of  erection  at  Arlington,  Va.,  and 
will  be  ready  shortly  after  the  publication  of 
this  book.  Each  of  the  stations  is  to  have  a 
semi-radius  of  3,000  miles  or  more. 

The  ArUngton  station  consists  of  three  steel 
towers  in  the  form  of  an  isosceles-triangle.  At 
the  apex  of  the  triangle  the  tower  is  650  feet 
high,  or  95  feet  higher  than  the  tip  of  the 
Washington  monument.  At  the  base  are  two 
towers,  each  450  feet  in  height.  The  antennae 
are  to  be  strung  from  the  tallest  tower  to  the 
other  two.  These  immense  towers  are  strik- 
ing features  '^f  the  landscape  as  viewed  from 
any  point  of  vantage  in  Washington.  It  is 
contemplated  to  move  all  of  our  naval  vessels 
by  the  use  of  these  towers.  The  range  of  the 
ArUngton  station  will  cover  practically  all  of 
the  North  Atlantic  ocean.  Guantanamo,  Cuba, 
falls  easily  within  the  range  of  this  station, 
and  regular  communication  with  the  station 
to  be  erected  at  Panama  will  be  had  with 
equal  facility 


TRANSATLANTIC  MARCONIGRAMS. 

Marconigrams  for  transmission  to  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  to  ships  at  sea  are 
accepted  at  all  offices  of  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Co.  and  the  Great  North- Western 
Telegraph  Co. 

The  established  rules  and  regulations 
governing  the  method  of  counting  and  charg- 
ing of  Cable  Messages  are  applicable  to 
Marconigrams. 

RATES. 


FROM                                                                    TO 

.S-a 

Points    in     Maine,     New    Hampshire, 
Vermont,    Massachusetts,    Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York  City, 
Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Hoboken,  Jersey  City 
Union  Hill,  N.  J.,  Points  in  the  Mari- 
time    Provinces,     New     Brunswick, 
Nova    Scotia    and    in    the    Eastern 
Canadian     Provinces,     Quebec     and 
Ontario 

$0.16 

Delaware,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  (ex- 
cept Hoboken,  Jersey  City  and  Union 
Hill.)  New  York  (except  New  York 
City  and  Yonkers),  Pennsylvania  and 
the  District  of  Columbia 

18 

Alabama,    Georgia,    Illinois,    Indiana, 
Kentucky,      Michigan,      Mississippi, 
North  Carolina,  Ohio,  South  Carolina, 
Tennessee,    Virginia,    West    Virginia 
and     Wisconsin,      Pensacola,      Fla., 
Burlington,    Clinton,    Cedar   Rapids, 
Davenport,   Dubuque,   Ft.   Madison, 
Keokuk    and    Muscatine,    la..    New 
Orleans,  La.,  Duluth,  Hastings,  Lake 
City,  Minneapolis,  Redwing,  St.  Paul, 
Stillwater,    Wabasha    and    Winona, 
Minn.,  Hannibal,  La.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

.21 

Arkansas,    Colorado,    Florida    (except 
Pensacola  and  Key  West),  Iowa  (ex- 
cept    Burhngton,      Clinton,      Cedar 
Rapids,    Davenport,    Dubuque,    Ft. 
Madis9n,    Keokuk,    and   Muscatine), 
Kansas,      Louisiana      (except     New 
Orleans),  Manitoba,   Minnesota   (ex- 
cept Duluth,    Hastings,    Lake   City, 
Minneapolis,     Redwing,     St.     Paul, 
Stillwater,    Wabasha    and    Winona), 
Missouri  (except  Hannibal,  Louisiana 
and  St.  Louis),  Montana,  Nebraska, 
New  Mexico,   North  Dakota,   Okla- 
homa, South  Dakota,  Texas,   Wyo- 
ming  

24 

Arizona,    California,    Idaho,    Nevada, 
Oregon,  Utah  and  Washington,  Key 
West,  Fla.,  Vancouver.  Victoria  and 
New  Westminster,  B.  C 

27 

Deferred  messages  subject  to  a  maximum 
delay  of  24  hours  and  written  in  plain  English 
language  are  also  accepted  at  one-half  these 
rates. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


307 


WIRELESS  WORD  RATES 


il 


For  Trans.  Ocean  Vessels 


20 


20 


20 


28 


20 


20 


20 


For  Coastwise  Vessels 


tot  tot  lot  ist  lot  lOlllOt 


lit 


lot  lot  lot  lOt  lot  lOtliTt  lOt  lOt  tot 


To  the  above  wireless  rates  add  laTi 

J  lin 

e  rate  below 

06 
42 
10 
10 
06 
10 
10 
08 
02 
03 
03 
06 
06 
10 
05 
05 
06 
06 
05 
12 
06 
04 
08 
03 
03 
05 
06 
06 
06 
OS 
06 
10 
05 
11 
03 
02 
08 
02 
03 
05 
08 
05 
04 
08 
05 
08 
10 
10 
02 
03 
07 
06 
03 
10 
06 
08 
05 
08 
08 
03 
04 
10 
04 
06 
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62 

06 
42 
10 
10 
06 
10 
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03 
03 
06 
06 
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05 
05 
06 
06 
05 
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06 
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03 
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06 
06 
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06 
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05 
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03 
02 
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02 
03 
05 
08 
05 
04 
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05 
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10 
02 
03 
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05 
03 
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06 
08 
05 
08 
08 
03 
04 
10 
04 
06 
08 
52 

06 
42 
10 
10 
06 
10 
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08 
02 
04 
04 
06 
06 
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06 
05 
06 
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06 
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06 
03 
08 
05 
02 
05 
06 
06 
06 
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08 
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05 
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03 
04 
08 
03 
04 
06 
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05 
05 
08 
05 
08 
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05 
02 
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06 
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06 
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05 
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05 
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06 
42 
10 
10 
06 
10 
10 
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02 
04 
04 
06 
06 
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08 
05 
06 
08 
06 
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06 
03 
08 
05 
02 
05 
06 
06 
06 
08 
08 
10 
05 

n 

03 
04 
08 
03 
04 
06 
08 
05 
05 
08 
05 
08 
10 
10 
04 
04 
07 
05 
02 
10 
06 
08 
06 
08 
08 
03 
05 
10 
05 
06 
08 
5? 

06 
42 
10 
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06 
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04 
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06 
06 
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06 
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06 
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05 
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05 
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05 
06 
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06 
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05 
06 
08 
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05 
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05 
06 
08 
52 

05 
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10 
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06 
06, 
05 
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06 
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08 
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06 
06 
08 
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06 
06 
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06 
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05 
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05 
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10 
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06 
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05 
42 
10 
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05 
10 
10 
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06 
06 
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02 
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06 
08 
08 
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08 
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06 
06 
08 
06 
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08 
06 
05 
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06 
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06 
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05 
08 
05 
05 
08 
06 
05 
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06 
06 
08 
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05 
40 
10 
08 
P5 
10 
08 
06 
03 
08 
08 
06 
06 
08 
06 
06 
06 
06 
06 
15 
05 
08 
08 
08 
08 
08 
08 
05 
06 
08 
06 
08 
08 
14 
08 
08 
06 
08 
08 
06 
08 
08 
06 
05 
08 
08 
10 
08 
08 
08 
10 
08 
08 
10 
06 
08 
06 
03 
08 
08 
08 
08 
08 
08 
08 
ft? 

10 
38 
08 
06 
10 
06 
04 
08 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
06 
08 
10 
08 
08 
10 
17 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
08 
10 
08 
08 
08 
05 
10 
16 
10 
10 
08 
10 
10 
10 
08 
10 
10 
08 
10 
10 
10 
05 
10 
10 
12 
10 
10 
10 
10 
08 
10 
08 
06 
10 
10 
06 
10 
08 
08 
48 

10 

Alaska 

i^'y 

Alberta.... 

06 
OH 

Arkansas 

10 

British  Columbia 

California 

05 
Oft 

Colorado 

OR 

Connecticut 

10 

10 

District  of  Columbia. . 
Florida 

10 
10 

Georgia. 

Idaho 

10 

0'> 

IlUnois 

Of) 

Indiana 

10 

Iowa 

OR 

OH 

Kentucky, ; . . 

10 

17 

10 

Maine 

10 

Manitoba 

08 

Maryland 

10 

Massachusetts 

Michigan ,  . 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

10 
10 
OS 
10 

Missouri 

08 

Montana 

no 

Nebraska 

08 

Nevada 

Oft 

New  Brunswick 

Newfoundland 

New  Hampshire..... . 

New  Jersey 

10 
10 
10 
10 

OS 

New  York  City....... 

New  York 

10 

10 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Nova  Scotia 

10 

OS 
10 

Ohio 

10 

Oklahoma 

Ontario,  Sec.  1 

Sec.  2,  3 

Sec.  4 

Oregon 

OS 
10 
10 
10 

O"* 

Philadelphia 

10 

Pennsylvania 

Prince  Edward  Island 
Quebec 

10 
12 
10 

Rhode  Island 

Saskatchewan •. 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

10 

09 
10 
03 
10 

Texas 

08 

Utah 

06 

Vermont 

10 

Virginia 

10 

W^ashington .... 

01 

WestVirghiia 

Wisconsin 

10 
08 

08 

Yukon 

47 

t  The  wireless  rate  for  coastwise  vessels  of  the  Booth,  Lamport  and  Holt,  Quebec 
Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  and  United  Fruit  Co.  linea,  is  14  ceuts  per  word,  from  all  shore 
stations  in  the  United  States. 


308 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


i 

WIRELESS  WORD  RATES 

i 

l| 

it 

h 

1.S 

m 
Z 

£ 

li 

1 

7?a 

i 

P 

i 

1 

a 

a 
1 

J 
t 

III 

Detroit.  Mich. 

Grand  Marais,  Minn., 
check  Duluth. 
Benton  Harbor,  or  Lud- 
ington,  Mich. 

i 

f 

1 

For  Trans.  Ocean  Vessels 

24t 

31 

10 

05 

05 

For  Coastwise  Vessels 

i4i 

05 

10 

05 

07 

16 

06 

06 

05 

05| 

05 

05 

To  tlie  above  wireless  rates  add  land  line  rate  below            1 

10 

35 

06 

08 

10 

05 

06 

08 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

05 

08 

10 

08 

08 

10 

17 

10 

10 

08 

10 

10 
10 

08 
10 

08 
06 
08 
05 
10 
16 
10 
10 
08 
10 
10 
10 
08 
10 
10 
08 
10 
10 
10 
05 
10 
10 
12 
10 
10 
09 
10 
08 
10 
08 
06 
10 
10 
03 
10 
08 
08 
47 

08 

42 

09 

10 

08 

10 

10 

08 

05 

05 

OS 

08 

08 

10 

06 

05 

08 

08 

06 

10 

08 

04 

08 

05 

05 

05 

08 

08 

08 
08 
08 
10 
03 
09 
04 
05 
08 
05 
05 
06 
08 
03 
05 
08 
03 
06 
06 
10 
05 
05 
03 
03 
05 
09 
08 
OS 

'08 
08 
08 
04 
06 
10 
05 
06 

oe 

52 

08 

42 

09 

10 

08 

10 

10 

08 

05 

05 

05 

08 

08 

10 

08 

06 

08 

08 

06 

09 

08 

04 

08 

05 

05 

06 

08 

08 
08 
08 
08 
10 
02 
08 
05 
05 
08 
05 
05 
06 
08 
02 
06 
08 
03 
06 
06 
10 
05 
05 
03 
03 
05 
09 
06 
08 
08 
08 
10 
05 
06 
10 
06 
08 
08 
52 

08 

42 

09 

10 

08 

10 

10 

08 

05 

05 

05 

08 

08 

10 

08 

06 

08 

08 

06 

09 

08 

04 

08 

05 

05 

06 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

10 

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08 

05 

05 

08 

05 

05 

06 

08 

02 

06 

08 

03 

06 

06 

10 

05 

05 

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05 

09 

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08 

08 

03 

10 

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06 

10 

06 

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08 

52 

08 

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09 

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08 

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52 

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06 

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10 
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08 
03 
06 
06 
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05 
05 
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05 
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06 
08 
08 
08 
10 
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06 
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06 
08 
08 
52 

08 

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09 

10 

08 

10 

10 

08 

05 

05 

05 

08 

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10 

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06 

08 

08 

06 

09 

08 

04 

08 

05 

05 

06 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

10 

02 

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05 

05 

08 

05 

05 

06 

08 

02 

06 

08 

03 

06 

06 

10 

05 

05 

03 

03 

05 

09 

06 

08 

OS 

OS 

10 

05 

06 

10 

06 

08 

08 

52 

06 

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10 

10 

06 

10 

10 

08 

02 

03 

03 

06 

06 

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05 

05 

06 

06 

05 
12 

06 

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08 

03 

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05 
06 
06 
06 
08 
06 
10 
05 
11 
03 
02 
08 
02 
03 
05 
08 
05 
04 
08 
05 
08 
10 
10 
02 
03 
07 
05 
03 
10 
06 
OS 
05 
OS 
08 
03 
04 
10 
04 
06 
08 
52 

06 
42 
10 
10 
06 
10 
10 
08 
02 
04 
04 
06 
06 
10 
06 
05 
06 
OS 
06 
12 
OS 
04 
08 
04 
03 
05 
06 
06 
06 
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08 
10 
05 
11 
04 
04 
08 
04 
04 
06 
08 
05 
05 
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05 
OS 
.  10 
10 
04 
04 
07 
05 
03 
10 
06 
08 
06 
08 
08 
04 
05 
10 
05 
06 
08 
52 

06 

42 

10 

10 

06 

10 

10 

08 

04 

04 

04 

06 

06 

10 

05 

04 

05 

06 

05 

12 

06 

05 

08 

04 

04 

04 

06 

06 

05 

08 

06 

10 

05 

11 

04 

04 

08 

04 

04 

05 

08 

05 

04 

08 

04 

08 

10 

10 

04 

04 

07 

05 

04 

10 

06 

08 

05 

08 

08 

04 

05 

10 

04 

05 

oa 

52 

06 

42 

10 

10 

06 

10 

10 

08 

05 

04 

04 

06 

06 

10 

05 

04 

05 

06 

05 

13 

06 

05 

08 

04 

05 

05 

06 

06 

05 

08 

06 

10 

06 

12 

05 

04 

08 

04 

04 

05 

06 

06 

03 

06 

05 

08 

10 

10 

04 

04 

08 

05 

05 

10 

06 

06 

05 

06 

08 

05 

05 

10 

04 

05 

Oi 

52 

06 

42 

10 

10 

06 

10 

10 

08 

05 

04 

04 

06 

06 

10 

05 

04 

05 

06 

05 

13 

06 

05 

06 

04 

05 

05 

05 

06 

05 

OS 

06 

10 

06 

12 

05 

04 

08 

04 

04 

05 

06 

06 

04 

06 

04 

06 

09 

10 

04 

04 

08 

05 

05 

10 

03 

06 

05 

08 

03 

05 

05 

10 

04 

05 

08 

62 

06 

40 

08 

10 

06 

08 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

06 

06 

08 

05 

05 

05 

06 

05 
15 

08 

06 
05 
06 
06 
05 
04 
06 
05 
06 
05 
OS 
08 
14 
06 
06 
OS 
06 
06 
06 
05 
08 
05 
06 
06 
05 
OS 
OS 
06 
06 
10 
06 
06 
OS 
06 
05 
06 
OS 
OS 
06 
06 
08 
06 
04 
06 
50 

06 

42 

10 

10 

06 

10 

10 

08 

05 

04 

04 

06 

06 

10 

05 

05 

05 

06 

05 

13 

06 

05 

06 

05 

05 

04 

05 

06 

05 

08 

06 

10 

06 

12 

05 

05 

08 

05 

05 

05 

06 

06 

05 

06 

05 

06 

09 

10 

05 

05 

08 

05 

05 

10 

06 

06 

05 

08 

OS 

05 

05 

10 

05 

05 

08 

52 

06 

40 

08 

08 

05 

08 

08 

06 

05 

05 

05 

06 

06 

OS 

04 

04 

05 

05 

05 
13 

06 

06 
05 
05 
05 
04 
05 
06 
05 
OS 
05 
08 
06 
12 
06 
05 
08 
05 
05 
06 
06 
06 
04 
06 
05 
05 
10 
08 
05 
05 
08 
05 
05 
08 
06 
06 
05 
06 
08 
06 
05 
08 
06 
04 
05 
50 

06 

Alaska 

40 

Alberta 

08 

10 

0.S 

British  Columbia 

California 

08 
08 

Colorado ... 

06 

Connecticut .... 

06 

Delaware 

06 

District  of  Columbia. .  .  . 
Florida 

05 
06 

Georgia 

06 

Idaho ■.. 

08 

Illinois *".. 

05 

Indiana 

05 

Iowa 

05 

05 

Kentucky "  '  . 

05 

Labrador ' " . . 

15 

Louisiana 

08 

Maine 

06 

Manitoba 

05 

Maryland 

05 

Massachusetts 

06 

Michigan 

05 

Minnesota 

05 

Mississippi 

06 

Missouri 

05 

Montana 

06 

Nebraska 

05 

Nevada....:::;: 

08 

New  Brunswick  . . 
Newfoundland 

08 
14 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey. . . 

06 
05 

New  Mexico 

08 

New  York  City 

05 

New  York....^. ;:::::: 

05 

North  Carolina 

Oft 

North  Dakota... 

05 

Nova  Scotia 

OS- 

Ohio 

OS 

Oklahoma.. :::  . 

06 

Ontario.  Sec.  1 

05 

Sec.  2.  3 .', 

Sec.  4 

05 
09 

Oregon 

OS 

Philadelphia 

05 

Pennsylvania. . 

05 

Prince  Edward  Island .  . 
Quebec 

10 

05 

Rhode  Island 

06 

Saskatchewan 

OS 

South  Carolina     . 

06 

South  Dakota 

08 

Tennessee 

05 

Texas 

08 

Utah 

08 

06 

Virginia 

05 

08 

West  Virginia 

06 

Wisconsin . . . 

04 

05 

Yukon 

50 

*  For  steamers  bound  to  Canadian  Ports,     t  For  steamers  in  Northumberland  Straits. 

tt  For  Sound  steamers  of  the  Montauk  Steamboat  Co.,  and  ttie  Fall  River,  New 
Bedford,  Providence  and  Colonial  Lines  only. 

tThe  wireless  rate  for  coastwise  vessels  of  the  Booth,  Lamport  and  Holt,  Quebec, 
Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  and  United  Fruit  Co.  lines  is  14  cents  per,  word,  from  all 
'  shore  stations  in  the  United  States. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK 


309 


WIRELESS  WORD  RATES 

S 
& 

g 

1 
1 

3 

•g 

i 

.2 

d 

•5 

a 
"a 

s 

1 

1 

II 

i 

II 

■a 
z 

(2  2: 

d 
d 

1 

d 

ll 
II 

i 

s 

1 

For  Trans.  Ocean  Vessels 

21 1 

M» 

for  Coastwise  Vessels 

05 

07 

05 

OS 

05 

06 

iii 

10^ 

lot 

lot 

lit 

lot 

To  the  above  m 

'ireless  rates  add  land  line  ra 

te  below 

Alabama 

Alaska 

Alberta 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

British  Columbia 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia. . . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho ^ 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Labrador 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Manitoba 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi...- 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Brunswick 

Newfoundland 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York  CIt> 

New  York. 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Nova  Scotia 

Ohio 

Oklahoma ; 

Ontario,  Sec,  1 

Sec.  2,  3 

Sec.  4 

Oregon 

Philadelphia. 

Pennsylvania 

Prince  Edward  Island. 

Quebec 

Rhode  Island 

Saskatchewan 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 


Texas. 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington . . . 
West  Virginia. 
Wisconsin .... 

Wyoming 

Yukon 


08 

08 

06 

08 

10 

08 

06- 

06 

06 

06 

10 

42 

42 

40 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

35 

10 

10 

08 

09 

09 

09 

10 

10 

10 

10 

06 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

10 

10 

08 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

05 

10 

10 

08 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

06 

08 

08 

06 

08 

10 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

05 

04 

04 

02 

04 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

05 

05 

05 

04 

02 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

05 

04 

04 

04 

02 

10 

08 

08 

06 

08 

10 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

08 

08 

06 

08 

10 

08 

06 

06 

06 

05 

10 

08 

08 

08 

08 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

05 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

05 

08 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

05 

05 

05 

05 

05 

in 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

08 

08 

08 

08 

06 

08 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

05 

10 

13 

13 

15 

13 

13 

09 

12 

12 

12 

12 

17 

08 

08 

08 

08 

10 

08 

08 

OS 

06 

06 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

04 

02 

03 

03 

05 

10 

06 

06 

05 

06 

04 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

05 

05 

05 

05 

02 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

05 

03 

03 

02 

04 

10 

04 

04 

05 

04 

09 

05 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

05 

05 

04 

05 

08 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

08 

08 

08 

06 

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06 

06 

10 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

08 

06 

06* 

06 

06 

08 

08 

08 

06 

08 

10 

08 

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08 

08 

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06 

06 

06 

05 

06 

10 

08 

08 

08 

08 

06 

08 

10 

10 

08 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

06 

06 

m 

08 

06 

06 

03 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

12 

12 

14 

12 

14 

08 

11 

11 

11 

11 

16 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

04 

03 

02 

03 

04 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

04 

04 

04 

04 

03 

10 

08 

08 

08 

08 

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08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

05 

03 

03 

03 

03 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

05 

04 

04 

04 

04 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

06 

06 

06 

06 

05 

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06 

06 

05 

06 

09 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

06 

06 

08 

06 

06 

03 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

05 

05 

05 

05 

10 

05 

05 

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05 

04 

10 

08 

08 

06 

08 

10 

08 

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08 

05 

05 

06 

05 

06 

03 

05 

05 

05 

05 

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06 

06 

05 

03 

05 

06 

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08 

08 

08 

10 

09 

09 

08 

05 

03 

06 

10 

10 

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10 

10 

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08 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

05 

06 

06 

06 

06 

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05 

04 

04 

04 

02 

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06 

06 
08 

06 
10 

06 
06 

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06 

05 
03 

05 
06 

05 
07 

04 
07 

04 
07 

10 
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06 

06 

06 

06 

06 

03 

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04 

05 

05 

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06 

06 

06 

06 

10 

05 

04 

04 

02 

04 

10 

10 

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08 

09 

08 

09 

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09 

08 

08 

06 

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06 

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05 

06 

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08 

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06 

10 

08 

06 

06 

06 

05 

10 

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08 

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08 

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08 

08 

08 

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06 

06 

06 

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06 

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05 

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08 

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06 

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10 

08 

08 

08 

08 

08 

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52 

52 

60 

52 

60 

62 

62 

62 

62 

62 

47 

t  The  wireless  rate  for  coastwise  vessels  of  the  Booth,  Lamport  and  Holt,  Quebec, 
Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  and  United  Fruit  Co.  lines,  is  14  cents  per  word  from  all 
shore  stations  in  the  United  States. 


310 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MAHC02fI  TILEGRAPH 

C0MMIIHICAT1OH    CHAET 


DECEMBER       1904. 


:=5^§^-55ffi^5-5=:. 

57  £  5S35  ?  =E^§"^;: 

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WORTH"  ATLANTIC 


AN  EARLY  WIRELESS  CHART 
MARCONI    TELEGRAPHL 

COMMUNICATION      CHART. 

—  DECEMBER  1911.— 


SEVEN  YEARS  LATER  THE  INTERLACING  LINES  SHOW  POSSIBLE  INTERCOM- 
MUNICATIONS WHICH  HAVE  ROBBED  THE  SEA  OF  MANY  OF  ITS  TERRORS. 

PHENOMENAL  INCREASE  IN  WIRELESS  ACTIVITY. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

TELEPHONE   STATISTICS   OF   THE 

WORLD. 


There  were  approximately  12,453,000  tele- 
phones and  29,566,000  miles  of  telephone  wire 
in  use  in  the  world  January  1,  1912.  A  careful 
estimate  places  the  world's  telephone  invest- 
ment January  1,  1912,  at  about  $1,729,000,000 
which  is  very  nearly  the  value  of  all  gold 
coin  and  buUion  in  the  United  States.  The 
annual  number  of  telephone  conversations 
may  be  placed  at  22,000,000,000,  which  is 
about  five  times  the  annual  number  of  pas- 
sengers carried  by  all  the  railroads  of  the 
world. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  compilation  the 
world's  telephone  statistics  are  generally  tabu- 
lated in  four  territorial  divisions,  as  follows: 


Td<pl,on«Jm  1.1912 

Wir.  Jan.  1.1912                | 

Njmbtr 
(partly 

Jan.I,'l911 

r.rcenl 

Toul 

Miln 

(partly 

estimated) 

Increase 
Jan.°i."911 

Percent 
T^al 

United  Slalu 

8J62,0Ca 
335.000 
3.239.000 

supoo 

10% 
18% 
9% 
21% 

671% 
27% 

26.0% 
42% 

18.1WW3 
788,000 
9.461  flOO 
1.138,000 

9% 
11% 

8% 
32% 

61.5% 
2i% 

32JO% 
19% 

All  othtr  counlri... 

ToUl 

12.453,000 

10% 

100.0% 

29,5660)0 

9% 

100.0% 

The  geographical  distribution  of  telephones 
and  wire  is  shown  below: 


Number  of  Telephona 
(Partly  Estimated) 

Miles  ol  Wire                      1 
(Partly  EsUmated)                    | 

Jan.  1. 1912 

Jan  1,1911 

Increase 

Jan. I.  1912 

Jan.  1,1911 

Increase 

North  America  ... 
South  America.... 

8,729.000 

3,239«0 
166,000 
41,000 
124.000 
17,000 
17«)0 

7.907.000 
86.000 
2,966.000 
149.000 
34.000 
110,000 

12.000 

822,000 
34^000 
273.000 
17,000 
7,000 
14.000 
9fl00 
SjOOO 

I9AI7,00O 
231IXXI 
9.46IOT0 
358.000 
144.000 
26SXX» 
43,000 
25,000 

17,401,000 
137,000 
S,76Z/X» 

2gaooo 

128,000 
212,000 
15.000 
I9«I0 

1,636,000 
96.000 
699,000 
70.000 
16,000 
53.000 
2?,000 
6.000 

OtlJni^"'. ....... 

West  Indies   

Total 

12.453,000 

1U72,000 

1,181.000 

29,566XX)0 

26,962,000 

2.6O»j000 

The  year  1911  is  the  thirty-fifth  since  the 
invention  of  the  telephone  by  Prof.  Alexander 
Graham  Bell.  A  survey  of  the  progress  of 
telephone  service  during  the  past  year,  and  of 
the  many  notable  events  in  connection  with 
this  progress,  justifies  the  statement  that  all 
civilized  nations  have  awakened  to  the  value 
of  the  telephone  in  commercial  and  social  life. 

In  the  United  States  commercial  service  has 
been  opened  between  New  York  and  Denver, 
2,160  miles,  this  being  now  the  longest  dis- 
tance over  which  oral  communication  is  given 
commercially.  In  Europe  long  distance  service 
has  been  greatly  extended  by  utilizing  both 
the  new  loaded  cable  between  Great  Britain 
and  Belgium — by  which  telephone  service  is 
expected  to  be  given  between  London  and 
Berlin — and  the  new  telephone  cable,  con- 
structed also  on  the  Pupin  principle,  between 
Dover  and  Calais.  The  latter  enables  conver- 
sation tc  be  carried  on  between  Glasgow,  Edin- 
burgh and  Paris,  and  also  between  Aberdeen 
and  the  French  capital,  a  distance  of  910  miles. 


Successful  trials  have  also  been  made  between 
London  and  Geneva,  a  distance  of  560  miles, 
and  from  London  to  Bale,'  a  distance  of  600 
miles. 


THE  ANNUAL  BCREASES  IN 
TELEPHONES  OF  THE  WORLD 

OIVIDEO  W  COUMTPItS 


Recent  progress  in  the  art  of  submarine 
telephone  cable  manufacture  will  have  far 
reaching  consequences.  At  the  present  time 
there  are  over  400  miles  of  submarine  tele- 
phone cable  in  use  in  the  world,  and  of  this 
total  about  one-half  is  represented  bv  the  four 
cables  between  France'  and  England,  and  the 
two  between  Belgium  and  England.  The  long- 
est submarine  telephone  cable  lies  between 
La  Panne  (Belgium)  and  St.  Margaret's  Bay 
(England),  a  distance  of  55  miles. 

The_  European  international  long  distance 
land  line  systems  have  likewise  received  im- 

{)ortant  additions,  due  to  the  opening  of  the 
ine  between  Paris  and  Madrid,  900  mfles,  and 
the  direct  line  between  Berlin  and  Rome  still 
under  construction,  a  distance  of  over  1,000 
miles.  As  regards  the  Continent,  there  is  now 
scarcely  any  important  city  that  cannot  talk 
with  any  other  important  city.  By  far  the 
largest  interurban  or  toll  telephone  plant  in 
Europe  has  been  built  by  the  German  Govern- 
ment, which  according  to  the  latest  official 
statistics,  had  about  one-half  of  the  total 
interurban  or  toll  telephone  wire  of  Europe. 

Finally,  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  during  the 
year  1911  the  great  United  States  railway  sys- 
tems have  made  rapid  advances  toward  the 
general  use  of  the  telephone  for  train  dispatch- 
ing. Since  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  the 
telephone  for  that  purpose,  over  200  of  the 
United  States  railroads  have  adopted  that  sys- 
tem. In  fact,  the  telephone  has  supplanted  the 
telegraph  on  over  50,000  miles  of  railroad, 
which  is  over  20%  of  the  total  railroad  mileage 
of  the  country.  A  careful  estimate  places  the 
miles  of  wire  used  by  railroad  companies  for 
train  dispatching  at  120,000,  and  the  corre- 
sponding niunber  of  telephones  at  10,000. 


311 


312 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Considering  telephones  per  100  population 
and  referring  only  to  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada and  Europe,  the  following  chart  shows 
their  respective  condition  during  the  past  ten 
years.  At  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  period 
the  exact  figures  are: 

United 

States  Canada  Europe 

Jan.  1,1902 2.3  1.2         0.3 

Jan.  1,1912 8.8  4.2         0.7 

From  this  it  appears  that  it  takes  Europe 
about  two  years  to  advance  0.1.  Assuming 
that  European  telephone  progress  continues  at 
this  rate,  to  reach  the  present  development  of 
the  United  States  (8.8),  Europe  must  gain  8.1, 
which  at  the  rate  of  0.1  every  two  years  would 
require  162  years.  As  such  a  forecast  makes 
no  allowance  for  the  impetus  in  future  progress 
due  to  the  use  of  rates  better  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  public  and  important  advances 
in  the  art,  the  above  period  will  be  shortened 
materially.  One  thing,  however,  is  certain: 
Europe  offers  yet  a  vast  field  for  telephone 
progress,  because  at  the  beginning  of  1912  it 
has  reached  only  the  development  oi  the  United 
States  Jan.  1,  1898. 


on  in  Oil 



-' 

■ 

^ 

' 

^^.^ 

J 

, 

-- 

J 

. 

— " 

— 

— -^ 

' 

== 

tUROPt 

Telephones  per  100  Population 

United  States,  Canada  and 

Europe,  1902  to  1912. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  United  States, 
Jan.  1,  1912,  had  over  one-half  the  total  tele- 
phone wire  of  the  world,  and  nearly  twice  the 
total  mileage  of  Europe,  while  the  latter  at  the 
same  date  had  almost  the  same  telephone  wire 
mileage  as  the  United  States  had  at  Jan.  1, 
1907.  The  pronounced  increase  in  the  wire 
mileage  of  "all  other  countries"  is  largely  due 
to  more  accurate  information. 

The  combined  number  of  telephone  conver- 
sations of  the  rest  of  the  world  is  bat  one-half 
that  of  the  United  States.  The  telegraph  traf- 
fic of  the  United  States  presents  quite  a  con- 
trast. Placing  the  world's  telegraph  traffic 
during  1910  at  about  579,000,000,  the  United 
States  took  but  17%of  the  total,  while  Europe 
had  62%.  In  other  words,  Europe  has  about 
the  same  proportion  of  the  world's  telegraph 
traffic  as  the  United  States  has  of  the  world's 
telephone  traffic. 

Going  back  to  the  first  authentic  publica- 
tion of  telephone  traffic  in  the  United  States 
(1883)  the  total  number  of  telephone  conver- 
sations was  estimated  to  be  217,000,000.  Dur- 
ing the  intervening  twenty-eight  years  the 
United  States  traffic  has  reached,  as  shown 
above,  the  colossal  total  of  over  fourteen  bil- 
lion, an  increase  of  6500%,  or  an  average  an- 
nual increase  of  232%. 

The  annual  increases,  both  in  the  telephone 
and  telegraph  traffic  and  in  the  wire  plant  of 
the  world  are  shown  on  the  chart  on  page  315, 
covering  the  period  1900-1910.  The  curves 
represent  the  percentage  increases  over  the 
traffic  during  1900  and  mileages  at  the  end  of 
the  year  1900. 


Referring  first  to  the  traffic  curves,  the  tele- 
phone has  gained  277%  and  the  telegraph 
36%.  In  other  words,  the  percentage  increase 
in  telephone  traffic  is  about  eight  times  that 
in  telegraph  traffic.  During  the  same  period 
the  increase  in  wire  plant  was  448%  for  the 
telephone  as  compared  with  57%  for  the  tele- 
graph, so  that  the  percentage,  increase  in  tele- 
phone wire  is  also  approximately  eight  times 
that  of  telegraph  wire. 

The  following  chart  depicts  the  telephone 
conversations  of  the  world  for  the  years  1901 
to  1911  inclusive,  for  the  United  States,  Eu- 
rope, and  all  other  countries,  and  shows  the 
proportion  of  each  to  the  total. 

TELEPHONE  CONVERSATIONS  OF  THE  \NDRLD 

COMPARING  THE  UNITED  STATES,  EUROPf  AND 
THE  REST  OF  THE  WORLD 


The  chart  annexed  depicts  the  total  esti- 
mated telephone  investment  of  the  world,  sub- 
divided according  to  territorial  divisions  at 
Jan.  1st  of  each  year  from  1902  to  1912  inclu- 
sive.    During  this  period  the  world's  invest- 

DISTRIBUTION  OF 
TELEPHONE  INVESTMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 

JAN.  1,1902  TO  JAN  1,1912 


tilOO 
1600 

)500 


Jan  I   1902      1903      1904      1905      I90&      1901       I90a       1909      1910       1911        1912 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


313 


ment  almost  quadrupled,  increasing  from 
$482,000,000  to  $1,729,000,000.  Over  one-half 
of  this  enormous  increase  was  in  the  United 
States,  where  the  annual  increase  averaged 
approximately  $66,000,000.  This  was  about 
$27,000,000  more  than  the  corresponding  aver- 
age increase  in  Europe.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  year  1912  the  total  estimated  invest- 
ment in  the  United  States  ($1,025,000,000) 
was  about  twice  that  in  all  Europe  ($593,000,- 
000)  and  was  over  one-half  the  investment  of 
the  whole  world.  At  the  same  date  Canada  is 
estimated  to  have  $44,000,000  invested  in  tele- 
phones and  "all  other  countries"  $67,000,000. 

Relative  Telephone  Development 

IN  Various  Countries, 

Jan.  1,  1911. 

TELEPHONE  STATIONS 

COMPARING  THE  UNITED  STATES  WITH  EUROPE 
v;an.i.19ii 


Telephones  in  Use. 

The  statistical  table  shows  the  telephone 
development  of  the  world  January  1,  1911. 
At  that  date  the  United  States  had  67.4%  of 
the  total  telephones,  Europe  had  26.3%,  Can- 
ada 2.5%,  thus  leaving  but  3.8%  for  all  other 
countries.  The  high  percentage  increase  dur- 
ing 1910  for  Bosnia,  Greece  and  Servia,  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  these  countries  are  just  begin- 
ning to  be  developed. 

The  table  shows,  that,  as  in  former  years, 
the  German  Empire  and  Great  Britain  remain 
the  leaders  in  European  telephone  develop- 
ment, the  German  Empire  having  about  36% 
and  Great  Britain  22%  of  all  European  tele- 
phones. Of  the  remaining  countries,  only  one, 
France,  exceeds  200,000  telephones,  and  only 
three  others— Austria,  Russia  and  Sweden — 


TELBPHONX  DBVBLOPMSNT  OP  THE  WORLD.  JAKUABY  1, 

911 

DivUioa 

T.ltpbone. 

jM.u.ry  1. 

1911. 

lncre««dur,oj 
1910 

Per  cent 
T°UI 

Telephone, 
per  100 
Popolalion 

Population 

Namb., 

* 

UmtdSutei  

7.S9S,9M 

600,246 

8.6 

67.4 

8.1 

M 

Cuiad. 

^^n 

45,184 

18.8 

2.5 

3.7 

47 

Europ.:- 

112.604 

47,648 

747 

2J03 

94.531 

»,478 

232.74J 

1J068349 

1.792 
58,506 
70,139 

JJJ4 
64,620 

6,765 
ISflOO 
150,850 
2,635 
25000 
187,441 
78736 

16764 
4J»7 
151 
253 
7(95 

21,079 

10O748 

45,235 

290 

7,481 

7873 

220 

6707 

5,647 

451 

812 

20,377 

im 

196 
13,386 

4,978 

175 
11.5 
25J 

81 

10.4 
7  5 
193 
14.6 
126 
7X) 
10.6 
9i 

57 

6b!9 
0.8 
77 
67 

10 
0.4 

0.9 
OJ 
2.0 
9.5 
58 

0.5 

06 
0« 

l'3 

07 
1.6 
0.7 

0.4 
0.6 
0.04 
0.05 
35 
10 
0.6 

It 

0.06 

a2 

07 

l] 

26 

07 
0.1 

& 

.2.1 

246 
«63 

96 
116 
182 

21 
190 
310 
371 
107 
167 

257 
464 

19 

137 
67 
155 

32 
236 

Btlgium   .... 

Dcr.'i;::;:::; 

p'"'*"'' 

C.rn..n  Empire ... 
Grc.  BriuiB  

>"ir  ■■■•.■. 

Nethetland. 

Roumini* 

Ru»u  .... 

btrvia 

s""  cden 

SwilitrUnd 

2,966,553 

265725 

9S 

26J 

65 

Soulh  Amtric 

85744 

13,642 

18.9 

a8 

07 

Allolhtrcounlriti.. 

139.285 

92,671 

3.0 

003 

28 

Toul  World 

11.271393 

1.016.968 

99 

100.0 

06 

30 

have  over  100,000  telephones  each.  The  com- 
bined number  of  telephones  in  six  important 
European  States — Belgium,  Norway,  Den- 
mark, Hungary,  Italy,  and  the  Netherlands- 
is  still  less  than  the  number  of  telephones  in 
New  York  City,  while  Chicago  has  more  tele- 
phones than  France,  and  Boston  more  than 
Austria;  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms 
combined  do  not  equal  the  total  number  of 
telephones  in  New  York  City  by  about  57,000. 
The  following  chart  presents  graphically  the 
statistics  shown  in  the  above  table  in  the  col- 
umn "Telephones  per  100  Population."  De- 
spite considerable  activity  in  some  European 

TELEPHONES  PER  100  POPULATION 

.JAN  1,1911 


countries,  the  relative  positions  have  not 
changed  during  the  past  year.  Denmark  still 
leads  Sweden  by  a  small  margin.  As  the  aver- 
age for  Europe  January  1,  1911,  was  0.7  tele- 
phones per  100  population,  the  development 
of  the  United  States  at  the  same  date — 8.1  per 


314 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


100  population — was  almost  twelve  times  that 
of  Europe.  South  America  advanced  to  0.2 
telephones  per  100,  and  Canada  to  3.7,  or 
more  than  five  times  the  development  of 
Europe. 

Looking  at  the  telephone  development  from 
the  point  of  population  per  station,  it  appears 
that  the  United  States  January  1,  1911,  aver- 
aged one  station  to  each  12  inhabitants,  as 
against  the  European  average  of  one  to  148. 
Of  the  European  States,  Denmark  and  Sweden 
are  about  equal,  the  former  having  one  station 
to  every  28,  and  the  latter  one  station  to  every 
29  inhabitants.  The  German  Empire  and 
Great  Britain  have  about  twice,  France  six 
times  and  Austria  eight  times  the  population 
per  station  of  Sweden. 

In  actual  number  of  telephones,  Jan.  1,  1911 
Berlin,  London  and  Paris,  with  a  combined 
total  of  403,500  telephones,  are  about  even 
with  New  York  (402,000).  The  latter  approxi- 
mates very  nearly  the  combined  telephones  of 
14  European  States. 

Wire  Mileage. 

The  next  statistical  table  and  chart  view 
the  telephone  development  of  the  world  in 
point  of  wire  plant  January  1,  1911.  At  date 
the  grand  total  of  telephone  wire  mileage 
was  about  27,000,000,  of  which  the  United 
States  possessed  61.7%,  Europe  32.5%,  Can- 
ada 2.6%,  South  America  0.5%  and  all  other 
countries  2.7%.  Thus  the  United  States  has 
almost  twice  the*  total  telephone  wire  of  all 
Europe.  The  German  Empire,  though  pos- 
sessing the  largest  number  of  telephones  of 
any  of  the  European  States,  has  but  one-fifth 
the  telephone  wire  of  the  United  States,  and 
Great  Britain  but  one-eighth. 


TELEPHONE  WIRE  MILEAGE  OF  THE  WORLD 

JAN.  In  1911 
ZTOeZOX)  MILtS 


KtLBS  OP  TBUCPHONB  wntS 


Ucli  tun  Stranl  of  Wn  rtfircitnta  IfiOaUXH 


Di>iaoD 

Miles  of 
.    Wire 
Jan.  1,  1911 

Increase  during  1910 

Percent  ol 

Toul 
Jan. 1.1911 

Milea 

* 

United  Suta 

16,633.590 

1.383,41 

9.055 

617 

rsy^ 

102.960 

169 

2.6 

Europe:— 
Au«ri. 

147,252 

1,403 

5762 

254,989 

76,793 

831,169 

3,553,504 

2,116,368 

5,323 

201,636 

161,628 

3.612 

141,478 

129.168 

21,114 

45,333 

260,049 

8,045 

H027 

245/57 

210,032 

31.179 

9fl76 

95 

523 

T9fS7 

6.982 

93.527 

329.027 

91,420 

1,064 

22,604 

14/S93 

62 

19fl82 

8.383 

1358 

4.175 

18,630 

678 

4306 

23,108 

9,192 

12.1 
6.5 
7.2 
IOjO 
13.2 

v>a 

127 
10l2 

4,5 
24.0 
12.6 
10.0 

17 
15.6 

6.9 

9.6 
10.0 

93 
10.4 
4.5 

10 
0.6 

oi 

0.3 
3.0 
13^ 
7J 

oi 

0.6 

0.5 
0.5 

IX) 

0.9 
03 

Boini.   

Finl.od 

France 

Great  Briuin 

^'"" 

\^"^ 

RounianU 

,     RoMia 

Servia 

Spain 

Sweden 

SwitierUnd 

Total 

8761.965 

719,999 

8.9 

32.5 

South  America... 

136,676 

OS 

All  other  countrie. 

720,168 

27 

Total  World 

26.962,107 

2,384.653 

97 

mro 

COMPARISON  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
AMERICAN  AND  EUROPEAN  CITIES 

BY  FIVE  YEAR  PERIODS 
^a  European  C//y 


I  AmericanCity 


■ess 

1900 
1905 
IBIO 

■ 

? 

_ 

LONDON  AND  NEW  YORK 

IT 

■ 

»AR1S  AND  PHILADELPHIA 

1895 
1900 
1905 

d 

■ 

■ 

■ 

■ 

■ 

VIENNA  AND  BOSTON 

1895 
1900 

1911 

w 

"" 

' 

" 

ERLIN  ANO  CHICAGO 

1895 

BP 

E 

1900 

S 

jjjLCX^i  1 

I89S 

4 

STOCKHOLM  ANO  LOS  ANGELES 

1900 

*«x=. 

1910 

iTTfTiTi  n  iTi  riirnii  iii 

Telephones  per  100  Population 

The  table  on  the  opposite  page  shows  the 
estimated  total  length  of  telephone  and  tele- 
graph wires  January  1,  1911,  including  rail- 
road telephone  and  telegraph  wire. 

The  statistics  place  the  total  length  of 
telephone  and  telegraph  wires  in  the  world 
January  1,  1911,  at  34,500,000  miles.  Of  this 
total,  telephone  wire  took  78%,  telegraph  wire 
(including  cables)  17%,  and  railroad  telegraph 
wire  5%.  Again,  the  United  States  took  62% 
of  the  total  telephone  wire,  and  34%  of  the 
total  telegraph  wire  (excluding  cables  and 
railroad  telegraph  wire). 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


315 


Length  of  World's  Telephone  and 
Telegraph  Wire, 

(Partly  Estimated) 


JANUARY  1,  mi 


TELEPHONE  WIRE: 


Miles 


United  State. 16,634,000 

Canada 709,000 

Europe 8762.000 

All  other  Countries 8S7fl00 


U.  S.  RAILROAD  TELEPHONE  WIRE. 
Total  Telephone  Wire 


26,962,000 
120,000 


TELEGRAPH  WIRE: 


United  Sutes 1»I9JX0 

Canada  153,000 

Europe   2,352,000 

All  other  Countries ^  1,090,000 


S.AMfXX) 

SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH  WIRE  (in  cables) 314,000 

RAILROAD  TELEGRAPH  WIRE 1,726,000 

Total  Telegraph  Wire 7,484,000 

CnmdTotia 


34,566,000 

A  more  comprehensive  view  of  the  relation 
between  telephone  development  and  popula- 
tion is  gained  from  the  following  chart.  This 
chart  compares  European  countries,  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  representing  in  each  case 
both   population   per  square   mile   and   tele- 

f)hones  per  100  population.  The  greatest  popu- 
ation  per  square  mile  is  found  in  Belgium, 
which  has  663  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile, 
and  the  largest  number  of  telephones  per  100 
population  is  found  in  the  United  States, which 
Januarjr  1,  1911,  had  8.1  telephones  per  100 
population. 

COMPARISON  OF 

DENSITY  OF  POPULATION 

ANO 

TELEPHONE  DEVELOPMENT 

JAN  1. 1911 

NoTt:  Density  of  pocutatkm  in  Belaiun  and  tdeplvine  ievtiaamcrw 
ftr  too  p^ubtion)  >n  Ihs  UnJUd  Statu  lAan  as  lOOvl 


/C7L.,^Z7|.V=71    r-^^Tl^    /^VT-V^71-/=^?1 


OeNSnv  OF  POPUIATIUN 

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It  is  evident  from  the  chart  that  Canada 
has  by  far  the  lowest  density  of  population; 
next  comes  South  America  and  then  Norway, 
while  Sweden  is  about  equal  to  the  United 
States,  and  Italy  to  Germany.  In  telephone 
development  Canada  ranks  next  to  the  United 
States.  Denmark  and  Sweden,  which  have 
about  the  same  development,  are  still  con- 
siderably below  one-half  the  telephone  de- 
velopment of  the  United  States. 


THE  GROWTH  OF 

TELEPHONE  and  TELEGRAPH  TRAFFIC 

AND  WIRE  MILEAGE  COMPARED 
THE    WORLD 


1 1 

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1900     1901       1902      1903 


1905      1906      1907       1906      1909 


NoTc:  Oroirtft  expressed  as  a  percentaga 
'  t/ie  1900  figures. 


TELEPHONE  INVESTMENT  PER  CAPITA 

roR 
UNITED  STATES,  CANADA  and  EUROPE 


316 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


34ooooo^ 

33 
31 


ANNUAL  INCREASES  OF 

TELEPHONE  WIRE  MILEAGE  OF  THE  WORLD 
DIVIDED  BY  COUNTRIES 

1901  TD  1911 


tnilllllllllH  ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 
—  CANADA. 
VW///M  EUROPE! 

UNITED  STATES 


1902         1909        I90A        I90&        1906        1907 


1911 


Telephone  Investment. 

The  statistics  referring  to  investment  do  not 
always  represent  the  actual  replacement  values 
of  the  various  telephone  plants,  as  such  infor- 
mation is  not  recorded  by  the  majority  of 
foreign  telephone  administrations.  The  only 
data  available  in  many  cases  are  the  aggregate 
amounts  that  have  been  put  into  the  business 
since  its  inception.  The  world's  telephone  in- 
vestment January  1,  IQH,  is  estimated  at 
$1,561,800,000,  equivalent  to  $139  per  tele- 
phone. This  total  investment  is  thus  approxi- 
mately equal  to  the  value  of  the  com  crop  of 
the  United  States  in  1911. 

Of  this  total  investment  of  $1,561,800,000, 
the  United  States  invested  $956,700,000,  or 
61.2  per  cent,  of  the  total;  Canada  $.36,700,- 
000,  or  2.4  per  cent,  of  the  total;  Europe 
$518,400,000,  or  33.2  per  cent,  of  the  total; 
and  all  other  countries  $50,000(000,  or  3.2 
per  cent,  of  the  total. 

Figured  on  the  respective  number  of  tele- 
phones on  Jan.  1,  1911,  the  investment  per 
telephone  is: 

United  States $126 

Canada 129 

Europe 175 

All  other  countries 118 

Total  world 139 

The  investment  representing  "all  other 
countries"  includes  $16,456,000  for  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
$4,795,000  for  the  Union  of  South  Africa, 
$15,223,000  for  Japan,  and  about  $6,668,000 
for  Brazil  and  Chili  together. 

During  the  year  1910,  $145,500,000  was 
added   to   the   telephone   investment  of   the 


world,  so  that  the  above  total  of  $1,560,800,000 
represents  an  increase  of  10%  over  the  corre- 
sponding investment  Jan.  1,  1911.  In  the 
United  States  alone,  the  estimated  increase  in 
investment  during  1910  amounted  to  $97,- 
600,000,  or,  excluding  Europe,  considerably 
more  than  the  total  cost  of  all  telephone  plants 
in  service  in  the  entire  world. 

In  regard  to  the  more  detailed  investment 
statistics  given  on  the  following  page,  perhaps 
the  "most  striking  feature  of  the  table  is  the 
high  figure  for  investment  per  telephone  in 
many  of  the  important  European  States.  For 
instance,  Austria,  Belgium,  France,  Great 
Britain,  Hungary,  Spain,  and  Switzerland  all 
show  an  investment  per  telephone  of  over  $200. 

The  German  Empire,  Great  Britain,  and 
France  combined  have  slightly  more  than  two- 
thirds  the  entire  telephone  investment  of 
Europe. 

Excepting  the  German  Empire  and  Great 
Britain,  none  of  the  European  States  exceeds 
$100,000,000,  and  the  majority  have  invested 
less  than  .$20,000,000  apiece.  Of  the  Scandi- 
navian kingdoms,  Sweden  has  approximately 
twice  the  investment  of  Denmark,  which  in 
turn  has  about  twice  that  of  Norway. 

Viewing  telephone  investment  from  a  per 
capita  basis,  a  very  different  situation  is  -re- 
vealed. A  glance  at  the  chart  on  page  315 
.shows  that  of  the  European  countries  Switzer- 
land leads,  and  Denmark  has  advanced  to 
second  position;  on  the  other,  hand,  though 
the  German  Empire  occupied  first  rank  in 
point  of  total  investment,  it  takes  fifth  place  in 
point  of  investment  per  capita.  The  per  capita 
investment  of  the  United  States  ($10.27)  is 
about  nine  times  that  of  Europe  ($1.18).  Of 
the  European  countries  shown  on  the  chart, 
Hungary  has  the  lowest  per  capita  investment 
(.$0.59),  and  Austria  has  not  yet  reached  an 
investment  of  $1.00  per  capita. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


317 


Investment — Telephone  and 
Telegraph. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  telephone 
investment  of  the  world  with  that  of  the  tele- 
graph (including  submarine  cables).  In  the 
absence  of  anv  definite  information  covering 
the  entire  world  on  that  subject,  only  an  esti- 
mate can  be  made.  Using  the  total  telegraph 
wire  mileage,  January  1,  1911,  as  a  basis,  the 
telegraph  investment  may  be  estimated  at 
about  $700,000,000.  There  are  also  314,000 
miles  of  submarine  cables  representing  an  esti- 
mated investment  of  $350,000,000,  so  that 
the  total  telegraph  investment  of  the  world 
January  1,  1911,  may  be  placed  at  $1,050,- 
000,000,  as  compared  with  a  telephone  invest- 
ment of  $1,561,777,000  at  the  same  date. 

This  makes  a  total  investment  of  $2,619,- 
497,000  for  telephone  and  telegraph  (includ- 
ing submarine  cables)  for  the  world,  January 
1,  1911.  Of  this  total  60  per  cent,  is  invested 
in  telephones,  27  per  cent,  in  telegraphs  and 
13  per  cent,  in  cables. 


rELEPHONK  GROSS  EARNINGS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  CANADA, 

EUROPE  AND  ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

(Pinly  Estimiled) 

YEAR  1909 


Division 

C.o« 
Earmng. 

%  to  Total 
Earning. 

During  1909 

Avg.  Earning. 

UailtdSutti 

$221,471,000 

67.4% 

$20«1,000 

$3287 

6,752,032 

2.0 

1.161,000 

31.87 

Europe 

3,704.990 

2.066,740 

11,555 

65,135 

2,040,158 

448,518 

8,I61>00 

32,330.909 

23.113,326 

37,048 

1,859.205 

2,416,902 

62,697 

1,731,700 

1,159364 

240,516 

277.947 

4.756.475 

58,575 

831,125 

3,959,765 

1,996,439 

06 

0.6 

9.8 
70 

0,6 
OJ 

0.5 

as 
l.« 

1.2 
06 

584.000 

152,000 

1,900 

7,000 

233W> 

1,098,000 

3,407,000 

1358,000 

4,000 

155,000 

348,000 

6,C00 

244MI0 

40fl00 

10.000 

35.000 

46970O 

4,000 

38.000 

309.000 

169.000 

41.45 
50.75 
21.90 
31.65 
24.4J 
15.9S 
40.20 
35.00 
39.40 
26.40 
38.8S' 
42  70 
20M 
3245 
21.35 
40.90 
22.50 

'   3765 
35.20 
2360 
27.95 

?:Srv.v.v.v;.v;;..v.v.v.v;.v. 

BuigTi, 

D«i.m.rk ..,..,.., 

Fnnct 

GemMn  Empin 

^"*" 

luly 

Norwa, 

J°""' 

Stmi. 

Sp»in 

SwiucrUnd 

Total 

91,331.189 

27« 

9.172.600 

35.40 

9.163,500 

2.8 

30.00 

»328,717.721 

100.0% 

Country 

Grosa 
Telephone 
Earning. 

Groai 

Total 

Earning. 

Groj.  Earning. 

Telephone 

Telegraph 

Au.lra 

$3,704,990 

2*66,740 

11.555 

65,135 

2.040.158 
8,161,600 
32,330,909 
23,113,326 

37,048 
1359,205 
2,416,902 

62,697 

U31,700 
1.159364 
240.516 
277X7 

5,204,993 
58,575 
831,125 
3,959765 
1,996,439 

$3,162,571 
1,191,450 
281,324 
294,610 

488.697 
8.101328 
8.771.920 
15.960,869 

346.794 

1,491.079 

3320.513 

16,338 

1,011,475 
642375 
849362 
595,106 

12,408,158 
120323 
2P32.422 
615.049 
812,661 

$6367,561 
3,258,190 
292379 
359,745 

2.528355 
16.263,428 
41.102329 
39.074.195 

383342 

3J50.284 

6,237,415 

79,035 

2,743.175 
1302.739 
lfl90,378 
873,053 

17,613,151 
179.398 
2363.547 
4.574314 
2,809,100 

54% 
63% 
4% 
18% 

81% 
50% 
79% 
59% 

10% 
55% 
39% 
79% 

63% 
64% 
22% 
32% 

30% 
33% 

29% 
86% 
71% 

46% 
37% 
96% 
82% 

19% 
50% 
21% 
41% 

90% 
45% 
61% 
21% 

37% 
36% 
78% 
68% 

70% 
67% 
71% 
14% 

29% 

i*i*„r 

German  Empire 

Greece  

»„,„!!;, 

RuHtaudFitdud 

Swvi. 

Sweden 

191,331,189 

$63,016,424 

$154,347,613 

59% 

41% 

Earnings  for  1909 — Telephone 
AND  Telegraph. 

The  figures  for  gross  telephone  earnings  in 
European  countries  are  official,  but  those 
quoted  for  "all  other  countries"  are  mostly 
estimated.  The  total  gross  telephone  earnings 
of  the  world  for  the  year  1909  may  be  placed 
at  $329,000,000,  of  which  the  United  States 
earned  $221,471,000  (67.4%),  Canada  $6,752,- 
000  (2%),  Europe  $91,331,000  (27.8%),  and 
all  other  countries  $9,163,500  (2.8%), 

The  adjoined  table  shows  the  gross  tele- 
phone earnings  of  the  various  European  coun- 
tries, ranging  from  $241,000  (Portugal)  to 
$32,331,000  (German  Empire).  The  average 
earnings  per  telephone  for  total  Europe  was 
$35.40. 

On  account  of  the  almost  universal  custom 
af  European  governments  of  conducting  the 
telephone  as  a  branch  of  the  postal  and  tele- 
graph services,  practically  no  European  gov- 
ernment keeps  its  accounts  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  reveal  the  true  net  financial  result  of  ita 
telephone  service. 

Traffic — Mail,  Telegraph  and 
Telephone. 

Instructive  as  it  would  be  to  compare  the 
traffic  of  the  other  two  branches  of  transmis- 
sion of  intelligence — the  mail  and  the  tele- 
graph— with  the  telephone  traffic  of  the  world, 
such  a  comparison  would  only  be  speculative 
on  account  of  the  lack  of  statistical  material. 
There  is,  however,  sufficient  statistical  infor- 
mation to  permit  a  comparison  of  the  traffic 
of  these  three  services,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Europe,  during  the  year  1&09. 
The  result  is  as  follows: 

Out  of  a  total  of  20,669,000,000  messages 
transmitted  by  the  three  services  in  Europe, 
15,387,000,000  (74.4  per  cent.)  were  by  first 
class  mail  matter,  345,000,000  (1.7  per  cent.) 
by  telegrams  and  4,937,000,000  (23.9  percent.) 
by  telephone.  In  the  United  States,  out  of  a 
total  of  21,508,000,000  messages,  8,793,000,000 
(40.9  per  cent.)  were  by  first  class  mail  matter, 
98,000,000  (0.4  per  cent.)  by  telegrams  and 
12,617,000,000  (58.7  per  cent.)  by  telephone. 

The  figures  show  that  although  Europe  has 
about  three  and  a  half  times  the  telegraph 
traffic  and  nearly  twice  the  first-class  mail 
traffic,  it  has  only  one-third  the  telephone 
traffic  of  the  United  States. 

The  first  class  mail,  telegraph  and  telephone 
traffic  per  1,000  population  for  Europe  and 
the  United  States  during  1908  and  1909  was 
as  follows: 

For  Europe;  35,533  pieces  of  first  class  mail 
matter  in  1909,  as  against  34,766  in  1908,  an 
increase  of  2.2  per  cent.;  798  telegrams  in 
1909,  as  against  769  in  1908,  an  increase  of 
3.7  per  cent.;  11,400  telephone  conversations 
in  1909,  as  against  10,585  in  1908,  an  increase 
of  7.7  per  cent.  For  the  United  States: 
96,090  pieces  of  first  class  mail  matter  in  1909, 
as  against  90,062  in  1908,  an  increase  of  6.7 
per  cent.;  1,076  telegrams  in  1909,  as  against 
1,039  in  1908,  an  increase  of  3.5  per  cent; 
137,882  telephone  conversations  in  1909,  as 
against  134,335  in  1908,  an  increase  of  2f. 
per  cent. 


318 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


A  Comparison  With  Other 

Industries. 

The  magnitude  of  the  United  States  tele- 
phone investment  per  capita  may  be  empha- 
sized by  comparing  the  telephone  with  some 
of  the  other  leading  United  States  industries. 
Such  a  comparison  is  based  on  recent  special 
reports  by  the  United  States  Census  Office, 
publishing  the  requisite  data  as  of  January  1, 
1910.  The  chart  shown  below  gives  the  result 
of  a  comparison  of  the  telephone  business  with 
ten  large  United  States  industries.  Despite 
the  fact  that  the  telephone  has  been  in  use  but 
thirty-five  years,  the  telephone  investment  per 
capita  January  1,  1910  is  the  fourth  largest, 
yielding  only  to  the  Iron  and  Steel,  Lumber, 
and  Gas  and  Heating  industries. 


PER  CAPITA  INVESTMENT  OF  LEADING 
UNITED  STATES  INDUSTRIES 

AND  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  EMPlUrEES 
JAN.  1. 1910 


KnexmatFimta 


The  New  York  Telephone  Company  dis- 
tributed 1,500,000  new  telephone  directories 
of  the  issue  dated  May  8,  1913.  It  required 
the  service  of  600  men  working  fifteen  days  to 
make  the  deliveries  of  this  book,  which  com- 

f)rises  864  pages.  The  number  of  subscribers 
isted  is  296,000,  not  including  the  many 
thousands  of  branches  in  apartment  houses, 
hotels  and  pay  stations.  The  approximate 
cost  of  the  telephone  directory  is  $1,200  a  day, 
or  $438,000  annually.  The  first  telephone 
directory  was  issued  in  1878;  at  that  time 
the  total  number  of  subscribers  was  252. 


One  of  the  earliest  experiments  for  repro- 
ducing sovmds  by  means  of  sound  boards 
connected  by  a  rod  was  Wheatstone's  "Magic 
Lyre,"  1831.  In  1861  Philip  Reis  conducted 
experiments  to  reproduce  human  speech  by 
means  of  electric  pulsation.  In  1875  Prof. 
Bell  invented  the  electric  telephone,  which 
he  patented  in  1876.  Edison  patented  an 
invention  of  his  July;  1877. 


RATIO  OF  MAIL  TELEGRAPH  AND  TELEPHONE 

tUROPE  AND  UNITED  STATES 


■■TEi£BRAPH 
EUROPE 


MESSAGES 


1900       1901         1902       1903       I90«        I90S       1906        1907       1909       1909 


UNITED  STATES 


m 


II  I  I 
!  i  !  I 

J    J    II 


I 


II     I 


ISOe      1907      I90»     jaos 


RATIO    OF 

MAIL,  TELEGRAPH  AND  TELEPHONE  MESSAGES 

VCAR  1909 


COUNTRY 

TfFf^ 

t55A0^9 

=,^^^ 

^ 

^^^ 

1 

Hi 

^lu^-^^vifn 

-^■^— 

=i^ 

III  I  I  11  I  I  ri*pi  I 
ij  J  J  J  J  J  J  J  J  J  J  J  J 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


319 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE 
WORLDS  TELEPHONES 

JANUARY  1, 1912. 
I2/I53JD0O 


DISPOSITION    OF    THE    GROSS    REVE- 
NUE OF  THE  BELL  SYSTEM, 
YEAR  1911. 


50% 


^^S^^4, 


.>»SSS^4' 


Diagnm  illuitntinp  t  itltphant  trunk  Km  of  40  mint,  iilng  on  of  m  numior  of  tuoh  trunk  linn 
Joining  two  largo  motropolltan  aroai  250  milot  apart  anil  sorting  intormodiato  eitiot,  townt  and  rural  dittrieto 
t  narrow  ttrip  of  torrHory  on  oaeh  tido.     0hon  utod  for  tho  talophano  (xc/vjiVa//  thit  trunk  lino  furnithot  30  to/oghono 
eireuitt,  including  ioth  phantom  and  phytioal,  roaehing  700,000  tolopfiono  itationt. 


^C^opour^^ 


WESTERN    UNION    SYSTEM 


er-^ 


z, 


A-^ 

V 


A  .\ 


1 


Diagram  illuitrating  a  tolograph  trunk  lino  of  40  mirot,  toing  ono  of  a  numior  of  tilcli  trunk  linoo  joining 
tho  tamo  largo  contort  and  trararting  tho  tamo  torritor/.  Whon  utod  for  tho  tolograph  oietutivoly,  thit 
trunk  lino  girtt  80  tolograph  eirouHt  roaehing  300  ttationt  at  miioh  tolograph  mottagot  may  bo  ttnl  and 
roeoitod. 


VS^S^^, 


^^^^^^^ 


Diagram  illuttraiing  thtto  tamo  two  trunk  lintt  workod  in  co-oporation  to  at  to  protido  both  tolopho 
and  tolograph  tomico  upon  oaei  timultanooutly.     Whon  thut  oporatod  thero  aro  obtainod  a  total  of  ISO  through 
tolograph  eireuitt,  a  gain  of  80,  and  a  total  of  SO  through  tolophono  cireuHt,  a  gain  of  30,  oror  tho  eombinod  faeilHiot 
of  tho  two  linoi  whon  ono  it  utod  only  for  tho  tolophono  and  tho  othor  only  for  tho  tolograph.        Tho  numbor  of  ttationt 
whoro  tologramt  may  bo  roeoind  and  tont  it  ineroatod  from  300  to  700,000. 


0 


.520 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


3 

^ 

z~ 

^ 

~ 





^^^ 

-\ 7,300,000 

— tr— rr-    7,200,000 

E 

t 

~z- 

^ 

^ 





: L,]! 

CZ_     7,100.000 

— ^ 1 7,000,000 

DIAGRAM 

:                       SHOWING  THE  GROWTH  IN 

SUBSCRIBERS'  STATIONS 

I                              CONNECTED  TO  THE  SYSTEM 
I                                                      OF  THE 

;     BELL  TELEPHONE 
COMPANIES 

FROM 

JAN.  1. 1876-JAN.  1.  1913. 

— 

— 

— 

-^■-! 

EE-f-^T^ 

— 

^^  4 

\ — j — 

- 

_(_ — ( — !_.. 

-4-q^H- 

_^ 

— 

. — 

- 

— 

- 

-         On  January  1, 1913,  there  was  one  Bell  Tele 
phone  Station  to  each  13  of  the  Total  Popula 
:                       tion  of  the  United  States. 

'    ^'                     A  inn  nnn  m 

j._. 

-\ 4,500,000^ 

_i 4,400,000  5 

— 

E 

rr 

:  — 

— 

— 





_^dr: ^ 

— 

-r 

:e 

— 

— 

: 







r  -  ■:  r  7    4.300,000  J- 

— 

— j 

— 

— 

— 



— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

_, 



. 

_                       "3.  7nn  nnn  o 

•3.  p.nn  nnn  ^ 

— 

— 1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

-  -  -  -  -    3,100, 0005 

o  Qfin  r\r\c\  S 

o  Rnn  nnn 

2  700  000 

-  -  ---     2,600,000 
2,500,000 

= 

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EE 

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p=-:i:r^  -  - 

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-  -  -  -  -     2,200,000 
2  100  000 

= 

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-- 

----- 

=  =  -  -  =     2,000,000 

— 



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— 

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1,500,000 

1,400,000 

— 

— 



— 

— 

— 

_ 



— 

— 1 

1,300,000 

— 

— 

— 



— 

_ 

— 



_  _  _  ._ 

— 

— 

—  - 

— 

— 

— 





-  -  -  -  -     1,000.000 

~ 

~ 

~: 

=- 

- 

- 

=3:3 

900,000 

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IE 

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800,000 

700,000 

ZZ--Z         600,000 

— 

-  — 

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— 

— 

— — 

— 



— 



• 



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.  - 

-^ 

^ 

h|- 

_■_  _ 

~ 

r: 

~: 

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— I— 

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+ 

r|r  7 

-  --Z  z  --.  z  - 

~ 

~ 

~: 

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~ 

-■- 

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+ 

_I_  _ 

-  -  - 

1876  1878  1880  1882  1884  1886  188 
JA 

8  1890  1892  1894  1896  1898  1900  1902  1904  1906  10 
NUARY  1st  of  each  YEAR. 

Oa  1910  1912'I3                ° 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


321 


The  growth  of  the  Bell  System,  its  broader 
usefulness  and  resulting  prosperity,  are  shown 
in  the  annual  report  of  the  American  Tele- 
phone and  Telegraph  Company  for  1912  by 
the  financial  statement  and  other  comparative 
statistics. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1912  there  was  a 
total  of  7,456,074  subscriber  stations,  of  which 
2,502,627  were  operated  by  connecting  com- 
panies. 

The  Bell  toll  lines  now  reach  70,000  places, 
which  is  5,000  more  than  the  number  of  post 
offices  and  10,000  more  than  the  number  of 


railroad  stations  in  the  United  States.  The 
total  wire  mileage  has  been  increased  to 
nearly  14,610,813  miles,  of  which  over  half  is 
underground,  and  the  new  450-mile  subway 
between  Boston  and  Washington  has  been 
completed. 

The  traffic  over  the  Bell  lines  shows  a  daily 
average  of  25,572,345  or  at  the  rate  of 
8,950,000,000  connections  a  year. 

There  was  spent  in  plant  additions  $76,- 
626,900  in  the  year.  There  was  applied  to 
maintenance  and  reconstruction  during  the 
year  $66,705,000,  making  a  total  provision  for 
the  last  ten  years  of  $409,000,000. 


BELL  TELEPHONE  SYSTEM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

CONDENSED  STATISTICS. 


Dec.  31, 
1896. 

Dec.  31, 
1900. 

Dec.  31, 
1905. 

Dec.  31, 
1910. 

Dec.  31, 
1911. 

Dec.  31, 
1912. 

Increase, 
1912. 

Miles  of  Exchange  Pole  T-ines 

Miles  of  ToU  Pole  Lines...    .. 

25,330 
52,873 

30,451 
101,087 

67,698 
145,535 

120,175 
162,702 

131,379 
163,351 

143,842 
171,161 

12,463 
7,810 

Total  Miles  of  Pole  Lines 

78,203 

131,538 

213,233 

282,^77 

294,730 

315,003 

20,273 

184,515 
2,028 

488,872 

705,269 

4,203 

1,252,329 

2,345,742 

9,373 

3,424,803 

5,992,303 

24,636 

5,625,273 

6,831,667 

26,936 

6,074,012 

7,804,528 

30,301 

6,775,984 

972,861 

Miles  of  Submarine  Wire ... 

3,365 

Miles  of  Aerial  Wire 

•701,972 

Total  Miles  of  Wire 

675,415 

1,961,801 

5,779,918 

11,642,212 

12,932,615 

14,610,813 

1,678,198 

Comprising  Toll  Wire 

215,687 
459,728 

607,599 
1,354,202 

1,265,236 

4,514,682 

1,963,994 
9,678,218 

2,060,514 
10,872,101 

2,189,163 
12,421,650 

128,649 

Comprising  Exchange  Wire 

1,549,549 

Total 

675,415 

1,961,801 

5,779,918 

11,642,212 

12,932,615 

14,610,813 

1,678,198 

Total  Exchange  Circuits 

237,837 
1,613 

508,262 
2,775 

1,135,449 
4,532 

2,082,960 
4,933 

2,306,360 
5,014 

2,576,789 
5,182 

270,429 

Number  of  Central  Offices 

168 

Number  of  Bell  Stations  .... 

281,695 
27,807 

800,880 
55,031 

2,241,367 
287,348 

4,030,668 
1,852,051 

4,474,171 
2,158,454 

4,953,447 
2,502,627 

479,276 

Number  of  BeU  Connected  Stations*. . 

344,173 

Total  Stations 

309,502 

855,911 

2,528,715 

5,882,719 

6,632,625 

7,456,074 

823,449 

Number  of  Employees 

14,517 

37,067 

89,661 

120,311 

128,439 

140,789 

12,350 

Number    of    Connecting  Companies, 
Lines  and  Systems 

17,845 

21,454 

24,013 

2,559 

Exchange  Connections  Daily 

2,351,420 

5,668,986 

13,543,468 

21,681,471 

23,483,770 

25,572,345 

2,088,575 

Toll  Connections  Daily 

61,123 

148,528 

368,083 

602,539 

644,918 

737,823 

92,905 

•Includes  Private  Line  Stations. 


BELL  TELEPHONE  SYSTEM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

ALL  DUPLICATIONS  BETWEEN  COMPANIES  EXCLUDED. 


COMPARATIVE  EARNINGS  AT  FIVE  YEAR  INTERVALS,  1885-1912. 


Year  1886. 

Year  1890. 

Year  1896. 

Year  1900. 

Year  1905. 

Year  1910. 

Year  1912. 

Gross  Earnings. .... 

$10,033,600 
5,124,300 

§16,212,100 
9,067,600 

824,197,200 
15,488,400 

846,385,600 
30,632,400 

$97,500,100 
66,189,400 

8165,612,881 
114,618,473 

$199  172  154 

Exppnsos    ,      J . 

142,285,464 

$4,909,300 
27,700 

87,144,500 
278,700 

88,708,800 
655,500 

815,753,200 
2,389,600 

831,310,700 
5,836,300 

850,994,408 
11,556,864 

$56,886,690 

Interest 

14,205,365 

Balance ,. 

84,881,600 
3,107,200 

86,865,800 
4,101,300 

88,053,300 
5,066,900 

813,363,600 
7,893,500 

825,474,400 
15,817,500 

839,437,544 
25,160,786 

842,681,325 
29,460,215 

Surplus  Earnings 

81,774,400 

82,704,500 

82,986,400 

85,470,100 

89,656,900 

814,270,758 

813,221,110 

322 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINTERS'  MARKS. 


0  Por'iod. 
J  Comma. 
-   Hyphen. 
:    Colon. 
'}  Semicolon. 
\^  Apostrophe. 
"i^/^  Quotations. 
'  D  Em  qutidrat. 
'rn  Ono-em  dash. 

a. 

"Tfrv  Two-oni  parallel  d*«h. 

•i*  Push  down  space. 

^-^  Close  up. 

V^  ^ess  space. 

/^  Caret— left  out,  insert. 

_5/  Turn  to  proper  position. 

#  Insert  space. 

O  Move  to  left  or  to  right. 

LJ  Move  up  or  move  dowa. 

Xt,  Transpose. 

. ....  or  /d/G^  Let  it  stand . 

<^  Dele — take  out. 

©)  Broken  letter. 

jl  Paragraph. 

/co^JU  No  paragraph. 

yc</.  "-p  Vrong  font. 

•^•7   or  £^^  Equalize  spacing. 

^  or  Q.eL,fiy<^.  Capitals. 

:^  or  /A .  <2..  Small  capitals, 

/t-,  €;..  I,ower-case 

"^^or  "^  Superior  or  inferior. 

■  or  <6Z!«/.  Ita'ic- 

/tyOTyiy.  Roman. 

Hj  Brackets. 

/ 1 )  Parenthesei. 


C  or 
n  or 


J.C. 


TVPOCRAPHICAL   ERRORsJ-/  '      ' 

l^_do^  not  appear  that  the  cariiji'sl  printersi  had    C 


/\  ^  ^ 


^  ^  1/       any_^mcthod^of  corrcrting^crrors*' before^the  form 
6y  was  on  the  press/  The  learned  •%«^«*»e<J•  cor- 
^,    rectors  of  the  first  two  centuries  of  printing  were        /   '- 
^^  not  proof/rcaders  in  our  sense/ they  w/trc  rather    ^/fy 
,■     'y   what  we  should  Term  office  editors.    Their  labors     / 


ot^?^ 


-C/ 


./fc 


wore^chicfl.v  to  sec  that  the  proof  corresponded  to 
the  copy,  but  that  the  printed  page  was  correct 
in  its  /atinity/-t:b«rt>~Jjtr  "■o?'!?- wQrr  tjtcre^  and    /Stjct. 
I  that  the  sense  \va8  right.    They  cared  ■b«rt  little       c^ 

about  orthography,  bad  lettcr.'^or  purely  printerf|j 
errors,  and  when  the  text  seemed  to  them  wrong 
they  consulted  fresh  authorities  or  altered  it  on 
their   own    responsibility.    Good    proofs^iii    the 
'^tiVC'^   modern  sense,  were  ^possi^lc  until  professional 
■m,      readers   were  employed/  men   who  (hadj  tiisi^  a 
t     printer's  education,  and  then  spent  many  years 
•^      ia  the  correc^n  of  proof.    The  orthography  of  , 

English,  which  for  the  past  century  has  under^     »/ 
gone  little  change,  waa  very  fluctuating  until  after       ^■'r- 
:ZZ     the  publication  of  Johnson's  Dictionary,  and  capi-  ^ 

tals,  which  have  been  used  with  considerable  reg-    ^J(  p      , 
.AJij^    ularity  for  the  pa8t(80)  years,-  were  previously  used 
^j^^i     on  the  rmis3fof\hil7 plan.    The  approach  to  regu- 
y/  /CC     larity,  «o  far  as  we  havw  may  be  attributed  to  the 
growth  of  a  class  of  professional  proof  readers,  and 
it  is  to  them  that  we  owe  the  correctness  of  mod- 
ern printing.^ More  cr/ors  have  been  found  in  the 
Bible  than  in  any  other  one  work.,    For  many  Ren^i_^-V 
crations  it  was  frequently  the  case  that  Bibles' 
were  brought  out  stealthily,  from  fear  of  govern- 
C       [^mental   interference  /\  'They   were  frequently  Ou^^  Ui-C^a-*> 
printed  from  imperfect  texts,  and  wore  often  mod-        f 
ificd  to  meet  the  views  of  those  who  publised      "^ 
£J     them/The  story  is  related  that  a  certain  woman      /,      /    n 
<^  in  Germany,  who  wag  the  wife  of  a  printer,  tmd   /.a./a/Kr 

„  I p  I  bad  become  disgusted  with  the  continual  asser-         / 

^ jyr-  A<nn..  \\oi\foif  \helsupenoruy]oi  man  over  woman  which 
/ ^/  she  had  heard,  hurried  into  the  composing  room 

/while  her  husband^  was  at  supper  and  altered  a 
sentence  in  the^^ible,'^vhich,ho  was^rinting.  so 
that  it  read ^'arr^ins lead  of^Herr.^thus  making 
the  verse  read  "And  he  shall  be  thy  fool "  instead       >.  /      / 
,y    of  "^nd  he  shall  be  thy/ord."    The  word^not.    <X/^/^ 
^   was  omitted  by  Barker,  the  j^ing'g  printer  in  En-       '//    ' 
andinl632,inprintingthc9eventhcommand^enty^    &/ 
He  was  fined  jE^OOO  on  this  account.  ^-.^linwC^ 


f/^ 


1  ■»/ 


'^l 


NUMBER  OF  WORDS  AND  EMS   TO  THE  SQUARE  INCH. 


Sizes  of  type. 


Number  of  words, 


Solid. 


Leaded. 


Num- 
ber of 
ems. 


l4-point. 
12-point. 
11-point. 
10-point 
8-polnt.< 
6-point.. 
S-point.. 


2r,i 

3G 

43 

52 

81 
144 
207 


CHAPTER  XII. 


POST   OFFICE  AFFAIRS.* 


PART  I. 
STATISTICAL   INFORMATION. 

Ui^IITED  STATES  POST  OFFICE. 


SUMMARY  OF  ALL  CLASSES  DOMESTIC  MAIL  SERVICE  IN  OPERATION 
JUNE  30,   1912, 

Number  of  routes 12,208 

Length  of  routes,  miles 2,761,466.751 

Number    of    miles    traveled  per  annum 493,384,878.76 

Annual  rate  of  expenditure 79,150,763.65 

Average    rate    of    cost    per  mile  of  length. 286.62 

Average    rate    of    cost    per  mile  traveled,  cents 16.04 

Average  number  of  trips  per  week 17.17 


SOURCE    OF    REVENUE.  . 

Total  for 

Sale     of     postage     stamps.  fiscal  year, 
stamped  envelopes,  postal 

cards,  etc $221,563,619.00 

Second-class  postage,  paid  in 

money 9,399,140.61 

Third  and  fourth  class  post- 
age, paid  in  money 5,444,615.19 

Box  rents 4,645.664.04 

Miscellaneous  receipts 209,263.76 

Letter  postage,  paid  in  money  71.700.92 

Fines  and  penalties 55,201.95 

Dead  letters 33, 122.39 

Revenue  from  money-order 

business 4,843,364.74 

Unpaid  money  orders  more 

than  1  year  old 478,314.28 

Total $246,744,015.88 


EXPENDITURE  BY  ITEMS  FOR  YEAR 
1912. 

Service  in  post  oflHces: 

Salaries  of  postmasters.  .  .  $28,648,426.33 

Salaries  of  clerks,  etc 42,479,908.91 

City  Delivery  Service.  .  .  .  34,252,952.62 

All  other  expenditures..  .  .  11,216,932.31 

Total $116,598,220.17 

Railway  Mail  Service $20,876,963.37 

Rural  Delivery  Service 41,900,514.79 

Transportation  of  domestic 
mail: 

By  railroads $51,819,411.82 

By  other  means  of  trans- 
portation          13,204,261.75 

Total $65,023,673.57 

Transportation     of     foreign 

mail $3,716,181.11 

Payments     on     account     of 

invalid  money  orders 509,387.28 


RAILROAD  TRANSPORTATION. 


SERVICE   AND    EXPENDITURE. 

Number  of  routes 3,409 

Length  of  routes,  miles 226,071.02 

Annual  travel,  miles 458.648,623.77 

Annual  rate  of  expenditure  $46,336,293.86 
Average  rate  of  cost  per  mile 

of  length 204.96 

Average  rate  of  cost  per  mile 

traveled,  cents 10.10 

Average  number  of  trips  per 

week ,                 19.51 

On  June  30,  1912,  there  were  in  operation 
159  full  railway  post-office  lines,  manned  by 
1  607  crews  of  8.066  clerks  (including  161 
acting  clerks).  Of  these  159  full  lines,  141  had 


apartment-car  service,  manned  by  1,040 
crews,  of  1.598  clerks.  There  were  also 
1,377  apartment  railway  post-oflBce  lines, 
manned  by  4,287  crews,  of  5,554  clerks;  17 
electric  car  lines,  with  18  crews,  of  19  clerks; 
53  steamboat  lines,  with  86  crews,  of  86  clerks; 
a  total  of  1,606  lines  of  all  kinds,  manned  by 
15,323  clerks,  representing  the  working 
force  of  the  lines.  In  addition  there  were 
32  officials,  129  chief  clerks,  622  transfer 
clerks  employed  in  handling  the  mails  at 
important  junction  points,  521  clerks  detailed 
to  clerical  duty  in  the  various  offices  of  the 
service,  and  448  clerks  employed  in  terminal 
railway  post  offices — an  aggregate  of  17,075 
employees  in  the  service* 

(  Continued  on  page  324.) 


♦This  chanter  is  divided  into  two  parts;  the  first  gives  statistics  relative  to  the  Post  Office 
Affairs  of  the  United  States  and  the  World,  the  second  deals  with  information  relative  to  rates, 
etc.,  domestic  and  foreign  and  the  "Parcel  Post."  Revised  through  the  courtesy  of  Post- 
master-General Burleson. 

323 


324 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


(Continued  from  page  323.) 

Of  the  1.388  full  railway  post-office  cars  in 
use  and  in  reserve,  545  are  all-steel  cars,  182 
steel-underframe  cars,  and  661  wooden  cars, 
and  of  the  4.029  apartment  cars  in  use  and  in 
reserve.  181  are  all-steel  cars,  221  steel-under- 
frame cars,  and  3.627  wooden  cars. 

During  the  fiscal  year  the  department  has 
permitted  further  experimental  aeroplane 
mail  service.  There  have  been  31  orders 
issued    permitting    the    mail    to    be    carried 


between  certain  points  by  aeroplanes.  Such 
service  was  merely  temporary  and  was  not 
intended  to  be  permanent.  In  each  instance 
where  the  mail  has  been  carried  the  service 
has  been  performed  by  a  sworn  carrier  and 
without  cost  to  the  department.  Such 
service  was  authorized  in  16  different  States. 
Reports  received  of  the  performance  of  the 
service  by  aeroplanes  under  the  various  orders 
issued  permitting  such  service  indicate  that 
in  many  instances  service  was  performed  in  a 
reasonable  satisfactory  manner. 


MAIL  SERVICE  IN  OPERATION  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1912. 


Service. 

Number. 

^ii^r 

Annual  rate  of 
expenditure-. 

22 

237 

7,694 

6 

283 

3,409- 

Miles. 
4,248.00 
31,875.57 
5,183.17 

54.8451 
1,241.17 
226,07L02 

$1%,  896. 93 

752,610.06 

1,620,151.35 

932,366.70 

1,698,236.46 

46,336,293.86 

4,367,029.16 

686,555.77 

Steamboat  routes 

Mail-messenger  routes 

Wagon  routes  (in  cities) , 

Rai&oad  routes , 

657 

7,472.96 

Total w ^ 

12,208 

276.146.6761 

56,590,140.29 
J  38,092. 00 

Star  routes  in  Alaska  (emergency) 

Steamboat  routes  (pound  rate) ^ 

■  » 

«  86, 671. 63 

»  460. 612.76 
»  244, 876. 25 
*i07,611.62 

Bailroad  transportation,  miscellaneous: 

Periodical  mails..... ,... 

Mail  weighings,  etc 

Freight  on  mail  bags,  postal  cards,  etc 

Railway  MaU  Service  (officers  and  clerks,  Including  acting 

17,076 

•20,876,963.37 

»  436, 309. 15 

1680.68 

Mail  equipment 

Total  inland  service 

79,160,763.65 

Foreign  mails: 

Aggregate  cost .; .., 

$3,704,632.92 
$508,649.65 

Less  intermediary  service  to  foreign  countries 

■  ■■■  ■■■■ 

3,195,883.27 

Total 

82,346,646.92 

» Authorization.             'Actual  expenditures. 

>  Estima 

ed  actual  expen 

dituree. 

COMPARISON   OF   REVENUES   AND    EXPENDITURES    FOR    THE    FISCAL   YEAR 
ENDED  JUNE  30.   1912.  WITH  THOSE  OF  THE  PRECEDING  YEAR. 


Items. 


Fiscal  year. 


1911 


EEVENUE8. 

$23     S07.557.29 
^72,266.31 

$241,422,336.86 

Revenues  from  money-order  business 

5,321.679.02 

Total  revenues  from  all  sources   

$237.    79.823.60 

$238,623,350.37 
237,879.823.60 

$246,744,015.88 

EXPENDITURES. 

$248,624,940.29 

Total  revenues  during  the  year : 

246,744,015.88 

$743,.526.77 

11,778.80 

755,305.57 

$1,880,924.41 

Amount  of  losses  by  fire,  burglary,  bad  debts,  etc 

4.088.90 
1.885,013.31 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


325 


EXPENDITURES,    APPROPRIATIONS    AND    ESTIMATES    FOR 
TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES  EXCEPT  RURAL  DELIV- 
ERY AND  STAR  ROUTE  SERVICE. 


ALL 


Service,  etc. 

Expenditures 

for  fiscal  year 

ended  June  30. 

1912. 

Appropriation 

for  fiscal  year 

ending  June  30. 

1913. 

Estimate 

for  fiscal  year 

ending  June  30. 

1914. 

i$232,826.58 

820,470.18 

1,605,514.60 

932,566.36 

1,690,682.04 

284,505.39 

99,003.59 

2,461.97 

11,302.90 

33,991.91 

47,298,087.47 

5,431.99 

424,774.18 

4.521,324.35 

20,876,963.37 

682.544.65 

$250,000.00 

853,700.00 

1,681,900.00 

987,400.00 

1,732,000.00 

282,000.00 

102,000.00 

2,400.00 

12,000.00 

36,500.00 

47,646,000.00 

$508,300.00 
QOQ  ono  net 

Steamboat  service 

Pneumatic-tube  seryice 

962,200.00 

2,160,600.00 

355,500.00 

108  300  00 

Mail  bags,  etc. 

Labor  in  mail-bag  repair  shop 

Subworkshop   Chicago,  111.        .    . 

2,400.00 
15  000  00 

Mail  locks  and  keys 

38  000  00 

Railroad  transportation .                 ... 

49,661.000.00 

Tabulating  information  relative  to  railroad 

Freight  on  mail  bags,  postal  cards,  etc 

2648,200.00 

4.707.000.00 

25.209,224.00 

728,000.00 

5  66,  odd.  66 

5,393,000.00 

Railway  mail  service 

26  673  488  00 

847,400.00 

79,522.451.53 

3,241,.564.72 

2,500.00 

472.116.39 

84,878,324.00 

3,748,400.00 

2,500.00 

486,400.00 

5,000.00 
1,000.00 

90,302.388.00 

Foreign  mail  service: 

Transportation                     .               

3.981,900.00 

Assistant  superintendent.  New  York,  N.Y. 

2,500.00 
475,000.00 

Delegates    to    International  Postal  Union 
at  Madrid                              

1,000.00 

83,238.632.64 

89,121.624.00       94,762,788.00 

1  star  service,  except  in  Alaska,  transferred  to  ofHce  of  Fourth  Assistant  Postmaster  General. 
2lncludes  $123,200  made  immediately  available  for  deficiency  for  fiscal  year  1912. 


Annual 
America:  14.643.129 


The  postal  business  of  all  states  of  the  world. 

•  of  delivered  pieces  of  mail  (internal,  internationat  and  transit)  in  thousands  (1906ilS07). 

Asia;  2,677,498 

B  26,090  Straits- 
Settt" 

°    15,100   Fr,  Indo- 

Chtna  and  oth  Poss. 
°  7  9^r>  Philippine 
^    ''■^'^  Islands 
3,640  Hongkpng 

■=''°""  and  Macao 
"  3,370 
Kiau-Chau 
2,190  Siam 
2,090  Persia 
1,200  Cyprus 
102  Samos 
96ru,Bo.ec 
Africa:  367,245  thousand  pieces. 

a  4,860  Brit.       •  ,  con  .       , 

West-Africa  i'°30  *"9°i' 

Madagas-'  1,030  Orange 

River  Colony 

*  70020°'°"^   "  ^'^^°  Mauritius  •  982  Kamerun 

B'  B  3,140  BMhn.n...  Belgian 

Nata[  ^  Und  and  RUodMia  921  congo 

3,108  .  510  S  Thorn* 

Mozambique  and  Principe 

3,900       -        ,   ;:^;;,:;;,co,      •  3,100  German    ■  360  Togo 

Australia :  705,987  thousand  pieces  1^770  .  ^'^'^  -»,  ^^^^.  3^5  ^^^.^..^ 

Australia  a  Hawaii         a   Fiji  Islands      ■   6.660  Germ.         ^^,  ^„^  Sansubar 
.itliNew  7,110  1,850  South  West  Afr.  •  ,ggQp^^^g^,^-    78  SI  Helena 

693  mo  0   Fr.nch  Poss.  o   German  Poss.     "     5,320  French     .  and  C  Verde  Is.    .    and  Ascension 

t)aO,UUU  3^g,^  ^,0 We.t-Afr,ca  1.940  Reunion gUiSaS 


French  West 

Indies  1,890 

Dominic.  Rep 

1,630 

New-Found- 

land  1,168 

Venezuela 

1,090 

Honduras 

1,030 


896 

Dan.  West 
Indies  610 
560  Curasao 

Brit.  Honduras 

430 

410  Haiti 

350  St.  Pierre 

and  Miquelon 
Falkland  Is. 
87 


S 


326 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


POSTAL  SERVICE  OF 


No. 

of 

Post 

Offices. 

1 

No. 

of 

Letter 

Boxes. 

2 

No. 
of 
Em- 
ployees. 

3 

Number  of  Letters. 

Nvunber  of  Post  Cards. 

Name  of 
Countries. 

Postage 

Prepaid. 

4 

Not 

Prepaid. 

5 

Single 
6 

With 
reply  paid. 

7 

Germany 

Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

Great  Britain.. 
Italy 

50,777 

10,312 

1,658 

1,629 

14,379 

24,387 

11,089 

7,790 

2,911 

3,496 

1,511 

4,081 

16,452 

5,573 

4,121 

9,968 

155,766 

44,467 

11,143 

11,981 

79,274 

71,986 

39,767 

67,694 

2,285 

5,271 

6,210 

6,135 

31,714 

9,005 

7,940 

13,472 

233,270* 

71,262t 

10,874 

8,455 

15,773 

110,462* 

233,811 

50,320 

72,008 

9,322 

6,174 

10,623 

8,492 

95,187 

11,397 

17,462 

2,476,780,330 

603,418,660 

139,531,772 

97,485,230 

1,219,760,025 

3,044,549,000 

261,727,940 

347,068,083 

58,100,443 

49,316,000 

111,718,854 

28,661,037 

724,871,540 

114,217,174t 

118,524,171 

149,083,319 

43,392,540 

10,401,620 

605,228 

389,916 

3,852,599 

Inc.  Col.  4 

4,794,832 

Inc.  Col.  4 

33,801 

163,000 

844,350 

91,005 

21,329,899 

1,617,230,530 

447,389,720 

96,005,799 

31,837,730 

527,516,500 

881,971,000 

138,955,214 

966,142,328 

6,468,698 

13,321,000 

89,919,830 

16,736,613 

304,953,527 

9,304,872 

33,943,727 

87,797,757 

Inc.  Col.  6 

4,069,250 

335,036 

89,650 

75,430 

Inc.  Col.  6 

10,373,550 

Japan 

Mexico 

Norway 

Netherlands. . . 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Inc.  Col.  6 

27,819 

246,200 

620,802 

18,640 

14,392,093 

83,352 

Sweden 

Switzerland.. . 

296,602 
258,720 

363,218 
490,699 

*  Includes  employees  in  postal,  telegraph  and  telephone  services, 
t  Includes  employees  in  postal  and  telegraph  services. 

Copyright  1913  by 


FOREIGN  MAIL  SERVICES. 


The  cost  of-  the  Foreign  Mail  Service  dur- 
ing the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1912,  was 
distributed  as  follows: 

Trans-Atlantic    service $1,623,720.81 

Trans-Pacific    service 206,503.07 

Miscellaneous  service 754,795.30 

Panama  Railroad   service  for  transit 

of  mails  of  United  States   origin..        67,937.48 

Sea   post  service 73,296.13 

Steamboat     transfer     service,      New 

York,      and      other     miscellaneous 

expenditures     929,280.13 


Making   the    aggregate    cost   of   the 
service    ?3, 704, 532. 


The  weights  of  the  mails  dispatched  by  sea 
to   foreign   countries   was: 

Pounds. 

Letters  and  post  cards 2,978,533 

Other     articles 18,085,007 

Total    21, 063, 540 

In  the  Trans-Pacific  service,  steamers  of 
United  States  register  carried  a  total  of 
23,495,841  grams,  equal  to  51,698  pounds  of  let- 
ters, and  313,228,417  grams,  equal  to  690,668 
pounds  of  prints;  and  the  total  compensation 
they  received  was  $116,868.47. 


jjfc-  a^H^B^^^^^H 

^^t^ 
^^^^2^^ 

\   :$ 

^^^^^B 

PRINTING  POSTAL  CARDS. 

This   work   is   now   done    in   the    Government 
Printing  Office  at  Washington. 


COILING  POSTAGE  STAMPS 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


327 


THE  WORLD— Domestic. 


^ 

Commercial 

papers. 

9 

Samples 

merchandise. 

10 

Total 
including 

free 

matter, 

11 

Money  orders. 

Printed 
matter. 

8 

Number 
12 

Value  in 

dollars. 

13 

1,533,666,130 
160,884,250 

19,990,630 

67,372.810 

16.117,220 
6,770,530 
747,232 

72,181,122 
Inc.    Col.    4 

10,821,920 

6,987,629 

264,704 

294,500 

2,456,220 

1,092,778 

10,794,581 
1,429,626 
1,053,161 
1,477,836 

5,951,037,230 

1,348,714,830 

683,232,614 

147,669,690 

3,333,800,657 

5,146,414,000 

1,238,648,556 

1,637,180,446 

155,709,662 

78,780,700 

477,306,258 

82,530,618 

1,457,547,584 

281,373,898 

205,363,522 

321,271,273 

174,933,220 

31,773,970 

4,462,189 

4,683,249 

62,271,463 

139,358,000 

24,064,001 

18,364,012 

1,402,130 

922.519 

6.344.914 

794.653  § 

41.930,398 

292,348 

8,204,379§ 

5,991,885 

$2,178,084,236.15 

310,536,607.63 

87,348,323.68 

52,526,336.90 

559,824,312.65 

439,781,392.80 

496,239,303.30 

124,737,126.76 

22,214,368.90 

14,332,634.85 

35,936,077.87 

11,767,636.92 

1,074,242,550.17 

1.781,509.66 

78,501,785.19 

124,734,419.70 

339,301,099 
17,119,932 

3,558,074 

-    1,340,676,756 

1,219,894,000 

729,157,500 

237,483,694 

86,975,467 

9,000,000 

257,608,546 

54,303,215 

Inc.  Col.  4 

10,123,490 

19,813,806 

128,409 

106,000 

32,167,567 
146,789,940 
139,615,236 

749,080 
12,592,170 

45,357,535 
67,062,703 

598,647 

X  Prepayment  of  ordinary  letters  is  required  in  Spain. 
§  Includes  money  orders  by  telegraph. 
Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


VALUE  OF  POSTAGE   STAMPS   ISSUED   IN   THE   UNITED  STATES, 
YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1912 


Adhesive  postage  stamps. 


Ordinary. 


Postage-due. 


1-cent 

1-cent,  in  coils.. 

1-ce.nt,  in  stamp  books. 

2-cent '.. 

2-cent,  in  coils 

2-cent,  in  stamp  books. 

3-cent 

3-cent,  in  coils 

4-cent 

4-cent,  in  coils. 

5-cent. 

5-cent,  in  coils 

6-cent — 

8-cent 

lO-cent... i..- 

15-cent... 

30-cent..„ 

60-cent.. 

l-doUar 

2-dollar 

5-dollar 

l(M»nt  special-delivery . 
10-cent  registry 


Total. 


Value. 


3,702,640,699 

58,533,500 

206,507,976 

5,056,061,799 

185,242,000 

291,153,156 

67,439,299 

1,005,500 

91,499,199 

454,000 

109,973,499 

39,000 

38,756,499 

27,282,499 

78,169,699 

13,573,119 


696,123 

143,336 

1,238 

1,608 

15,196,378 

16,598,659 


9,960,968,785 


26,163,699 


612,099 


1,672,199 


6,273,099 


42,308,363 


$181,121,762.69 


$1,241,166.99 


The  total  issue  of  postage  stamps,  stamp  books, 
stamped  envelopes,  newspaper  wrappers,  postal 
cards  and  international    reply    coupons    for     the 


fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912,  was  $227,593,- 
704.10.  The  international  reply  coupons  was 
the  smallest  item,  the  amount  being  only 
$6,251.34. 


328 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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330 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ESTIMATED  TOTAL  MAIL  DELIVERED  AND  COLLECTED  BY  RURAL  DELIVERY 
CARRIERS  ANNUALLY,  BASED  ON  A  COUNT  IN  MAY,  1911. 


Class  of  matter. 

Delivered. 

Collected. 

Total. 

Number. 

Weight. 

Number. 

Weight. 

Number. 

Weight. 

First  class: 

Letters 

402,346,951 

220,824,766 

1,488,779 

Pounds. 
12,224,392 
2,707,108 
303,453 

260,288,002 

128,110,028 

302,740 

Pounds. 

6,086,496 

1,530,030 

65,276 

722,035,553 

348,941,394 

1,791,519 

Pounds. 
18,310,888 
4,237,804 
308,729 

Postal  cards 

Miscellaneous 

Total 

684,660,496 

15,235,013 

388,707,970 

7,682,408 

1,073,308,400 

22,917,421 

Second  class: 

996,710,156 
95,318,801 

169,349,819 
11,000,341 

175,322,207 
29,105,207 
24,557,233 
2,542,016 

1,459,579 
225,008 
124,710 

3,178,762 

333,379 
82,890 
19,286 

600,019 

998,109,735 
95,544,409 

109,474,529 
14,785,103 

175,655,586 
29,248,097 
24,576,519 
3,142,035 

Magazines 

Transient 

Total 

1,272,985,117 

231,586,663 

4,988,659 

1,035,574 

1,277,973,770 

232,622,237 

Third  class: 

Books 

4,033,701 
258,855,886 
34,723,730 

3,304,075 

20,331,815 

7,&40,204 

250,209 

3,804,808 

-  1,037,809 

175,000 
271,034 
301,915 

4,289,970 
202,060,094 
30,361,505 

3,539,141 
20,603,449 
8,202,119 

Circulars 

Miscellaneous 

Total 

297,013,383 

31,536,094 

5,098,886 

808,615 

303,312,209 

32,344,709 

Fourth,  class: 

Merchandise  packages. . . 

30,101,408 

14,266,782 

3,255,429 

1,463,269 

.    33,416,837 

15,?30,051 

Franked  and  penalty: 

Franked  letters 

4,125,727 
6,450,969 
11,591,630 
3,000,444 

295,126 

1,292,804 

648,580 

487,313 

230,649 

108,277 

1,060,715 

102, 139 

10,898 
27,404 
58,511 
18,059 

4,356,376 
6,559,246 
12,652,345 
3,702,583 

306,024 

Franked  documents 

Penalty  letters 

1,320,208 
607,091 

Penalty  documents 

605,972 

Total 

25,708,770 

2,623,823 

1,501,780 

115,472 

27,270,550 

2, 739, 295 

Foreign: 

Letters 

4,083,176 
2,202,328 

200,392 
374,018 

2,295,487 
305,852 

110, 171 

44,292 

6,978,603 
2,568,180 

310,503 

Miscellaneous . . . 

418,310 

Total 

6,945,504 

574,410 

2,601,339 

154,403 

9,546,843 

728,873 

Registered: 

Letters 

1,165,474 
370,651 

119,937 
225,557 

734,593 
129,617 

65,300 
52,718 

1,900,067 
506,268 

185,237 

278,275 

Total 

1,542,125 

345,494 

864,210 

118,018 

2,406,335 

403,512 

Grand  total 

2,319,676,803 

2%,  108, 279- 

407,018,273 

11,377,819 

2,727,295,076 

307, 540, 098 

RURAL   DELIVERY. 

On  June  30,  1912,  service  was  in  operation 
on  42,199  routes  served  by  42,081  carriers  at  an 
annual   cost   of   $40,655,740. 

The  total  mileage  of  rural  routes  in  opera- 
tion June  30,  1912,  was  1.021,492,  and  the  daily 
travel  by  carriers  was  1,012,722  miles,  the  aver- 
age mileage  per  route  being  24.20.  The  aver- 
ag  cost  per  mile  traveled  was  $0.1307. 
GROWTH   OF    THE    SERVICE. 

There  were  42,199  routes  in  operation  on 
June  30,  1912;  of  these,  699  routes  were  oper- 
ated tri-weekly,  being  an  increase  of  91  over 
the  prevlou.s  year. 

In  1897  there  were  82  routes,  for  which  an 
appropriation  of  $40,000  was  made;  the  ex- 
penditure that  year  was  $14,840.  In  1900  there 
were  1,259  routes,  the  appropriation  was  $450,- 
000,  the  expenditure  $420,433,  which  was  an 
increase  of  $270,421  over  that  of  the  preceding 
year.  In  1905  the  number  of  routes  was  32,055, 
the  appropriation  $21,116,600,  the  expenditure 
$20,864,885,   an  excess  of  $8,219,610  over  that  of 


the  year  before.  In  1912  there  were  42,199 
routes,  the  appropriation  was  $42,790,000,  the 
expenditure  $41,859,422,  an  increase  of  $4,733,- 
792    over    the    expenditure    of    1911. 

AMOUNT   OF    MAIL    HANDLED. 

In  May,  1911,  a  count  was  made  of  the 
amount  and  weight  of  mail  of  all  classes  de- 
livered and  collected  by  the  rural-delivery 
carriers.  From  this  count  the  estimate  eiven 
111  the  table  above  has  been  made  of  the 
amount  and  weight  of  mail  handled  annually 
on    rural    routes. 

The  first  aerial  dispatch  of  United  States 
mail  occurred  in  September,  19U,  when  48,000 
pieces  were  carried  from  Aeroplane  Postal  Sta- 
tion No.  1  on  Nassau  Boulevard  to  Mineola. 
Long  Island.  The  progress  being  made  in  the 
science  of  aviation  encourages  the  hope  that 
ultimately  the  regular  conveyance  of  mail  by 
this  means  may  be  practicable.  Such  a  serv- 
ice, if  found  feasible,  might  be  established  in 
many  districts  where  the  natural  conditions 
preclude  other  means  of  rapid  transportation. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


331 


PARCELS  DISPATCHED  TO  AND  RECEIVED  FROM  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES  DUR- 
ING THE  FISCAL  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1912,  AND  INCREASE 
OVER  PREVIOUS  YEARS. 


Country. 


iDispatched 


Number. 


Percent 
increase. 


Weight. 


Per  cent 


Received. 


Number 


Per  cent 
increase. 


Weight. 


Per  cent 
increase. 


Australia 

Austria.. 

Bahamas 

Barbados 

Belgium 

Bermuda 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

British  Guiana ^ . 

Chile.. 

China 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica 

Danish  West  Indies. . 

Denmark 

Dutch  Guiana 

Ecuador 

France 

Germany 

Great  Britain 

Guatemala 

British  Honduras 

Republic  of  Honduras 

Haiti 

Hongkong 

Hungary 

Italy 

Jamaica 

Japan 

Leeward  Islands. , . . . 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

Newfoundland 

New  Zealand 

Nicaragua 

>Iorway 

Peru 

Salvador 


Trinidad 

Uruguay 

Venezuela ■ 

Windward  Islands. . . 
Curacao  4 


14,976 

12,217 

4,277 

4,822 

4,913 

6,054 

8,355 

7,353 

2,237 

9,566 

9,835 

23,684 

14,827 

3,290 

9,009 

380 

7,728 

12,820 

65,078 

189,152 

6,795 

4,100 

7,646 

1,143 

2,293 

6,878 

47,727 

16,335 

38,080 

2,727 

78,529 

4,158 

7,535 

8,421 

6,651 

16,324 

8,852 

5,336 

23,490 

3,734 

2,206 

7,984 

991 

320 


19.12 
34.38 
16.18 
20.27 
12.37 
32.64 
30.22 
322.76 
»2.31 
46.31 

4.82 
28.41 
17.26 
23.54 
25.35 
33.80 
32.37 
30.18 
19.39 
13.42 
» 40.  39 
n.93 
43.18 
69.64 

7.60 
20.75 
13.07 
25.83 
13.81 
14.77 

5.44 
23.34 
34.57 
25.72 
24.50 
14.79 
25.38 
22.47 
14.32 

7.70 
102.56 
20.99 

6.88 


Pounds. 
47,944 
33,417 
10,608 
12,085 
11,082 
12,588 
66,287 
30,904 

5,608 
50,219 
36,084 
151,843 
91,920 

8,475 
16,605 

1,093 
46,722 
26,987 
165,725 
328,649 
37,853 
10,071 
44,975 

3,732 

7,533 

18,478 

112,034 

33,804 

108, 20& 

7,818 
407,529 

9,933 
12,014 
30,664 
36,565 
28,549 
53,352 
34,260 
46,019 

9,827 
10,536 
48,218 

2,510 

1,014 


29.43 
49.63 
»2.69 
25.91 
25.78 
36.66 
34  84 
315.  32 
16.13 
47.42 
27.64 
32.57 
29.07 
22.35 
3L35 
36.79 
43.24 
73.22 
15.  34 
17.64 

1 26. 18 
17.03 
66.72 

113.74 
11.27 
46.30 
19.86 
28.92 
2L14 
13.22 
11.67 
2L63 
24.08 
36.  70 
26.76 
24.98 
36.74 
26.61 
38.75 
2.76 

171. 19 
28.12 

7.36 


2,720 

2,248 

631 

1,132 

2,738 

2,038 

107 

102 

386 

667 

2,665 

1,186 

1,689 

309 

7,941 

47 

308 

6,520 

126,463 

137,736 

744 

686 

707 

46 

1,760 

2,748 

10,300 

2,738 

40,415 

389 

18,657 

1,861 

1,789 

1,208 

328 

14,923 

636 

103 

7,767 

781 

80 

194 

218 

30 


6.04 
8.08 
>8.92 
11.30 
7.16 
37.70 
28.91 

14.24 

6.71 

18.76 

16414 

367.  36 

56.06 

7.46 
27.69 
47.36 
94  22 

9.46 

18.98 

552.63 

175. 50 

1,059.01 

(«) 

58.41 

96.57 

>  31. 68 

13.14 

9.48 
»5.68 

6.19 
77.98 

8.03 

17.16 

656.00 

3.39 
38.86 
27.16 
16.07 

L43 
19.40 
12.51 
16.34 


Pounds. 

7,694 

13,253 

1,188 

1,888 

13,888 

4,677 

386 

299 

774 

2,032 

8,076 

7,691 

8,211 

788 

24,087 

119 

899 

44,218 

825,189 

613,962 

3,668 

1,486 

3,231 

257 

4,894 

17,096 

76,965 

5,595 

138,580 

990 

48,690 

7,977 

3,002 

3,358 

1,620 

35,671 

1,351 

433 

30,524 

1,758 

236 

685 

520 

76 


491 
7.08 
3.93 

5.77 

9.95 

,'4L  65 

86.47 

n.52 
» 13.  75 

25.19 
398.12 
638.39 

72.05 

12.86 
1  52. 96 

46.89 

248.  72 

6.61 

3L  62 

659.15 

217. 52 

2,207.85 

92.22 

108.61 

1  31.  39 

2L39 

15.76 

4  21 

17.94 

100.  «3 

4  78 

2L71 

1,025.92 

23.40 

19.-46 

27.72 

58.26 

10.91 

19.79 

19.03 

18.72 


Total 718,828 


2,270,215 


406,466 


1,967,779 


•  decrease. 

« No  parcels  received  during  year  ended  June  30, 1911.    Convention  effective  May  29, 1911. 
» No  parcels  received  during  year  ended  June  30, 1911.    Convention  effective  May  1, 1911. 
4  Convention  effective  Jan.  1. 1912. 


During  the  last  fiscal  year  the  Department 
paid  $1,295,508.63  for  the  manufacture  of 
stamped  envelopes  and  newspaper  wrappers. 
Under  the  new  contract  beginning  July  1,  1912, 
the  prices  for  the  lour-year  term  will  be  $297,- 
880  less  than  the  same  quantities  would  have 
cost  under  the   old  contract. 

The  annual  rate  of  expenditure  for  the  sal- 
aries of  presidential  postmasters  on  July  1, 
1911,  was  $14,566,700,  as  follows:  First  class, 
$1,628,900;  second  class,  $4,576,100;  third  class, 
$8,361,700. 


To  reward  postal  employees  for  the  inven- 
tion of  labor-saving  devices  legislation  was  ob- 
tained as   follows: 

"The  Postmaster  General  is  hereby  author- 
ized to  pay,  in  his  discretion,  rewards  to 
postal  employees  whose  inventions  are  adopted 
for  use  in  the  postal  service,  and  for  that  pur- 
pose the  sum  of  $10,000  is  hereby  appropri- 
ated." 

The  postal  service  is  using  nearly  2,000,000,000 
yards  of  jute  twine  yearly  for  tying  packages 
of  letters. 


332 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MAILINGS  OP  SECOND 
Totals    of    the    number    of    publications 
of    the    various    frequencies    of    isSue    and  • 
news   agents   mailing   at   the  pound   rate  of 
postage  June  30,   1912. 

Daily 2.514 

Tri- weekly 59 

Semi-weekly 650 

Weekly 17,217 

Semi-monthly 567 

Monthly 5,277 

Bi-monthly 254 

Quarterly 1,351 

Other  periods 255 


Total 28,144 

News  agents 3,200 

Publications  admitted  under  the  act  of 

March  3,  1879 26,657 

Publications  admitted  under  the  act  of 

July  16.  1894 1,469 

Publications  admitted  under  the  act  of 

June  6.  1900 18 


Total 28.144 

Stamps  were  first  introduced  in  America  by 
the  English  Stamp  Act  of  1765;  this  act  was 
opposed  by  the  First  American  Congress  in 
Nov.    1765   and  repealed   in    1776. 

Number  of  pounds  of  second-class  matter 
mailed  at  the  cent-a-pound  and  free-in-county 


REGISTERED      MAIL      ITEMS      WITH 

TOTAL  AMOUNTS  FOR  THE  YEAR 

ENDING   JUNE   30.    1912. 

Paid  registrations: 

Domestic  letters 25.761.638 

Domestic  parcels 7.295.130 

Foreign  letters 3.924.637 

Foreign  parcels 777.762 

Official  paid 154.567 

Total  paid  registrations 37.913,734 

Official  free,  inclusive  of  postal 

savings  system 4,095.987 

Official     free,     on    business    of 

postal  savings  system  only. . .  79.556 

Official  free  (special) 145.723 

Total  free  registrations 4.321.266 

Total  number  of  letters  and 
parcels  registered,  paid  and 
free 42.235.000 

Distribution  letters  and  parcels 

re-registered  free 1.385,498 

Aggregate  number  of  letters  and 
parcels  registered,  paid,  of- 
ficial free,  and  distribution 
free 43.620.498 

Total  free  and  distribution  re- 
gistered free 5,706,764 

Amount    collected    for    registry 

fees 3,791,373.40 

GROWTH  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  MONEY- 
ORDER  SYSTEM. 
For  the  year  ending  June  30.  1912.  the  total 
number  of  money-order  offices  in  operation 
was  52.815;  the  number  of  orders  issued  was 
84.539,212.  their  value  $583,337,003.96;  the 
number  of  orders  paid  and  repaid.  84,686.907  ; 
their  value  $584,358,032.94;  the  number  of  ex- 
cess of  payments  and  repayments  over  issues, 
147.695.  their  value  $1,021,028.98;  the 
amount  in  fees  received,  $4,967,746.84; 
average  amount  of  orders,  $6.90;  average 
amount  of  fees.  $0.0582= 


CLASS  PUBLICATIONS. 

rates  during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 

1912: 

Subscribers'    copies: 

Free  in  county 58,017.631 

At  cent-a-pound  rate 927.260.451 

Sample    copies    at    cent-a-pound 

rate 12,679.904 

Total  at  cent-a-pound  rate 939.940,355 

Total   mailings   at   cent-a-pound 

rate  and  free-in-county 997,957,986 

Estimated  weights  of  mailings  of  second- 
class  matter  at  other  than  the  cent-a-pound 
and  free-in-county  rates  during  the  fiscal  year 
1912,  based  on  the  special  weighing  of  mails 
in   1907: 

Poimds. 
At  transient  second-class  rate  of 

1  cent  for  each  4  ounces 29,494,990 

At  special  rate  of  1  cent  a  copy.  .        1,825,482 
At  special  rate  of  2  cents  a  copy         3,732,097 


Total 35.052.569 

RECAPITULATION. 

Weight  of  mailings  of  second- 
class  matter  at  the  cent-a- 
pound  and  free-in-county  rates  997.957.986 

Weight  of  mailings  at  other  rates     35.052.569 


Aggregate  weight  of  mailing  of 

second-class  matter.  ....  1.033.010.555 


STAMP  BOOKS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912, 
25.736,946  stamp  books  were  issued,  having  a 
value    of    $8,145,512.34. 

STAMP   COILS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912 
459,204  stamp, coils  were  issued  for  use  in 
stamping  mach'ines.  The  total  value  of  the 
stamps  which  were  made  up  in  coils  was 
$4,363,273.60. 

POSTAL   CARDS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912, 
909,411,045  postal  cards  were  issued,  having  a 
value  of  $9,326,562.40.  By  far  the  largest 
number  of  postal  cards  were  the  one-cent 
card  bearing  a  portrait  of  the  late  President 
McKinley.  There  were  944,927,198  cards 
issued  of  this  variety  in  1911. 

STAMPED     ENVELOPES     AND     NEWS- 
PAPER WRAPPERS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912, 
449,248,500  ordinary  stamped  envelopes  and 
wrappers  were  issued,  the  value  being  $158.- 
777.72.  while  1,235,375,661  return  card 
envelopes  were  i.ssued,  having  a  value  of 
$25,546,037.55,  making  a  total  of  1,684,- 
624,161,  with  a  value  of  $33,704,815.27. 


Fees  of  8  cents  each  on  special  delivery 
mail  were  claimed  by  postmasters  last  year  to 
the  total  amount  of  $1,469,177.80,  indicating 
that  18,364,722  pieces  of  mail  of  this  character 
were  delivered,  being  an  increase  of  1,608.- 
223  pieces  over  last  year,  or  9.58  per  cent. 
These  figures  relate  to  all  post  offices,  ir- 
respective .  of  class. 


No  adhesive  stamps,  o*"  any  form  or  design 
whatever,  other  than  lawful  postage  stamps, 
are  permitted  to  be  affixed  to  the  address  side 
of  domestic  mail  matter,  but  such  adhesive 


IMITATIONS  OF  STAMPS. 

stamps,  provided  they  do  not  in  form  resem- 
ble lawful  postage  stamps,  and  do  not  bear 
numerals,  may  be  affixed  to  the  reverse  side 
of  domestic  mail  matter. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


333 


PART  II. 

PRACTICAL  POSTAL  INFORMATION. 

DOMESTIC  MAIL  MATTER. 


CLASSIFICATION. 

1.  Domestic  mail  matter  includes  matter  de- 
posited in  the  malls  for  local  delivery,  or  for 
transmission  from  one  place  to  another  within 
the  United  States,  or  to  or  from  or  between 
the  possessions  of  the  United  States,  and  is 
divided  into  four  classes: 

First.  Written  and  sealed  matter,  postal 
cards  and  private  mailing  cards. 

Second.  Periodical  publications.  (Rates  for 
publishers  and  news  agents  only.) 

Third.  Miscellaneous  printed  matter  (on 
paper). 

Fourth  (Parcel  Post).  All  matter  not  in- 
cluded  in  previous   classes. 

2.  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii  are  included  in 
the  term  "United  States."  The  Philippine 
Archipelago,  Guam,  Tuluila  (including  all  ad- 
jacent islands  of  the  Samoan  group  which  are 
possessions  of  the  United  States),  and  the 
Canal  Zone  are  included  in  the  term  "Posses- 
sions of  the  United  States."  The  term  "Canal 
Zone"  includes  all  the  territory  purchased 
from  the  Republic  of  Panama,  embracing  the 
"Canal  Zone"  proper  and  the  islands  in  the 
Bay  of  Panama  named  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra 
and  Flamenco. 

3.  Domestic  rates  and  conditions  apply  to 
mail  matter  addressed  to  oflScers  or  members 
of  the  crew  of  vessels  of  war  of  the  United 
States,  to  matter  sent  to  the  United  States 
Postal  Agency  at  Shanghai,  China,  and,  with 
certain  exceptions,  to  that  sent  to  Canada, 
Cuba,  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of  Panama. 
The  domestic  rate  applies  also  to  letters,  but 
not  to  other  articles,  addressed  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, Ireland  and  Newfoundland,  and  to  letters 
for  Germany  despatched  only  by  steamers 
which  land    the  mails  at  German  ports. 

4.  Pamphlet  of  General  Postal  Information. — 
A  pamphlet  of  general  postal  information  has 
been  issued  for  free  distribution  to  the  public 
through  postmasters.  It  contains  the  classifi- 
cation, conditions  and  postag'-  rates  for  do- 
mestic and  foreign  mail  matter.  The  informa- 
tion given  herewith  is  usually  sufficient.  A 
new  edition  of  the  pamphlet  has  just  been 
issued. 

FIRST-CLASS   MATTER. 

5.  Written  matter,  namely:  Letters,  postal 
cards,  private  mailing  cards  (post  cards),  and 
all  matter  wholly  or  partly  in  writing,  whether 
sealed  or  unsealed  (except  manuscript  copy 
accompanying  proof  sheets  or  corrected  proof 
sheets  of  the  same)  and  the  writing  authorized 
by  law  to  be  placed  upon  matter  of  other 
classes.  All  matter  sealed  or  otherwise  closed 
against  inspection  is  also  of  the  first  class. 
Note. ^Typewriting  and  carbon  and  letter  press 
copies  thereof  are  held  to  be  an  equivalent  of 
handwriting  and  are  classed  as  such  in  all 
cases. 

DROP  LETTEHS. 

6.  See    page    336. 

POSTAL  CARDS. 

7.  Postal  cards  issued  by  the  Post  Office  De- 
partment may  bear  written,  printed,  or  other 
additions  as  follows: 

(a)  The  face  of  the  card  may  be  divided  by  a 
vertical  line  placed  approximately  one-third  of 
the  distance  from  the  left  end  of  the  card ; 
the   space    to   the   left    of   the   line   to   be   used 


for  a  message,   etc.,  but  the  space  to  the  right 
for  the  address  only. 

(b)  Addresses  upon  postal  cards  .  .  .  may 
be  either  written,  printed  or  affixed  thereto,  at 
the  option  of  the  sender. 

(c)  Very  thin  sheets  of  paper  may  be  at- 
tached to  the  card  on  condition  that  they  com- 
pletely adhere  thereto.  Such  sheets  may  bear 
both  writing  and  printing. 

(d)  Advertisements,  illustrations  or  writing 
may  appear  on  the  back  of  the  card  and  on 
the  left  third  of  the  face. 

(e)  The  addition  to  a  postal  card  of  matter 
other  than  as  above  authorized  will  annul  its 
privileges  as  a  postal  card  and  subject  it,  when 
sent  in  the  mails,  to  postage  according  to  the 
character  of  the  message — at  the  letter  rate  if 
wholly  or  partly  in  writing  or  the  third-class 
rate  if  entirely  in  print.  In  either  case  the 
postage  value  of  the  stamp  impressed  upon  the 
card  will  not  be  impaired. 

(f)  Postal  cards  must  be  treated  in  all  re- 
spects as  sealed  letters,  except  that  when  un- 
deliverable  to  the  addressee  they  may  not  be 
returned  to  the  sender.  Undeliverable 
"double"  postal  cards  will  be  returned  to  the 
sender   if   known. 

(g)  Postal  cards  bearing  particles  of  glass, 
metal,  mica,  sand,  tinsel  or  other  similar 
substances  are  unmailable,  except  when  en- 
closed in  envelopes  tightly  sealed  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  such  particles  with  proper  postage 
attached,  or  when  treated  in  such  manner  as 
will  prevent  the  objectionable  substances  from 
being  rubbed  off  or  injuring  persons  handling 
the  mails. 

Note. — Used  postal  cards  which  conform  to 
the  conditions  prescribed  for  post  cards  may  be 
remailed  with  one  cent  postage  prepaid 
thereon. 

8.  Double  postal  cards  should  be  folded  be- 
fore mailing.  Intact  double  postal  cards  should 
be  folded   before  mailing. 

9.  Either  Half  Usable.  Separately.— Either  half 
of  a  double  domestic  postal  card  may  be  used 
separately,  but  postmasters  will  not  separate 
them. 

10.  Mailing  Reply  Part  With  Initial  Half  At- 
tached.— If  the  initial  half  of  a  double  postal 
card  be  not  detached  when  the  reply  half  is 
mailed  for  return,  the  card  is  subject  to  post- 
age according  to  the  character  of  the  message. 
The  enclosure  in  a  double  postal  card  of  un- 
authorized matter  annuls  its  privileges  as  a 
postal   card. 

IL  Reply  Postal  Cards  to  and  from  the  Phil- 
ippines.—The  reply  half  of  the  Philippine 
double  postal  card  of  1-cent  denomination, 
overprinted  with  the  word  Philippine,  shall  be 
valid  for  postage  when  mailed  in  the  United 
States  and  addressed  to  points  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  The  United  States  1-cent  double 
postal  card  may  be  mailed  from  the  United 
States  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  by  ar- 
rangement with  the  Bureau  of  Posts  of  the 
Philippines  the  reply  half  of  the  card  is  valid 
for  postage  when  mailed  in  the  Philippines 
and  addressed  to  points  in  this  country. 

PRIVATE   MAILING  CARDS   (POST   CARDS). 

12.  Private  mailing  cards  ("post  cards")  in 
the  domestic  mails  must  conform  to  the  fol- 
lowing conditions: 

(a)  A   "post  card"   must  be  an  unfolded  piece 


834 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


of  cardboard  not  exceeding  9  by  14  centi- 
meters (approximately  3  9-16  by  5  9-16  inches) 
nor  less  than  7  by  10  centimeters  (approxi- 
mately  2  3-4   by  4   inches). 

(b)  It  must  in  form  and  in  the  quality  and 
weight  of  paper  be  substantially  like  the  Gov- 
ernment  postal    card. 

(c)  It  may  be  of  any  color  not  interfering 
with  a  legible  address  and  postmark. 

(d)  It  may  or  may  not,  at  the  option  of  the 
sender,  bear  near  the  top  of  the  face  the 
words    "Post  Card." 

(e)  The  face  of  the  card  may  be  divided  by 
a  vertical  line;  the  left  half  to  be  used  for  a 
message,  etc.,  but  that  to  the  right  for  the 
address  only. 

(f)  Very  thin  sheets  of  paper  may  be  at- 
tached to  the  card,  and  then  only  on  condition 
that  they  completely  adhere  thereto.  Such 
sheets  may  bear  both  writing  and  printing. 

(g)  Advertisements  and  illustrations  may  ap- 
pear on  the  back  of  the  card  and  on  the  left 
half  of  the  face. 

(h)  Cards,  without  cover,  conforming  to  the 
foregoing  conditions,  are  transmissible  in  the 
domestic  mails  (including  the  possessions  of 
the  United  States)  and  to  Cuba,  Canada,  Mex- 
ico, the  Republic  of  Panama,  and  the  United 
States  postal  agency  at  Shanghai,  China,  at  the 
postage  rate  of  1   cent  each. 

(i)  When  post  cards  are  prepared  by  printers 
and  stationers  for  sale  it  is  desirable  that  they 
bear  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  face 
an  oblong  diagram  containing  the  words  "Place 
postage  stamp  here,"  and  at  the  bottom  of 
the  space  to  the  right  of  the  vertical  dividing 
line  the  words   "This  space  for  the  address." 

(j)  Cards  which  do  not  conform  to  the  condi- 
tions prescribed  by  these  regulations  are,  when 
sent  in  the  mails,  chargeable  with  postage 
according  to  the  character  of  the  message— at 
the  letter  rate  if  wholly  or  partly  in  writing, 
or  at  the  third-class  rate  if  entirely  in  print. 

(k)  Cards  bearing  particles  of  glass,  metal, 
mica,  sand,  tinsel  or  other  similar  substances 
are  unmailable,  except  when  enclosed  in  en- 
velopes tightly  sealed  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
such  particles,  or  when  treated  in  such  manner 
as  will  prevent  the  objectionable  substances 
from  being  rubbed  off  or  injuring  persons  han- 
dlinc  the  mails.  Cards  mailed  under  cover  of 
sealed  envelopes  (transparent  or  otherwise)  are 
chargeable  with  postage  at  the  first-class  rate; 
if  enclosed  in  unsealed  envelopes  they  are  sub- 
ject to  postage  according  to  the  character  of 
the  message— at  the  first-class  rate  if  wholly 
or  partly  in  writing,  or  the  third-class  rate  if 
entirely  in  print;  and  the  postage  stamps 
should  be  affixed  to  the  envelopes  covering  the 
same.  Postage  stamps  affixed  to  matter  en- 
closed in  envelopes  cannot  be  recognized  in 
payment   of  postage  thereon, 

ARTICLES     INCLUDED    IN    FIRST-CLASS 
MATTER. 

13.  Assessment  notices  (printed)  with  amount 
due  written  therein.  Albums  (autograph)  con- 
taining written  matter.  Blank  books  with 
written  entries;  bank  checks  filled  out  in  writ- 
ing, either  canceled  or  uncanceled;  legal  and 
other  blank  printed  forms  signed  officially. 
Blank  forms,  filled  out  in  writing.  Cards  or 
letters  (printed)  bearing  a  written  date,  where 
the  date  is  not  the  date  of  the  card,  but  gives 
information  as  to  when  the  sender  will  call 
or  deliver  something  otherwise  referred  to,  or 
is  the  date  when  something  will  occur  or  is 
acknowledged  to  have  been  received.  Cards 
(printed)  which  by  having  a  signature  attached 
are  converted  into  personal  communications, 
such  as  receipts,  orders  for  articles  furnished 
by    addressee,    etc.      Cards    (visiting)    bearing 


written  name,  except  single  cards  enclosed 
with  third  or  fourth  class  matter,  and  bearing 
the  name  of  the  sender.  Certificates,  checks, 
receipts,  etc.,  filled  out  in  writing.  Communi- 
cations entirely  in  print,  with  exception  of 
name  of  sender,  sent  in  identical  terms  by 
many  persons  to  the  same  address.  Copy 
(manuscript  or  typewritten)  unaccompanied  by 
proof  sheets  thereof.  Diplomas,  marriage  or 
other  certificates,  filled  out  in  writing.  Enve- 
lopes bearing  written  addresses.  Folders  made 
of  stiff  paper,  the  entire  inner  surface  of  which 
cannot  be  examined  except  at  the  imminent 
risk  of  breaking  the  seal,  and  those  having 
many  folds  or  pages,  requiring  the  use  of  an 
instrument  of  any  kind  in  order  to  thoroughly 
examine  the  inner  surfaces  are  subject  to  the 
first-class  rate  of  postage.  Hand  or  typewrit- 
ten matter  and  letter  press  or  manifold  (car- 
bon) copies  thereof.  Imitations  or  reproduc- 
tions of  hand  or  typewritten  matter  not  mailed 
at  the  post  office  window  or  other  depository 
designated  by  the  postmaster  in  a  minimum 
number  of  twenty  identical  copies.  Legal  and 
other  blank  printed  forms  signed  officially. 
Letters  (old  or  re-mailed)  sent  singly  or  in 
bulk.  Manuscripts  or  typewritten  copy,  when 
not  accompanied  by  proof  sheets  thereof.  Mar- 
riage certificates  filled  out  in  writing.  Old 
letters  sent  singly  or  in  bulk.  Original  type- 
written matter  and  manifold  or  letter-press 
copies  thereof.  Price  lists  (printed)  containing 
written  figures  changing  individual  items.  Re- 
ceipts (printed)  with  written  signatures.  Sealed 
matter  of  any  class,  or  matter  so  wrapped  as 
not  to  be  easily  examined,  except  original 
packages  of  proprietary  articles  of  merchandise 
put  up  so  that  each  package  may  be  examined 
in  its  simplest  mercantile  or  sample  form,  and 
seeds  and  other  articles  that  may  be  enclosed 
in  sealed  transparent  envelopes.  Stenographic 
or  shorthand  notes.  Typewritten  matter,  orig- 
inal letter-press  and  manifold  copies  thereof. 
Unsealed  written  communications.  Visiting 
cards  (written),  except  single  cards  enclosed 
with  third  or  fourth  class,  matter,  and  bearing 
the  name  of   the  sender. 

SECOND-CLASS    MATTER. 

14.  Includes  newspapers  and  periodicals  bear- 
ing notice  of  entry  as  second-class  matter.  A 
pamphlet  containing  the  laws  governing  mall- 
able  matter  of  the  second  class  and  regulations 
thereunder  will  be  furnished  postmasters,  in- 
terested publishers  and  news  agents. 

THIRD-CLASS   MATTER. 

15.  Printed  matter  under  the  following  condi- 
tions is  third-class  matter: 

16.  Printed  Matter  Defined.— Printed  matter 
is  the  reproduction  upon  paper  by  any  process, 
except  handwriting  and  typewriting,  not  having 
the  character  of  actual  personal  correspond- 
ence, of  words,  letters,  characters,  figures  or 
images,  or  any  combination  thereof.  Matter 
produced  by  the  photographic  process  (includ- 
ing blueprints)   is  printed  matter. 

17.  Circulars. — A  circular  is  defined  by  law  to 
be  a  printed  letter  which,  according  to  in- 
ternal evidence,  is  being  sent  in  identical  terms 
to  several  persons.  A  circular  may  bear  a 
written,  typewritten  or  hand-stamped  date, 
name  and  address  of  person  addressed  and  of 
the  sender,  and  corrections  of  mere  typo- 
graphical  errors. 

18.  Where  a  name  (except  that  of  the  ad- 
dressee or  sender),  date  (other  than  that  of 
the  circular),  figure,  or  anything  else  is  writ- 
ten, typewritten  or  hand  stamped  in  the  body 
of  the  circular  for  any  other  reason  than  to 
correct    a    genuine    typographical    error,    It    Is 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


IZ5 


subject    to    postage    at    the    flrst-class    (letter) 
rate,    whether  sealed   or   unsealed. 

19.  Exception.— If  such  name,  date  or  other 
matter  be  hand  stamped,  and  not  of  a  personal 
nature,  the  character  of  the  circular  as  such 
is  not  changed  thereby. 

20.  Reproductions  or  imitations  of  handwrit- 
ing and  typewriting  obtained  by  means  of  the 
printing  press,  neostyle,  hectograph,  multi- 
graph,  or  similar  process,  will  be  treated  as 
third-class  matter,  provided  they  are  mailed  at 
the  post  office  window  or  other  depository 
designated  by  the  postmaster  in  a  minimum 
number  of  20  perfectly  identical,  Ensealed 
copies.  If  mailed  in  a  less  quantity  they  will 
be  subject  to  the  flrst-class  rate. 

21.  Correspondence  of  the  blind;  mailable  at 
the  third-class  rate. 

22.  Seeds,  bulbs,  roots,  scions,  etc. ;  mailable 
at  the   third-class  rate   of  postage. 

22a.  Identical  pieces  of  third-class  matter 
mailed  without  stamps  affixed. 

ARTICLES    INCLUDED    IN    THIRD-CLASS 
MATTER. 

23.  Address  tags  and  labels  (printed).  Ad- 
vertisements printed  on  blotting  paper.  Al- 
manacs. Architectural  designs  (printed).  As- 
sessment notices,  wholly  in  print.  Blank  notes 
(printed).  Blanks  (printed  legal)  and  forms 
of  insurance  applications,  mainly  in  print. 
Blind,  indented  or  perforated  sheets  of  paper 
containing  characters  which  can  be  read  by 
the  blind,  except  such  as  are  entitled  to  free 
transmission.  Blue  prints.  Books  (printed). 
Bulbs.  Calendar  pads  mainly  in  print.  Cal- 
endars (printed  on  paper).  Canvassing  and 
prospectus  books  with  printed  sample  chapters. 
Cards  printed  on  paper.  Cards,  printed, 
with  perforations  for  carrying  coin.  Cards, 
Christmas,  Easter,  etc.,  printed  on  paper. 
Catalogues.  Check  and  receipt  books 
(mainly  in  print).  Circulars.  Clippings 
(press)  with  name  and  date  of  paper  stamped 
or  written  in.  Correspondence  of  the  blind. 
Coupons,  printed.  E,ngravings  and  wood  cuts 
(printed  on  paper).  Grain  in  its  natural  con- 
dition (samples  of).  Imitations  of  hand  or 
typewritten  matter,  when  mailed  at  the  post 
office  window  or  other  depository  designated 
by  the  postmaster  in  a  minimum  number  of 
20  identical  copies.  Indented  or  perforated 
sheets  of  paper  containing  characters  which 
can  be  read  by  the  blind,  except  such  as  are 
entitled  to  free  transmission.  Insurance  applica- 
tions and  other  blank  forms  mainly  in  print. 
Labels  and  tags  bearing  printed  addresses. 
Legal  blanks  (printed)  and  forms  of  insurance 
applications,  mainly  In  print.  Lithographs. 
Maps  printed  upon  paper,  with  the  necessary 
mountings.  Memorandum  books,  mainly  in 
print.  Music  books.  Newspaper  "headings" 
or  clippings.  Notes  (blank  printed).  Order 
blanks  and  report  forms,  mainly  in  print. 
Photographs,  printed  on  paper.  Plans  and 
architectural  designs  (printed).  Plants,  Post- 
age stamps  (cancelled  or  uncancelled).  Pos- 
tal cards,  bearing  printed  advertisements, 
mailed  in  bulk.  Post  cards,  bearing  on  the 
message  side  illustrations  or  other  printed 
matter,  mailed  In  bulk.  Press  clippings  with 
name  and  date  of  paper  stamped  or  written 
in.  Price  lists,  wholly  in  print,  I*i*inted 
blank  notes.  Printed  calendars.  Printed  labels. 
Printed  plans  and  architectural  designs. 
Printed  tags  and  labels.  Printed  valentines. 
Proof-sheets  (printed)  with  or  without  manu- 
script. Receipt  and  check  books  (mainly  in 
print).  Reproductions  or  imitations  of  hand 
or  typewriting,  by  the  neostyle,  hectograph, 
mimeograph,  electric  pen,  or  similar  process, 
when  mailed  at  the  post  office  window  or  other 


depository  designated  by  the  postmaster.  In 
a  minimum  number  of  twenty  identical  copies. 
Roots.  School  copy  books  containing  printed 
instructions.  Scions.  Seeds.  Sheet  music. 
Tags  and  labels,  printed.  Valentines,  printed 
on  paper.  Visiting  cards  (printed).  Wood 
cuts  and   engravings   (prints). 

24.  Permissible  additions  to  third-class  mat- 
ter.— 

(a)  Such  words  as  "Dear  Sir,"  "My  dear 
friend,"  "Yours  truly,"  "Sincerely  yours," 
"Merry      Christmas,"      "Happy      New      Year," 

"With  best  wishes"  and  "Do  not  open  until 
Christmas,"  or  words  to  that  effect,  written 
upon  third  class  matter  are  permissible  in- 
scriptions. 

(b)  Inscriptions  In  public  library  books.— 
Public  library  books,  otherwise  transmissible 
in  the  mails  at  the  third-class  rate  of  postage, 
shall  not  be  subjected  to  a  higher  postage  rate 
because  of  bearing  thereon  or  therein.  In 
writing  or  by  means  of  hand-stamp,  the  shelf- 
number,  date  of  donation  or  acquisition  (or 
both),  or  any  mark  of  designation  which  may 
be  reasonably  construed  as  an  "Inscription" 
within  the  meaning  of  the  law  In  the  limited 
sense  of  a  permanent  library  record,  placed 
thereon  by  the  librarian  and  in  that  connec- 
tion  only. 

(c)  A  written  designation  of  contents— such 
as  "Book,"  "Printed  matter,"  "Photo"— shall 
be  construed  as  a  permissible  "inscription" 
upon   mall   matter   of  the   third   class. 

(d)  Incidental  use  of  third-class  matter  as 
receptacles  for  coin. — The  rate  of  postage  on 
matter  essentially  third  class  (printed  matter 
upon  paper)  is  not  affected  by  the  fact  that 
incidentally  it  contains  a  perforation  which 
may   be  used   for  carrying  coin. 

(e)  Serial  numbers. — Serial  numbers  written 
or  impressed  upon,  and  so  inserted  in  what 
would  otherwise  be  third-class  matter,  do  not 
increase   that    rating. 

(f)  Permissible  enclosures. — "There  may  be 
enclosed  with  third-class  matter,  without 
changing  the  classification  thereof,  a  single 
visiting  or  business  card;  a  single  printed 
order-blank,  or  a  single  printed  combination 
order-blank  and  coin-card  with  envelope  bear- 
ing return  address;  or  a  single  postal  card 
bearing   return    address." 

FOURTH-CLASS     (PAJRCEL    POST)     MATTER. 

25.  Fourth-class  matter  Is  all  mailable  matter 
not  Included  in  the  three  preceding  classes 
which  is  so  prepared  for  mailing  as  to  be  easily 
withdrawn  from  the  wrapper  and  examined, 
except  that  sealed  packages  of  proprietary  arti- 
cles of  merchandise  (not  In  themselves  un- 
mallable),  such  as  pills,  fancy  soaps,  tobacco, 
etc.,  put  up  In  fixed  quantities  by  the  manu- 
facturer for  sale  by  himself  or  others,  or  for 
samples,  in  such  manner  as  to  properly  protect 
the  articles,  so  that  each  package  in  its  sim- 
plest mercantile  or  sample  form  may  be  ex- 
amined, are  mailable  as  fourth-class  matter. 
It  embraces  merchandise  and  samples  of  every 
description,    and   coin   or  specie. 

26.  Postage  must  be  paid  by  stamps  affixed, 
unless  2,000  or  more  identical  pieces  are 
mailed  at  one  time  when  the  postage  at  that 
rate  may  be  paid  In  money.  New  postage 
must  be  prepaid  for  forwarding  or  returning. 
The  affixing  of  special  delivery  ten-cent  stamps 
in  addition  to  the  regular  postage  entitles 
fourth-class  matter  to   special   delivery. 

Articles  of  this  class  liable  to  injure  or 
deface  the  mails,  such  as  glass,  sugar,  needles, 
nails,  pens,  etc.,  must  be  first  wrapped  In  a 
bag,  box,  or  open  envelope  and  then  secured 
in  another  outside  tube  or  box,  made  of  metal 
or  hard  wood,  without  sharp  corners  or  edges, 
and   having   a  sliding  clasp  or  screw   lid.    thus 


336 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


securing  the  articles  in  a  double  package.  The 
public  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  first 
object  of  the  department  is  to  transport  the 
mails  safely,  and  every  other  interest  is  made 
subordinate. 

ARTICLES     INCLUDED     IN     FOURTH-CLASS 
MATTER. 

27.  Albums,  photograph  and  autograph 
(blank).  Artificial  flowers.  Bees  (queen)  when 
properly  packed.  Bill  heads.  Blank  address 
tags  and  labels.  Blank  books.  Blank  books 
with  printed  headings.  Blank  cards  or  paper. 
Blank  diaries.  Blank  postal  cards  in  bulk 
packages.  Blank  post-cards.  Blotting  paper 
(blank).  Botanical  specimens,  not  susceptible 
of  being  used  for  propagation.  Calendar  pads, 
mainly  blank.  Calendars  or  other  matter 
printed  on  celluloid.  Card  coin-holders  (not 
printed).  Cards  (blank).  Cards,  printed  play- 
ing, of  all  kinds.  Celluloid,  printed  or  un- 
printed.  Check  books,  mainly  blank.  Christ- 
mas and  Easter  cards  printed  on  other  material 
than  paper.  Cigar  bands.  Coin.  Combination 
calendar  and  memorandum  pads,  mainly  blank. 
Crayon  pictures.  Cut  flowers.  Cuts  (wood  or 
metal).  Daguerreotypes.  Dissected  maps  and 
pictures.  Drawings,  framed  or  unframed. 
Dried  fruit.  Dried  plants.  Easter  cards,  when 
printed  on  other  material  than  paper.  Electro- 
type plates.  Engravings,  when  framed.  En- 
velopes, printed  or  unprinted,  except  when  ad- 
dressed and  enclosed  singly  with  third-class 
matter.  Flowers,  cut  or  artiflcial.  Framed 
engravings,  pictures  and  other  printed  matter. 
Geological  specimens.  Grain,  not  intended  for 
planting.  Letter  heads.  Maps,  printed  on 
cloth.  Merchandise  samples.  Memorandum 
books  and  calendar  pads,  mainly  blank.  Mer- 
chandise sealed:  Proprietary  articles  (not  in 
themselves  unmailable),  such  as  pills,  fancy 
soaps,  tobacco,  etc.,  put  up  in  fixed  quantities 
by  the  manufacturer  for  sale  by  himself  or 
others,  or  for  samples,  in  such  manner  as  to 
properly  protect  the  articles,  and  so  that  each 
package  in  its  simplest  mercantile  or  sample 
form  may  be  readily  examined.  Metals.  Min- 
erals.    Napkins,  paper  or  cloth,   printed  or  un- 


printed. Oil  paintings,  framed  or  unframed. 
Order  blanks  and  report  forms,  mainly  blank 
(spaces  covered  by  ruled  lines  being  regarded 
as  blank),  are  fourth-class  matter.  However, 
one  copy  may  be  enclosed  with  third-class 
matter  without  subjecting  such  matter  to  post- 
age at  the  fourth-class  rate.  Paper  bags  and 
wrapping  paper,  printed  or  unprinted.  Paper 
napkins.  Patterns,  printed  or  unprinted.  Fen 
or  pencil  drawings.  Photograph  albums.  Pho- 
tographic negatives.  Postal  cards  (blank)  in 
bulk  packages.  Post-cards  (blank).  Printed 
matter  on  other  material  than  paper.  Printed 
playing  cards  of  all  kinds.  Private  mailing 
or  post-cards  (blank).  Queen  bees,  when  prop- 
erly packed.  Record  books,  mainly  blank. 
Rulers,  wooden  or  metal,  bearing  printed  ad- 
vertisements. Samples  of  cloth.  Samples  of 
flour  or  other  manufactured  grain  for  food 
purposes.  Sealed  merchandise:  Soap  wrap- 
pers. Stationery.  Tags  (blank).  Tape  meas- 
ures. Tintypes.  Valentines  printed  on  ma- 
terial other  than  paper.  Wall  paper.  Water 
color  painting.  Wooden  rulers,  bearing  printed 
advertisements.  Wrapping  paper,  printed  or 
unprinted. 

28.  Permissible  writing  or  printing  upon  or 
with   fourth-class   matter: 

(a)  The  written  additions  permissible  upon 
third-class  matter  may  be  added  to  fourth- 
class  matter  without  subjecting  the  latter  to  a 
higher  than  the  fourth-class  rate  of  postage. 

(b)  The  written  additions  permissible  upon 
fourth-class  matter  may  be  placed  upon  the 
matter  itself,  or  upon  the  wrapper  or  cover 
thereof,  or  tag  or  label  accompanying  the 
same. 

(c)  A  written  designation  of  the  contents, 
such  as  "candy,"  "cigars,"  "merchandise," 
etc.,  is  permissible  upon  the  wrapper  of  fourth- 
class  matter. 

(d)  Such  inscriptions  as  "Merry  Christmas," 
"Happy  New  Year,"  "With  best  wishes,"  and 
"Do  not  open  until  Christmas,"  or  words  to 
that  effect,  together  with  the  name  and  ad- 
dress of  the  addressee  and  of  the  sender 'may 
be  written  on  mail  matter  of  the  fourth  class, 
or  upon  a  card  enclosed  therewith,  without 
affecting    its   classification. 


RATES  OF  POSTAGE. 


FIRST-CLASS    MATTER. 

Rates  of  postage  on  first-class  matter. 
—  (a)  On  letters  and  other  matter, 
wholly  or  partly  in  writing,  except  the 
writing  specially  authorized  to  be  placed 
upon  matter  of  other  classes,  and  on 
matter  sealed  or  otherwise  closed  against 
inspection — 2  cents  an  ounce  or  fraction 
thereof. 

(b)  On  postal  cards — 1  cent  each,  the 
price  for  which   they   are  sold. 

(c)  On  private  mailing  cards  (post- 
cards) conforming  to  the  requirements 
of  Postal  Laws  and  Regulations — 1  cent 
each. 

(d)  On  "drop  letters,"  2  cents  an 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof  when  mailed 
at  letter-carrier  post  offices,  or  at  offices 
which  are  not  letter-carrier  offices  if 
rural  free  delivery  has  been  established 
and  the  persons  addressed  can  be  served 
by  rural  carrier ;  and  1  cent  for  each 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof  when  mailed  at 
offices  where  letter-carrier   sevice  is  not 


established,  or  at  offices  where  the  pat- 
rons cannot  be  served  by  rural  free-de- 
livery   carriers. 

(e)  Letters  mailed  at  a  post  office  for 
delivery  to  patrons  thereof  by  star  route 
carrier  and  those  deposited  in  boxes 
along  a  star  route  or  rural  free  deliv- 
ery route  are  subject  to  postage  at 
the  rate  of  two  cents  an  ounces  or  frac- 
tion   thereof. 

(f)  Letters  prepaid  1  cent  received  by 
a  postmaster,  under  cover  (through  the 
mails),  with  postage  prepaid  on  the 
bulk  package  at  the  letter  rate,  cannot 
be  distributed  for  local  delivery  or  trans- 
mission in  the  mails.  Each  letter  must 
be  prepaid  at  the  regular  first-class  rate. 

(g)  A  letter  which — after  a  proper  ef- 
fort has  been  made  to  deliver  it — is  re- 
turned to  the  sender,  may  not  be  re- 
mailed  without  a  new  prepayment  of 
postage,  and  it  should  be  enclosed  in 
a  new  envelope,  to  secure  prompt  trans- 
mission. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


337 


SECOND-CLASS    MATTER. 

When  mailed  by  the  public. — The  rate 
of  postage  on  newspapers  and  periodical 
publications  of  the  second  class,  when 
sent  by  others  than  the  publisher  there- 
of, or  a  news  agent,  is  1  cent  for  each 
4  ounces,  or  fractional  part  thereof,  on 
each  separately  addressed  copy  or  pack- 
age of  unaddressed  copies,  to  be  prepaid 
by   stamps  aflSxed. 

Note. — There  is  no  such  rate  of  post- 
age as  4  cents  a  pound. 

When  mailed  by  publishers  or  news 
agents. — Copies  of  publications  admitted  to 
the  second  class  of  mail  matter  when  mailed 
by  the  publishers  thereof  to  subscribers  and 
as  sample  copies  within  the  limitations  of 
section  436  Postal  I^av/s  and  Regulations, 
are  subject  to  postage  at  the  rate  of  1  cent  a 
pound  to  be  prepaid  in  money  on  the  bulk 
weight  of  all  copies,  except  as  provided  by 
section  433,  Postal  Laws  and  Regulations. 

THIRD-CLASS     MATTER. 

The  rate  of  postage  on  mail  matter  of  the 
third  class  is  1  cent  for  each  2  ounces  or 
fraction  thereof,  on  each  individually  ad- 
dressed piece  or  parcel,  prepaid  by  stamps 
affixed,  except  as  provided  by  section  459, 
Postal  Laws  and  Regulations. 

Note. — There  is  no  such  rate  of  post- 
age as  8  cents  a  pound. 

FOURTH-CLASS     (PARCEL    POST)     MATTER. 
See    Pages    340    and    342. 

MONEY  ORDER  SYSTEM. 

Fees  charged  for  money  orders  issued  on 
domestic   form.— 

TABLE  NO.  1. 
Payable  in  the  United  States  (which  includes 
Guam,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico  and  Tutuila,  Samoa) ; 
or  payable  in  Bermuda,  British  Guiana, 
British  Honduras,  Canada,  Canal  Zone  (Isth- 
mus of  Panama),  Cuba,  Mexico,  Newfound 
land,  at  the  United  States  Postal  Agency  at 
Shanghai  (China),  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 
or  the  following  islands  in  the  West  In- 
dies: Antigua,  Bahamas,  Barbados,  Dominica, 
Grenada,  Jamaica,  Martinique,  Montserrat, 
Nevis,  St.  Kitts,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent, 
Trinidad    and    Tobago,    and    Virgin    Islands. 

For  orders  from   $  0.01  to   $  2.50 3  cents 

For  orders  from    $  2.51  to   $  5.00 5  cents 

For  orders  from   $  5.01  to   $10.00 8  cents 

For  orders  from    $10.01  to  $2a.0» 10  cents 

For  orders  from   $20.01  to   $30.00 12  cents 

For  orders  from   $30.01   to   $40.00 15  cents 

For  orders  from   $40.01  to   $50.00 18  cents 

For  orders  from    $50.01  to   $60.00 20  cents 

For  orders  from   $60.01   to   $75.00 25  cents 

For  orders  from  $75.01  to  $100.00 30  cents 

21.  Postmasters  at  domestic  money-order  of- 
fices must  bear  in  mind  that  they  are  not 
author  zed  to  issue  money  orders  for  pay- 
ment in  any  foreign  country  other  than  those 
enumerated  above.  When  an  intending  remit- 
ter applies  at  a  domestic  oflBce  for  a  money 
order  payable  in  any  other  foreign  country 
the  postmaster  should  direct  him  to  the  near- 
est   international    money-order    office. 

22.  Fees  charged  for  money  orders  issued  on 
international    form. — 


TABLE    NO.    2. 

Payable  in  Apia,  Austria,  Belgium,  Bolivia, 
Cape  Colony,  Costa  Rica,  Denmark,  Egypt, 
Germany,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Honduras, 
Hongkong,  Hungary,  Italy,  Japan,  Liberia, 
Luxemburg.  Natal  and  Zululand,  New  South 
Wales,  New  Zealand,  Orange  River  Colony, 
Peru,  Portugal,  Queensland,  Russia,  Salvador, 
South  Australia,  Switzerland,  Tasmania,  the 
Transvaal,  Uruguay  and  Victoria,  Western 
Australia. 

For  orders  from   $  0.01  to   $  2.50 10  cents 

For  orders  from   $  2.51  to   $  5.00 15  cents 

For  orders  from  $  5.01   to    $  7.50 20  cents 

For  orders   from   $  7.51  to   $10.00 25  cents 

For  orders  from   $10.01  to   $15.00 30  cents 

For  orders  from   $15.01  to   $20.00 35  cents 

For  orders  from   $20.01  to   $30.00 40  cents 

For  orders  from   $30.01  to   $40.00 45  cents 

For  orders  from   $40.01  to   $50.00 50  cents 

For  orders  from   $50.01  to   $60.00 60  cents 

For  orders  from   $60.01   to   $70.00 70  cents 

For  orders  from   $70.01  to    $80.00 80  cents 

For  orders  from   $80.01  to   $90.00 90  cents 

For  orders  from    iOO.Ol  to  $100.00 $1.00 

TABLE   NO.    3. 

Payable  in  any  foreign  country  with  which 
the  United  States  exchanges  money  orders  not 
enumerated  in  Tables  Nos.   1  and  2  above. 

For  orders  from  $  0.01  to  $  10.00 10  cents 

For  orders  from  $10.01  to  $  20.00 20  cents 

For  orders  from  $20.01  to  .$  30.00 30  cents 

For  orders  from  $30.01  to  $  40.00 40  cents 

For  orders  from  $40.01  to  $  50.00 50  cents 

For  orders  from  $50.01  to  $  60.00 60  cents 

For  orders  from  $60.01  to  $  70.00 70  cents 

For  orders  from  $70.01  to  $  80.00 80  cents 

For  orders  from  $80.01  to  $  90.00 90  cents 

For  orders  from  $90.01  to  $100.00 $1.00 

International  orders. — There  are  now  in  op- 
eration conventions  for  the  exchange  of  money 
orders  between  the  United  States  and  sixty- 
two    countries   named   below: 

*Antigua.  Liberia. 

Apia,    Samoa.  Luxemburg. 

Austria.  *Martinique. 

♦Bahama  Islands.  *Mexico. 

♦Barbados.  *Montserrat. 

Belgium.  fNatal   and   Zululand. 

♦Bermuda.  Netherlands. 

Bolivia.  ♦Nevis. 

♦British  Guiana.  ♦Newfoundland. 

♦British    Honduras.  New    South    Wales. 

♦Canada.  New  Zealand. 

♦Canal   Zone.  Norway. 

fCape  Colony.  fOrange   River   Colony. 

Chili.  Peru. 

Costa    Rica.  ♦Philippine  Islands. 

♦Cuba.  Portugal. 

Denmark.  Queensland. 

♦Dominica.  Russia. 

Egypt.  ♦St.    Kitts. 

France,    Algeria  and  ♦Saint  Lucia. 

Tunis.  ♦Saint  Vincent. 

Germany.  Salvador. 

Great  Britain  and  South  Australia. 

Ireland.  Sweden. 

Greece.  Switzerland. 

♦Grenada.  Tasmania. 
Honduras    (Republic).     fThe    Transvaal. 

Hongkong    (China).  ♦Trinidad  and  Tobago, 

Hungary.  Uruguay. 
Italy    (including    San       Victoria. 

Marino).  ♦Virgin  Islands. 

♦Jamaica.  Western   Australia. 
Japan. 

♦  Draw  orders  on  domestic  money-order  form. 


338 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


t  Cape  Colony,  Transvaal,  Orange  River  Col- 
ony and  Natal  (with  Zululand)  have  been  con- 
solidated into  the  South  African  Union,  and 
all  money-orders  for  payment  in  those  coun- 
tries are  now  certified  by  the  Exchange  office 
at  New  York  to  the  Exchange  office  at  Cape 
Town.  Money  orders  to  and  from  Natal  and 
Zululand  formerly  were  reissued  at  London. 
Payment  may  now  be  made  on  the  orig  nal 
orders,  provided  the  corresponding  advices 
have  been   duly   certified. 

INTERNATIONAL    REPLY-COUPONS. 

International  reply-coupons,  of  the  denomi- 
nation of  6  cents  each,  are  issued  for  the 
purpose  of  sending  to  correspondents  abroad. 
The  foreign  correspondent  may  exchange  each 
coupon  for  postage  stamps  of  the  country  in 
which  he  is  located,  equal  in  value  to  5  cents 
in  United  States  money,  using  the  stamps  for 
reply  postage.  The  countries  in  which  the 
reply-coupon  is  valid  are  as  follows: 

Argentine  Republic. 

Austria  and   the  Austrian   post   offices   in   the 

Levant.  Chili. 

Belgium.  Corea. 

Bosnia-Herzegovina.         Costa   Rica. 

Brazil.  Crete. 

Bulgaria.  Cuba. 

Denmark,  Including  Greenland,  Iceland  and 
the  Faroe  Islands;    the   Danish  West   Indies. 

Egypt. 

France,  the  French  post  offices  in  China, 
Morocco,  and  Turkey;  the  French  colonies  of 
Algeria,  Dahomey,  Guadeloupe  and  dependen- 
cies, Guiana  (French),  Guinea  (French),  Indo- 
China,  Ivory  Coast,  Martinique,  Mauretania, 
New  Caledonia,  Oceanica,  St.  Pierre-Miquelon, 
Senegal,  Senegal-Niger;  French  establishments 
in    India. 

Germany,  the  German  protectorates  and  Ger- 
man post  offices  in  Africa,  Asia,  Australasia, 
and  Turkey. 

Great  Britain,  British  post  offices  in  Morocco 
and  Turkey;  British  colonies  of  Australia, 
Bahamas,  Bechuanaland,  Canada,  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Ceylon,  Cook  Islands,  Dominica,  East 
Africa,  Gibraltar,  Gold  Coast,  Honduras  (Brit- 
ish), Hong  Kong  and  Hong  Kong  offices  in 
China,  India,  Labuan,  Malta,  Mauritius  Islands, 
Natal,  Newfoundland,  New  Guinea,  New  Zea- 
land, Papua,  Seychelles,  Sierra  Leone,  Somali - 
land,  Southern  Nigeria,  South  Rhodesia,  Straits 
Settlements,  Tasmania,  Transvaal,  Trinidad, 
Uganda,  Zululand;  British  Protectorates  of  the 
Solomon,    Gilbert   and  EUice  Islands. 

Greece.  Honduras    (Republic   of). 

Haiti.  Hungary. 

Italy,    and    Italian    colonies    of    Benadir    and 
Erythrea. 

Japan  and  Japanese  post  offices  in  China  and 
Manchuria.  Luxemburg. 

Liberia.  Mexico. 

Netherlands,   Netherlands  Guiana,  the  Nether- 
lands   Indies. 
Norway. 

Portugal,    including  the  Azores  and    Madeira. 
Roumania.  Sweden. 

Salvador.  Switzerland. 

Siam.  Tunis. 

Spain.  Turkey. 

Persons  who  buy  the  reply  coupons  should 
inform  their  correspondents  abroad  that  the 
reply  coupon  is  not  itself  good  for  postage, 
but  must  be  exchanged  at  the  post  office  for  a 
postage  stamp.  The  postmark  of  the  selling 
post  office  must  be  stamped  legibly  in  the 
circle  on  the  left-hand  side  of  all  reply  cou- 
pons sold  to  the  public. 


DELIVERY  AND  FORWARDING  OF  REGIS- 
TERED   MAIL 

Either  the  sender  or  the  addressee  of  do- 
mestic registered  mail  may  restrict  its  deliv- 
ery. Registered  mail  which  is  not  restricted 
in  delivery  may  be  delivered  to  any  responsi- 
ble person  who  customarily  receives  the  ordi- 
nary   mail    of    the    addressee. 

All  registered  matter,  except  that  which 
has  once  been  properly  delivered,  may  be  for- 
warded without  additional  charge  for  registry 
fee,  upon  the  written  request  of  any  person 
to  whom  it  is  deliverable.  In  cases  of  emer- 
gency, when  the  postmaster  is  satisfied  that 
no  fraud  is  intended,  a  telegraphic  order  from 
the   addressee   may   be  honored. 

Written  orders  to  forward  mail,  signed  by 
addressees  or  their  agents  duly  authorized  to 
control  such  matter,  must  be  construed  to 
apply  to  both  ordinary  and  registered  mail, 
unless  such  orders  specifically  state  that  regis- 
tered mail  shall  not  be  so  forwarded,  or  sep- 
arate and  special  written  orders  are  furnished 
directing  other  disposition  of  registered  mail. 

REGISTRY    RETURN   RECEIPT   TO   BE    FUR- 
NISHED   ONLY    WHEN    REQUESTED 
BY   THE   SENDER. 

Section  3928  of  the  Revised  Statutes  reads  as 
follows: 

"Whenever  the  sender  shall  so  request, 
receipt  shall  be  taken  on  the  delivery  of  any 
registered  mail  matter,  showing  to  whom  and 
when  the  same  was  delivered,  which  receipt 
shall  be  returned  to  the  sender  and  be  re- 
ceived in  the  courts  as  prima  facie  evidence 
of  such   delivery." 

In  accordance  with  this  statute  postmasters 
do  not  prepare  receipt  cards  for  return  to  the 
senders  of  domestic  registered  mail  which  does 
not  bear  the  indorsement  "Receipt  desired"  or 
words  of  similar  import.  When  an  article 
bearing  such  indorsement  is  received  for  regis- 
tration, the  registration  receipt  issued  to  the 
sender  and  the  registration  record  are  required 
to   be   similarly   indorsed. 

See  page  340  relative  to  return  receipts  for 
insured   domestic  parcel  post  mail. 

REGISTRATION    FEES. 

The  fee  for  the  registration  of  mail  matter, 
foreign  and  domestic,  is  fixed  at  ten  cents  for 
each  piece,  in  addition  to  postage,  and  both 
postage  and  fee  must  be  prepaid  at  the  time 
of  registration. 

Fourth-class  (domestic  parcel  post)  matter 
may  not  be  registered,  but  may  be  insured 
against  loss  in  the  mails  by  the  prepayment 
of  a  fee  of  ten  cents  in  postage  stamps,  to 
be   affixed    to   each    parcel.     See  page   340. 

The  Department  has  discontinued  the  issu- 
ance of  the  special  ten-cent  registry  stamp. 
No  further  supply  of  this  stamp  shall  be 
printed.  The  registry  fee  may  be  prepaid  by 
means  of  any  stamps  which  are  valid  for  the 
prepayment  of  postage. 

INDEMNITY    FOR    REGISTERED    MAIL. 
Indemnity    will    be    paid    on    account    of   the 
loss  of  registered  mail  in  the   postal  service: 

(a)  For  the  value  of  domestic  registered  mail 
of  the  first  class   (sealed)   up  to    $50. 

(b)  For  the  value  of  domestic  registered  mail 
of  the  third   class,    unsealed,   up  to  $25. 

See  page  340  in  regard  to  indemnity  for  lost 
insured  and  C.    O.    D.    parcels. 

(c)  In  any  amount  claimed,  within  the  limit 
of  50  francs  (approximately  $9.65),  on  account 
of   the   loss,    In   the   international    mails,    of   a 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


339 


registered  article  of  any  class,  regardless  of 
its  value,  exchanged  between  the  United  States 
and  any  country  embraced  within  the  Universal 
Postal  Union,  except  on  account  of  losses 
arising  under  circumstances  beyond  control 
("force  majeure")  and  international  "Parcels 
Post"    registered  mail. 

First-class    domestic    matter    must    be    sealed 
before    being   registered. 


FOREIGN    MAILS. 

POSTAGE  RATES  ON  ARTICLES  FOR  CAN- 
ADA, CUBA,  MEXICO,  THE  REPUBLIC  OF 
PANAMA,  THE  UNITED  STATES  POSTAL 
AGENCY  AT  SHANGHAI  AND  THE  UNITED 
STATES  NAVAL  HOSPITAL  AT  YOKO- 
HAMA,   JAPAN. 

Articles  addressed  for  delivery  in  Canada, 
Cuba,  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of  Panama  are 
subject  to  the  same  postage  rates  and  condi- 
tions which  would  apply  to  them  if  they  were 
addressed  for  delivery  in  the  United  States: 
Except  that: 

(a)  Letters  and  postal  cards  must  be  dis- 
patched to  Canada  and  Mexico  if  prepaid  one 
full  rate  of  postage  and  to  Cuba  and  Panama 
whether  prepaid  or  not.  Other  articles  for 
Cuba  and  Panama  must  be  prepaid  at  least  in 
part  and  for  Canada  and  Mexico   in  full. 

(b)  "Prints,"  "samples"  and  "commercial 
papers"  may  be  sent  subject  to  the  postage 
rates,  weight  limit  and  other  conditions  ap- 
plicable to  similar  articles  in  Postal  Union 
mails. 

(c)  Articles  other  than  letters  in  their  usual 
and  ordinary  form  are  excluded  from  the  mails, 
unless  they  are  so  wrapped  that  their  contents 
can  be  easily  examined  by  postmasters  and 
customs  officers.  Any  article  enclosed  in  an 
envelope,  as  the  word  "envelope"  is  generally 
used,  without  regard  to  its  size,  is  considered 
to  be  "in  the  usual  and  ordinary  form"  of  a 
letter.  But  unsealed  packages  may  contain, 
in  sealed  receptacles,  articles  which  cannot  be 
safely  transmitted  in  unsealed  receptacles,  pro- 
vided the  contents  of  the  closed  receptacles 
are  plainly  visible  or  are  precisely  stated  on 
the  covers  of  the  closed  receptacles  and  that 
the  package  is  so  wrapped  that  the  outer  cover 
can  be  easily  opened. 

Packages  of  fourth-class  matter  that  weigh 
over  four  ounces  and  not  over  four  pounds  six 
ounces  may  be  sent  to  Canada,  Cuba,  Mexico 
and  the  Republic  of  Panama,  at  the  eighth 
zone  rate  of  postage  (see  Page  340).  The  par- 
cels for  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of  Panama 
must  be  accompanied   by   customs   declarations. 

Unmailable. — The  following  articles  are  un- 
mailable  under  any  condition,   viz. : 

All  sealed  packages  which,  from  their 
form  and  general  appearance,  evidently  are  not 
letters ;  publications  which  violate  the  copy- 
right laws  of  the  country  of  destination; 
poisons,  explosive  or  Inflammable  substances; 
live  or  dead  (not  dried)  animals,  insects  (ex- 
cept bees)  and  reptiles;  fruits  and  vegetables 
which  quickly  decompose,  and  substances 
which  exhale  a  bad  odor;  lottery  tickets  or 
circulars;  all  obscene  or  Immoral  articles, 
articles  which  may  destroy  or  damage  the 
malls,  or  injure  the  persons  handling  them; 
and  to  Cuba  and  the  Republic  of  Panama, 
liquids  and  fatty  substances,  except  samples 
thereof. 

The  domestic  postage  rates  and  conditions  of 
Canada,  Cuba,  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of 
Panama  apply  to  articles  mailed  in  those  coun- 


tries addressed  for  delivery  in  the  United 
States.  Consequently  articles  (except  sealed 
packages  which  are  not  letters)  mailed  In  any 
one  of  those  countries  which  are  entitled  to 
pass  in  the  domestic  mails  of  that  country 
free  of  postage,  are  likewise  entitled  to  trans- 
mission free  of  postage  to  the  United  States. 

Prepayment  of  postage  upon  any  article 
mailed  in  the  United  States,  except  the  reply 
half  of  a  double  postal  card,  can  be  effected 
only  by  means  of  United  States  postage  stamps. 

Postage  due:  Postage  due  upon  articles  ex- 
changed with  these  countries  insufficiently  pre- 
paid, is  collectible  upon  delivery  at  the  single 
rate. 


SECOND-CLASS  MATTER  FOR  CANADA. 

The  postage  rate  applicable  in  the  United 
States  to  "second-class  matter"  addressed  for 
delivery  in  Canada  is  1  cent  for  each  4  ounces 
or  fraction  of  4  ounces,  calculated  on  the 
weight  of  each  package  and  prepaid  by  means 
of  postage  stamps  affixed;  except  that  the 
postage  rate  to  publishers  and  news  agents 
applicable  to  legitimate  dally  newspapers  issued 
as  frequently  as  six  times  a  week  addressed 
to  bona  fide  subscribers  in   Canada,    is  1  cent  a 

For  printed  matter  of  all  kinds,  1  cent  for 
office  of  mailing  as   second-class  matter. 


RATES  OP  POSTAGE  ON  ARTICLES  FOR 
FOREIGN  COUNTRIES  OTHER  THAN 
ABOVE. 

Articles  for  or  from  foreign  countries  (except 
Canada,*  Cuba,  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of 
Panama  and  the  United  States  Postal  Agency 
at  Shanghai,  as  indicated  above,  are  not  des- 
ignated "First-class  matter,"  "Second-class 
matter,"  etc.;  but  are  classified  as  "Letters," 
"Post  cards,"  "Printed  matter,"  "Commer- 
cial papers"  and  "Samples  of  merchandise," 
and  are  subject  to  the  postage  rates  indi- 
cated below: 

For  letters,  5  cents  for  the  first  ounce,  or 
fraction  of  an  ounce,  and  3  cents  for  each 
additional  ounce,  or  fraction  of  an  ounce. 
Stamps  or  forms  of  prepayment,  whether  cur- 
rent or  obsolete,  canceled  or  uncanceled,  as 
well  as  printed  articles  constituting  the  repre- 
sentative sign  of  monetary  value,  and  articles 
In  typewriting  or  imitation  of  typewriting,  are 
subject  to  postage  at  the  letter  rate.  Monetary 
value  Is  held  by  the  International  Bureau  of 
the  Universal  Postal  Union  to  attach  to  bonds, 
l^ank  notes,  commercial  bills  of  exchange,  etc., 
which  have  been  fully  executed  by  the  makers: 

For    postal    cards,    2    cents    each,    for    single, 
and   4   cents   each   for  double  cards, 
each   2   ounces   or  fraction   of   2  ounces. 

For  commercial  papers,  5  cents  for  the  first 
10  ounces  or  less,  and  1  cent  for  each  addi- 
tional  2   ounces  or   fraction   of  2  ounces. 

For  samples,  2  cents  for  the  first  4  ounces 
or  less,  and  1  cent  for  each  additional  2 
ounces  or  fraction  of  2  ounces. 

Registration  fee,  in  addition  to  postage,  10 
cents. 

Letters  for  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Wales 
and  Newfoundland,  2  cents  per  ounce,  and 
letters  for  Germany  dispatched  only  by  steam- 
ers which  land  the  mails  at  German  ports,  2 
cents  per  ounce. 


♦Newfoundland    is    not    Included    In    the    Do- 
minion of  Canada. 


340 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DOMESTIC  PARCEL  POST. 


The  provisions  of  the  act  approved  August 
24,  1912,  authorizing  the  establishment  of  the 
Parcels  Post  System  embodying  a  zone  sys- 
tem of  postal  rates  according  to  certain  pre- 
scribed distances  from  a  given  territorial  cen- 
ter to  take  effect  Jan.  1,  1913,  provides  that 
fourth-class  mail  matter  is  to  embrace  all 
other  matter,  including  farm  and  factory  prod- 
ucts, not  now  embraced  by  law  in  either  the 
first,  second,  or  third-class,  not  (exceeding 
twenty  pounds  in  weight  when  mailed  for  de- 
livery within  the  first  and  second  zones,  nor) 
exceeding  eleven  pounds  in  weight  (when  for 
delivery  in  any  of  the  other  zones),  nor 
greater  in  size  than  72  inches  in  length  and 
girth  combined,  nor  in  form  or  kind  likely  to 
injure  the  person  of  any  postal  employee  or 
damage  the  mail  equipment  or  other  mail  mat- 
ter and  not  of  a  character  perishable  within  a 
period  reasonably  required  for  transportation 
and    delivery. 

For  parcels  post  purposes  the  United  States 
and  its  several  Territories  and  possessions,  ex- 
cepting the  Philippine  Islands,  are  divided  into 
units  of  area  thirty  minutes  square,  identical 
with  a  quarter  of  the  area  formed  by  the  in- 
tersecting parallels  of  latitude  and  meridians 
of  longitude. 

~There  is  a  flat  rate  of  one  cent  per  ounce 
up  to  four  ounces  regardless  of  distance.  Above 
four  ounces,  rates  are  by  the  pound  or  fraction 
thereof,  and  varying  with  the  distance  as 
given  in  the  adjoining  table  and  table  on 
page  342. 


INSURED    AND     C.     O.     D.     PARCELS— FEES 
CHARGED   AND    INDEMNITY   PROVIDED- 
RETURN     RECEIPTS 

A  mailable  parcel  on  which  the  postage  is 
fully  prepaid  may  be  insured  against  loss  in 
an  amount  equivalent  to  its  actual  value,  but 
not  to  exceed  $25,  on  payment  of  a  fee  of 
five  cents,  and  in  an  amount  equivalent  to  its 
actual  value  in  excess  of  $25,  but  not  to  ex- 
ceed $50,  on  payment  of  a  fee  of  ten  cents 
in    stamps,    such    stamps    to    be    afllxed. 


First 
Pound. 

300-mile  zone    07 

600-mile   zone    08 

1,000-mile  zone    09 

1,400-mile  zone 10 

1,800-mile  zone 11 

Over  1,800  miles 12 


Each 

Addit. 

Eleven 

Pound. 

Pounds. 

.05 

.57 

.06 

.68 

.07 

.79 

.09 

1.00 

.10 

1.11 

.12 

1.32 

The  sender  of  a  mailable  parcel  on  which 
the  postage  is  fully  prepaid  may  have  the 
price  of  the  article  and  the  charges  thereon 
collected  from  the  addressee  on  payment  of  a 
fee  of  ten  cents  in  stamps  affixed,  provided 
the  amount  to  be  collected  does  not  exceed 
$100.     Such   a   parcel    will   be   insured    against 

Continued  on  page  342. 


Copyright   1912,    by    Munn   &   Co..    Inc. 

KATE  ZONES  FOR  DOMESTIC  PARCELS  POST. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


341 


APPROXIMATE  TIME  OF  MAILS,  AND   DISTANCES  BETWEEN    NEW  YORK  AND 
CERTAIN  PLACES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Name  of  place. 

1 

If 

Name  of  place. 

Q 

P 

via 

Accra  (Africa) London . . 

Addah  (Africa) London. . 

Adelaide  (South  Australia). .  .London. . 

Adelaide  (South  Australia) 

Vancouver. . 

Aden  (Arabia) London. . 

Akyab  (British  Burmah) London. . 

Alexandria  (Egypt) London. . 

24 
36 
38 

31 

17 

33 

12 

9 

35 

8 

8 

8 

20 

8.075 
8,130 
15,315 

12.845 

7.875 
11,670 
6.150 
5,030 
9.785 
3,985 
1,790 
4.000 
4,835 

'5^655 

10.120 
5,870 
4,420 

13,125 

12.900 
2,145 
4,790 

12,800 
6,705 
4,510 

2,360 
4,385 
4,490 
6,475 
9.765 
8,590 
4.385 
4,235 
5,205 

12,190 
3,975 
4.910 
8.045 
9,500 
9,950 

10.160 
5.375' 
6,280 

11,120 
5,455 
4,145 
8,805 
8.810 
1,466 
7,570 

11,245 
5,545 
2,445 
3,780 
4,650 

*2;7i5 
5,135 
4,115 
2,281 
9,605 
5,810 
4.575 
6,685 
5,835 
2,030 
6,345 

11,520 
2,605 
1,920 
4,555 
9,120 
4,740 
8,745 
8,855 
4,800 

4.250 

Gaboon  (Africa) 

Geneva  (Switzerland).  .. . 

via 
.London. . 
. London   . 
.  London   . 
.London. . 
.London. 
.  LonJon. . 
.London. . 
.London. . 
.  London . . 
.London. . 

s) 

I'. Orleans. . 

47 

8-9 

9 

11 

8 

9 

23 

13 

33 

13 

9 

7 

11 

7 

14 
6 
9 

31 
2 
9 
9 
2 
3 
8 

27 

12 

15 

44 
9 

18 

25 
7 

21 
5 

23 

25 
8-10 

10 

38 
•7 

10 
28 

7 

6 

9 

9 
17 
12 
24 

9 

10 
11 
12 
11 
16 

9 

9 
35 

7 
10 

30 

5 

9 
20 
28 
23 
11 
36 

33 

9 
35 

9 

3 
30 

9 

9 
10 

9,055 
4.410 

Gibraltar ' 

Glasgow  (Scotland) 

Gothenburg  (Sweden) 

Goree  (Africa) 

Granada  (Spain) 

Grand  Bassam  (Africa)... 
Grand  Canary  Island .... 
G  renada  ( VV  i  nd  ward  Island 
Greytown  (Nicaragua). Nev 
Guadeloupe  (West  Indies) 
Guatemala  City  (Guatema 
Nei 

Guayaquil  (Ecuador) 

Guaymas  (Mexico) 

Hague  (The  Netherlands) 

Half  Jack  (Africa) 

Halifax  (Nova  Scotia) 

5.150 
3.370 
4,755 
6.600 
5.355 
7,395 

Ambriz  (Africa) 

Amsterdam  (Netherlands). 

.London. . 
.London. . 

5.695 
2,325 
2.815 

Antwerp  (Belgium) 

Arica  (Peru) 

.London. . 
.Panama.. 

1.865 

a) 

V  Orleans. . 
.Panama. . 
...R.  R... 
.London. . 
.London. . 

2  645 

Athens  (Greece) 

Auck-land  (New  Zealand) . . 

.London. . 

11 

28 
14 

9 

41 

43 

6-8 

9 
34 
22 
10 

9 

8 

9 

15 

22 

42 

8 

7-8 

10 

28 
7-8 

9 
24 
34 
30 
38 
10 
12 
24 
31 
15 
31 
24 

6 
33 
25 
12 

9 
6-8 

9 

5 
11 
37 

8 
6-7 
28 
11 
8-10 
21 
16 

8 
14 
30 
11 
12 

9 
33 
14 
45 

% 

8-9 

3.295 
3  025 

San  Francisco. . 
Bahia  (Brazil)          

3)950 
7  670 

Basle  (Switzeriand) London. . 

Bangkok  (Siam) London. . 

Bangkok  (Siam) San  Francisco. . 

Barbados  (West  Indies) 

645 

Hamburg  (Germany) 

Hamburg  (Germany) 

Hamilton  (Bermuda)     . 

.    Direct.. 
.London. . 

4.820 

4,340 

780 

Barcelona  (Spain) 

.London. . 
.London. . 
.London. . 
.London. . 

Havana  (Cuba). .. 

1,366 

Batavia  (Java) 

3,940 

Bathurst  (Africa) 

Bavonne  (France) 

Belize  (British  Honduras) 

Hong-Kong  (China) 

Honolulu  (Hawaii)... San 

Iceland 

Inhambane  (Africa) 

Interlaken  (Switzerland). 

Iquique  (Chile) 

Isles  do  Los  (Africa) 

Francisco.. 
.London. . 
.London. . 
.London.. 
.Panama. . 
.Lohdon.. 

10.590 
5,645 
5,350 

11,240 
4,625 
4,965 
7,050 

Nei 

Berlin  (Germany) 

Berne  (Switzerland) 

Beirut  (Syria) 

V  Orleans. . 

.London. . 

.London. . 

.London. . 

.London. . 

. London . . 

.London. . 

.London. . 

.London. . 

ralia) 

ancouver. . 

.London. . 

.London. . 
public).... 
J.London.. 

.London. . 

.London. 

.London. . 

.London. . 

. London . . 
.Panama.. 
.Panama. . 

.London. . 

.London.. 

Bombay  (British  India). . . 

Jacmel  (Haiti) 

1,910 

Bonny  (Africa) 

Jeddah  (Arabia) 

Kingston  (Jamaica) 

Kurrachee  (British  India) 
Lagos  (Africa) 

.London. . 

.London.. 
. London. . 

7  090 

Bordeaux  (France) 

Bremen  (Germany) 

Brindisi  (Italy) 

Brisbane  (Queensland,  Aust 

11820 
10,330 
8,310 
2.258 

Brussels  (Belgium) 

Budapest  (Hungary) 

Lisbon  (Portugal) •. . 

Lit»le  Popo  (Africa) 

Liverpool  (England) 

.London. . 
.London.. 

5,335 
8,185 
3.540 

Buenos  Ayres  (Argentine  Re 

Livingston  (Guatemala) 

Bunder  Abbas  (Persian  Gulf 

Bushire  (Persian  Gulf) 

Busreh  (Persian  Gulf) .... 

Cadiz  (Spain) 

Cairo  (Egypt) 

Calcutta  (British  India).... 
Caldera  (Chile) 

New  Orleans.. 

Loanda  (Africa) London . . 

London  (England) Plymouth. . 

London  (England) Fishguard. . 

Lucerne  (Switzerland) London. . 

Lyons  (France) London. . 

2.495 
9,855 
3,740 
3.760 
4.480 
4.340 
6,555 

Callao  (Peru) 

Cameroons  (Africa) 

Madeira  Island 

Madras  (British  India) 

Madrid  (Spain) 

Magdalena  Bay  (M<»Jcico) . 

San] 

Malaga  (Spain) 

.  London . . 
.London. . 
.London. . 

5.345 
10  525 

Cape  Coast  Castle  (Africa).. 
Cape  Haitien  (Haiti) 

4,925 

Cape  Palmas  (Africa) 

Cape  Town  (South  Africa).. 

.London.. 
.London.. 
.London. . 
.Panama.  . 

Francisco. . 
.London.. 
. London . . 

4,375 
5.320 

Carril  (Spain) 

Carthagena  (Colombia) 

Malta  Island 

Maracaibo  (Venezuela) .  . . 

6,280 
2,280 

Cherbourg  (France) 

3,805 

Christiania  (Norway) 

Cienfuegos 

.London.  . 
.Havana. . 

Marseilles  (France) 

Martinique  (; West  Indies) . 

Mauritius  Island 

Mayaguez  (Porto  Rico) 

.London. . 

4.560 
1   980 

Ciudad  Bolivar  (Venezuela) 

.London.. 

12,350 
1   830 

Cobija  (Bolivia) 

.Panama. . 
.London. . 

Cologne  (Germany) 

Colon  (Panama) 

Mazatlan  (Mexico). .  .San  Francisco. . 

Melbourne  (Victoria,  Australia) 

Vancouver. . 

Mexico  City  (Mexico) R.  R. . . 

Milan  (Ital.v) London. . 

Mollendo  (Peru) Panama. . 

Monrovia  (Liberia,  Africa).. London. . 
Montevideo  (Uruguay) 

4)795 

Congo  (Africa) 

.London. . 
.London.. 
.London. . 
.Panama. . 
.London.. 

12.265 
3.750 
4,615 
4,655 
7,335 
7  165 

Constantinople  (Turkey) . . . 
Copenhagen  (Denmark), . . . 

Coquimbo  (Chile) 

Crete  (Turkey) 

Curacao  (West  Indies) 

Cyprus  (British) 

.London.. 
.London.. 

Moscow  (Russia) '. .  .London. . 

Moulmein  (British  Burmah)  .London. 
Mozambique  (Africa) 

5*535 

Delagoa  Bay  (Africa) 

Demerara  (British  Guiana). 

12,020 

Dominica  (Leeward  Islands) 

Dresden  (Germany) 

Falkland  Islands 

.London.. 

London  and  Brindisi." '. 

Munich  (Bavaria) London. . 

Muscat  (Muscat) London . . 

Naples  (Italy) London . . 

Nassau  (Bahamas) 

10,470 
4,610 

Faroe  Islands 

.London.'. 
.London., 
ancouver. . 
.London.. 

Loadon! '. ' 

5,195 
1   105 

Fernando  Po  (Africa) 

Fiji  Islands V 

Florence  (Italy) 

Natal  (Africa) 

Nice  (France) 

Nuremberg  (Bavaria) 

Odessa  (Russia) 

.London.. 
. London . . 
.  London . . 
.London. . 

12,062 
4  700 

Frankfort-OQ-Maia  (Gesrman 

4.395 
5,455 

342 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


APPROXIMATE    TIME    AND   DISTANCE  — Continued. 


Name  of  place- 


Old  Calabar  (Africa) London. . 

Oporto  (Portugal) London. . 

Pago  Pago,  (Samaon  Islands) 

San  Francisco . . 

Panama  (Panama) C!olon . . 

Papeete  (Tahiti) San  Francisco. . 

Para  (Brazil) 

Paris  (France) 

Payta  (Peru) Panama. . 

Penang  (Straits  Settlements) 

London. . 

Pernambuco  (Brazil) : 

Perth  (West  Australia) 

Point  de  Galle  (Ceylon) London. . 

Port  au  Prince  (Haiti) 

Port  Limon  (Costa  Rica) 

New  Orleans. . 

Puerto  Cabello  (Venezuela) 

Puerto  Plata  (San  Domingo) 

Quebec  (Canada) 

Queenstown  (Ireland) 

Quilimane  (Africa) London. . 

Quitta  (Africa) London. . 

Rangoon  (British  India) London. . 

Riga  (Russia) London. . 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (Brazil) 

Rome  (Italy) London . . 

Rotterdam  (Netherlands) London. . 

Saigon  (Cochin  China) London. . 

Saigon  (Cochin  China) .  San  Francisco . . 

St.  Helena  Island London. . 

St.  John's  (Newfoundland) 

St.  Kitts  (Leeward  Islands) 

St.  Lucia  (Windward  Islands) 

St.  Petersburg  (Russia) London. . 

St.  Thomas  (West  Indies) 

St.  Vincent  (Cape  de  Verde  Islands) 

London. . 

St.  Vincent  (Windward  Islands) 

Salt  Pond  (Africa) London. . 

Samana  (San  Domingo) 

San  Domingo  City  (San  Domingo) 

San  Juan  (Porto  Rico) 

Santa  Marta  (Colombia) ....  Panama . . 


1 

3S 

8,675 

9 

5,405 

14 

4,160 

6 

2,355 

17 

4,212 

■\?. 

3,460 

8 

4,020 

15 

3,545 

38 

11,733 

Ifi 

6,425 

34 

14,415 

23 

10,405 

7 

1,600 

6 

2,865 

10 

2,160 

7 

1,570 

2 

555 

6 

3,250 

38 

10,840 

27 

8,150 

26 

11,900 

11 

5,190 

17 

6,204 

9 

5,030 

8 

3,935 

3« 

12,920 

88 

12,240 

25 

9,280 

5 

1,245 

8 

1,800 

9 

2,025 

9-10 

5,370 

6 

1,650 

18 

6,625 

11 

2,245 

34 

8.050 

8 

1,700 

9 

1,920 

6 

1,730 

13 

2,310 

Name  of  place 


via 

Santander  (Spain) London. 

Santiago  (Chile) Panama. 

Santos  (Brazil) 

Savanilla  (Colombia) ; 

Senegal  (Africa) London . 

Seychelles  Islands  (Indian  Ocean) .  . , 
London 

Shanghai  (China) Berlin 

Shanghai  (China) Vancouver, 

Sierra  Leone  (Africa) London , 

Singapore  (Straits  Settlements) 

London 
Singapore  (Straits  Settlements) 

San  Francisco 

Southampton  (England) , 

Stockholm  (Sweden) London 

Strassburg  (Germany) London 

Stuttgart  (Germany) London 

Suez  (Egypt) London 

Sydney  (New  South  Wales) 

Vancouver 

Tampico  (Mexico) New  Orleans 

Teneriffe  (Canary  Islands).. London 

Tiflis  (Caucasus) London 

Tours  (France) London 

Trieste  (Austria) London 

Trinidad  (West  Indies) 

Turin  (Italy) London 

Turk's  Island  (Bahamas) 

Valparaiso  (Chile) Panama 

Venice  (Italy) London 

Vera  Cruz  (Mexico) R.  R. 

Vera  Cruz  (Mexico) Steamer. 

Vienna  (Austria) London 

Vigo  (Spain) London 

Wellington  (New  Zealand) 

San  Francisco 

Whydah  (Africa) London 

Winnebah  (Africa) London 

Yarmouth  (Nova  Scotia) 

Yokohama  (Japan) 

Zanzibar  (Africa) London 

Zurich  (Switzerland) London 


10 

4,875 

23 

6,010 

19 

6,980 

9 

2,380 

27 

6.505 

37 

9,485 

22 

14,745 

25 

9,920 

20 

7,125 

30 

12,175 

38 

12,240 

7 

3,680 

10 

4,975 

9 

4,335 

10 

4,460 

14 

6,370 

29 

11,570 

7 

2,250 

14 

5,645 

18 

6,630 

10 

4,165 

10 

4,910 

« 

2,370 

9 

4.520 

6 

1.320 

22 

5.915 

9 

4.780 

6 

4,010 

« 

2.500 

9 

4,740 

12 

5.500 

27 

10,490 

39 

8,225 

34 

8,055 

1 

518 

20 

7,345 

30 

9.820 

9 

4.175 

DOMESTIC  PARCELS  POST— Continued  from  Page  340. 


loss,  without  additional  charge.  In  an  amount 
equivalent  to  its  actual  value,  but  not  to 
exceed    $50. 

A  C.  O.  D.  parcel  will  be  accepted  for 
mailing  only  at  a  money-order  ofBce  and 
when^  addressed    to    a    money-order    office. 

A  parcel  may  be  forwarded  without  the  pay- 
ment of  an  additional  C,   O.  D.   fee. 


Return  receipts,  signed  upon  delivery,  will 
be  obtained  for  the  sender  of  an  Insured 
parcel  If  the  wrapper  is  plainly  endorsed  on 
the  address  side  "Return  receipt  desired." 
No  return  receipt  will  be  furnished  the  sender 
of  a  C.  O.  D.  parcel,  as  the  money  order 
issued  In  his  favor  at  the  office  of  delivery 
serves   that   purpose. 


The  pound  rates  of  postage  in  the  flrst  and  second  zones  shall  be  as  follows : 

First 

zone. 

Mrst  zone. 

Second- 
zone 

Weight. 

Second- 

Weight. 

zone 

Local 

Zone 

rate. 

Local 

Zone 

rate. 

rate. 

rate. 

rate. 

rate. 

1  pound 

$0.05 

$0.05 

$0.05 

11  pounds 

$0.10 

$0.15 

$0.15 

2  pounds 

06 

.06 

.06 

12  pounds 

.11 

.16 

.16 

3  pounds 

06 

.07 

.07 

13  pounds 

.11 

.17 

.17 

4  pounds 

07 

.08 

.08 

14  pounds 

.12 

.18 

.18 

5  pounds 

07 

.09 

.09 

15  pounds 

.12 

.19 

.19 

epounds 

08 

.10 

.10 

16  pounds 

.13 

.20 

.20 

7 pounds 

08 

.11 

.11 

17  pounds 

.13 

.21 

.21 

gpounds 

09 

.12 

.12 

18  pounds 

.14 

.22. 

.22 

9  pounds 

09 

.13 

.13 

19  pounds 

.14 

.23 

.83 

10  pounds 

.10 

.14 

.14 

20  pounds 

.15 

.24 

.24 

Note.— The  rate  for  local  delivery  shall  apply  to  all  parcels  mailed  at  a  post 
office  from  which  a  rural  route  starts,  for  delivery  on  such  route,  or  mailed  at 
any  point  on  such  route  for  delivery  at  any  other  point  thereon,  or  at  the  office 
from  which  the  route  starts,  or  on  any  rural  route  starting  therefrom,  and  on  all 
matter  mailed  at  a  city  carrier  office,  or  at  any  point  within  its  delivery  limits, 
for  delivery  by  carriers  from  that  office,  or  at  any  office  for  local  delivery. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK; 


343 


International  parcel  post. 


COUNTRIES  TO  WHICH  PARCELS  MAY  BE  SENT ;  MAXIMUM  DIMENSIONS,  WEIGHT,  VALUE 
AND  RATES  OF  POSTAGE  APPLICABLE  TO  PARCELS :  AND  EXCHANGE  POST  OFFICES 
WHICH  DISPATCH  AND  RECEIVE  PARCEL  POST  MAILS. 

Parcel-post  packages  may  also  be  mailed  In  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  The  Philippines,  Guam,  Tutuila 
and  the  Canal  Zone,  to  the  following  countries  and  colonies  with  which  the  United  States  have 
parcel-post  conventions,  subject  to  the  rules  and  regulations  as  are  herein  prescribed. 


Allowdble  dimensions 
and  weight  of  parcels. 

1 

i  ■ 
•a 

► 

•s 

Exchange  post  offices. 

Names  of  countries. 

i 

.a 

ii 

i 

/ 

United  States. 

PoreUpu 

AiKtralia 

Ft. 
3J 

3J 

Si 
3 

34 
3i 
3i 

3J 
3i 

? 

3§ 
3§ 

3i 
3i 
3J 
3i 

11 

3i 

3i 

31 
3J 

if 

3J 

Ft. 
6 

S 

6 
6 
6 

6 

6 
6 

6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

6 
-6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 
6 

6 

Ft. 
.... 

11 

11 
11 
11 
11 
11 

11 

.     ll' 

ii 
11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

n 

11 
11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

1 

s 

a 

1 
a 
S 

S 

1 

£3 

None. 

None. 
None. 

S; 

None 
None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 
None. 

None. 

'None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 

$50 

None. 
None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 
None. 

None. 

fSanFrancbco 

1  Sydney,  Melbourne.  Bris- 
bane,    Adelaide,    Perth, 

&istria,    bcluding     the    Austrian 

offices  In  the  Ottoman  Empire  at 

,    Alexandretta.      Beyrout,      Caifa 

'    Candia   Canea,    Ca valla,    Chios, 

Dardanelles,    Dedeagh,   Durazzo, 

Ineboli     Jaffa,      Janina,     Jeru- 

/New York 

J  Hobart.  Launeeton. 

salem,       Kerassonda,       Mersina, 

Mytilene,  Prevesa,  Retimo,  Rhodes. 
Salonica,  Samsoun,  San  Giovanni 
di     Meduai     Santi       Quaranta, 
Scutari  d'Albanie,  Smyrna,  Tre- 
bizond.  TripoU  .(Syria),  Valonia, 
Vathi  (Samos). 

do 

Nassau. 

♦Barbados 

do 

do 

■'New  York  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. 
New  York 

Bridgetown. 

Belgium                  

Antwerp: 

HamUton. 

Bolivia 

La  Paz. 

Braitt ■ 

Bahia.    Para,    Femam* 

British  Guiana 

All  offices  authorized  to 

two  countries. 
New  York.  San  Francisco 
All  offices  authorized  to 

two  countries. 

Do. 

New  York 

buc!>.  Rio  de  Janairo 
and  Sao  Paulo, 
exchange  mails  between  the 

Chile                           

Valparaiso. 

Colombia 

sxchange  malls  between  the 

Costa  Rica                                

*  Curacao  (mcludmg  Aruba,  Bonsure. 

Saba,  St.  Eustatins  and  the  Dutch 

part  of  St.  Martins). 
Danish  West  Indies  (St  Croix.  St 

John  and  St  Thomas).                  J 

WUhemstad. 

Do. 

(New  York 

. 

Denmark  Cmchiding  Faroe  Islands! 
and  Iceland).                               J 

Chicago 

Dominican  Republic              .  .  . 

New  York 

f  New  York 

Guayaquil. 

Ecuador 

^  New  Orleans 

1  San  Francisco 

New  York 

♦Erance  (excluding  Algeria  and  Corsica) 

New  York 

New  York 

1  Hamburg. 

Germany     (including     Cameroon, 
Togo,  German  East  Africa,  Ger- 

Chicago  

Boston 

man    South-west    Africa,      Pro- 

St Louis 

tectorate  of  Kiowchow  and  certain 

Philadelplua      

German  post  offices  in  China). 

Baltimore 

New  York 

' 

Chicago 

♦Great  BrIUIn,  Including  Ireland 

S(feiphfa"!:!:!:": 

London. 

St  Louis  . 

DubUnT 

Baltimore 

New  York         

Guatemala  City. 

niifttamftia 

NewOrleans 

Retalhuleu  and   Puerto 

Barrios. 

Guadeloupe  (including  Marie  (Jalan-l 
te.  Deseade,  Les  Sainte,  St  Bar- 
tholomew   and  the    IVench  por- 
tion of  St  Martins.) 

Haiti 

/  New  York 

^^Basse-Terre. 
Port  au  Prince. 

isTjipiR.-:::::. 

New  York 

Honduras  (British) 

NewOrleans 

Belize. 

New  York 

•  Teguclralpa. 
Puerto  Cortez. 

Honduras  (Republic  oO 

New  ffins... ..:::::: 

SanFnnciseo.... 

,  Trujlllor 

*  Parcels  cannot  be  rexlstered. 


344 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


COUNTRIES  TO  WHICH  PARCELS  MAY  BE  SENT ;  MAXIMUM  DIMENSIONS,  WEIGHT,  VALUE 
AND  RATES  OF  POSTAGE  APPLICABLE  TO  PARCELS;  AND  EXCHANGE  POST.  OFFICES 
WHICH  DISPATCH  AND  RECEIVE  PARCEL  POST  MAILS— Continued. 


Allowable  dimensions 
and  weight  of  parcels. 

1 

1 

i 

1 

Exchange  post  oflSces. 

Names  of  countries. 

1 
J 

lii 

ll 

i 

i 
1 

t 

1 
1 

United  States, 

Foreign. 

Hong-Kong.    See  section  107  below . . . 

Ft. 
3i 
31 

3i 

31 
31 

3i 
2 

3} 
3i 

31 
3§ 
3i 

3i 
31 
31 
3} 
31 

1 

31 

Ft. 
.6 
6 

6 

6 
6 

C 

6 
6 

6 
6 
6 

6 

e 

6 
6 
6 

6 
6 
6 

6 

Ft. 
4 

Lbs. 
11 

11 
11 

11 
11 

11 
t 

11 
11 
11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

11 
11 
11 

11 
11 
11 

11 

i 

8 

S 
a 
1 

o 

1 

a 

1 

None. 
None. 

None. 

None. 
None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 
None. 

None. 
None. 
None. 
None. 
None. 

None. 
None 

None. 

None. 
None. 
None. 

None. 

San  Francisco 

1  Seattle 

Hong-Kong. 

Tacoma  

New  York 

1  Flume. 

Italy,  (including  Rep.  of  San  Marino, 
Italian  Colonies   of  Benadir   and 
Erythrea,  and  the  Italian  offices  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire  at  Bengazi 
(North  Africa),  Diirazzo  (Albania). 
Galata  (Constantinople).  Jerusalem 
(Palestine),  Canca    (Crete).    Pcra 
(Constantinople),  Sabnica   (Rou- 
melia),     Scutari     (Asia     Minor), 
Smyrna  (Asia   Minor),  Stamboul 
(Constantinople),    Tripoli-in-Bar- 
bary,  Valona  (Albania). 

Jamaica,   Including  the  Turio  and 
Caicos  Islands.                               / 

(Philadelphia.. 

Chicnco 

Naples. 

New  York 

Boston 

[Boston 

{  Philadelphia 

Port  Antonio. 

Baltimore 

Japan,  Including  Formosa,  Karafuto  1 
(Japanese  Saehalien)  and  Korea.  [ 
See  section  107  below.                    J 

San  Francisco 

Yokohama. 
^Kobe. 
Nagasaki. 

Seattle 

Tacbma 

Honolulu. . .' • 

Leeward  Islands  (Antigua  with  Bar-  ] 
buda  and  Redonda,  St.  Kitts,  Nevis 
with  Anguilla   Dominica,  Montser- 
rat  and  the  Virgin  Islands).             J 

Mexico 

New  York 

f  St.  John. 
1  Antigua. 
xchange  mails  between  the 

1  Fort-de-France.. 
Rotterdam. 

All  offices  authorized  to  e 

two  countries, 
f  New  Yorii 

•Netherlands ■ 

\  San  Juan,  P.  R. 
New  York 

(New  York. 

Newfoundland 

Boston 

St.  John's. 

Philadelphia 

New  Zealand,  Including  Fanning  Island 

fSan  Francisco 

Auckland. 

Honolulu 

New  York 

Bluefields. 

Nicaragua 

New  Orleans 

San  Juan  del  Norte. 

Corinto. 

New  York 

Norway ; 

Boston 

Christianla. 

New  York 

Panama  (See  section  2) 

New  Orleans 

Colon,  Bocas  del  Torp. 

San  Francisco 

New  York 

Peru 

New  Orleans 

Lima. 

San  Francisco  .... 

Salvador. 

New  York 

San  Salvador. 

San  Francisco 

New  York 

Sweden 

Boston 

■  Malmo 

- 

Trinidad,  Including  Tobago 

New  York 

Port  of  Spain. 

New  York 

Windward  Islands  (Grenada,  St.  Vin-  \ 
cent,  the  Grenadines  and  St.  Lucia).  J 

two  countries, 
do. 

POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT. 


The  Postmaster  General  Is  the  executive  head 
of  the  Federal  postal  service.  He  appoints  all 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Post  OfQce  De- 
partment except  the  four  Assistant  Postmas- 
ters General  and  the  Purchasing  Agent,  who  are 
Presidential  appointees.  With  the  exception  of 
postmasters    of    the    first,    second,    and    third 


classes,  who  are  likewise  Presidential  appoint- 
ees, he  appoints  all  postmasters  and  all  other 
officers  and  employees^  of  the  service  at  large. 
Subject  to  the  approval  of  the  President,  he 
makes  postal  treaties  with  foreign  governments. 
He  awards  and  execute?  contracts  and  directs 
the  management  of  the  foreign  mall  service. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


345 


INTERNATIONAL  PARCELS  POST. 


Parcel  Post  Conventions  with  Argentine  Re- 
public, Cuba,  Portugal,  Russia,  Spain  and  the 
French  Colony  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  are 
pending,  with  prospect  of  an  early  and  suc- 
cessful   conclusion    of   the    negotiations. 

A  very  important  modification  of  the  service 
was  reached  by  agreement  with  the  Treasury 
Department  to  the  effect  that  the  value  limit 
for  the  contents  of  parcels  might  be  elimin- 
ated. Negotiations  were  at  once  underaken, 
with  the  result  that  there  is  now  no  value 
limit,    except   as   regards   Ecuador. 

We  now  have  conventions  with  forty-eight 
foreign  countries.  The  following  are  the  es- 
sential characteristics  of  the  service: 

Postage  rate,    uniform  at  12  cents  per  pound. 

Limit  of  weight,    uniform  at  11   pounds. 

Limit  of  value,  uniformly  none,  with  the 
single  exception   of  Ecuador,    $50. 

Limit  of  size,  uniform  at  3  feet  6  inches 
greatest  length;  6  feet  greatest  combined 
length    and    girth,    except    to    Mexico    and    Co- 


lumbia— 2  feet  greatest  length  and  4  feet 
greatest   girth. 

The  weight  of  the  parcel  post  mails  dis- 
patched from  the  United  States  during  the 
year  was  2,270,215  pounds,  an  increase  of  445,- 
592  pounds,  or  24.4  per  cent.  The  number  of 
parcels  dispatched  was  718,828,  of  an  average 
weight  of  3.15  pounds,  an  increase  In  number 
of  103,568,  or  16.8  per  cent.  The  weight  of 
the  parcel  post  mails  received  was  1,967,779 
pounds,  an  increase  of  287,055  pounds,  or  17 
per  cent.  The  number  of  parcels  received  was 
406,456,  of  an  average  weight  of  4.84  pounds, 
an  increase  in  number  of  47,237,  or  13.1  per 
cent. 

The  fact  that  the  percentages  of  increase  in 
the  number  of  parcels  and  in  total  weights 
are  greater  as  regards  the  parcels  sent  than  as 
regards  those  received  from  abroad  is  again 
gratifying,  and  indicates  the  steady  and  con- 
tinuous growth  of  the  service  as  an  advanta- 
geous means  of  increasing  the  country's  ex- 
ports. 


INFORMATION  FOR  SHIPPERS. 


Admissible  Articles.— Any  article  absolutely 
prohibited  admission  to  the  regular  mails  for 
any  country  is  also  inadmissible  to  Parcel  Post 
mails  for  that  country;  except  that  no  article 
is  excluded  from  Parcel  Post  mails  solely  be- 
cause it  is  dutiable  in  the  country  of  destina- 
tion. 

How  to  Mail  Parcels. — A  parcel  must  not 
be  posted  in  a  letter-box,  but  must  be  handed 
to  the  postmaster  or  other  official  in  charge 
of  the  post   office. 

Address,  etc. — Every  parcel  must  bear  a  com- 
plete and  legible  address,  not  written  in  pen- 
cil,   and   marked    conspicuously    "Parcel   Post." 

Packing. — Every  parcel  must  be  securely  and 
substantially  packed ;  but  in  such  a  way  that 
It  can  be  opened  without  damaging  its  cover, 
in  order  that  its  contents  may  be  easily  exam- 
ined  by   postmasters   and   customs   officials. 

Postage. — Postage  on  every  parcel  must  be 
fully  prepaid  at  the  rate  applicable  thereto  as 
indicated    in    the    tables    on    pages    343-344. 

Letters  Must  Not  Accompany  Parcels. — A 
communication  of  the  nature  of  personal  cor- 
respondence must  not  accompany  or  be  writ- 
ten on  any  parcel  (but  an  open  bill  or  invoice 
may  be  included).  If  such  written  matter  be 
found  it  will  be  placed  in  the  mails  if  sep- 
arable, and  if  inseparable  the  entire  parcel 
must   be    rejected. 

Separately  Addressed  Packages. — Parcels  must 
not  contain  packages  addressed  to  persons 
other  than  the  person  named  on  the  outside 
address  of  the  parcel  itself.  If  such  enclosed 
packages   be   detected   they   must   be  sent   for- 


ward singly  charged  with  new  and  distinct 
parcel    post    rates. 

No  Responsibility  for  Loss. — The  Department 
is  not  responsible  for  the  loss  of  or  damage 
to   any   parcel. 

Registration. — The  sender  of  a  parcel  ad- 
dressed to  any  of  the  places  indicated  in  the 
foregoing  table,  except  Barbados,  Dutch 
Guiana,  France,  Great  Britain,  Guadeloupe, 
Martinique,  The  Netherlands  and  Uruguay  may 
have  the  parcel  registered  by  paying  a  regis- 
tration fee  of  10  cents,  and  will  receive  the 
"return  receipt"  without  additional  charge 
therefor,  provided  he  demands  a  return  receipt 
when  he  mails  the  parcel. 

Undeliverable  Parcels  Returned  to  United 
States. — An  undeliverable  parcel  returned  to 
the  United  States,  uf)on  which  the  return 
postage  has  not  been  prepaid,  is  subject  on 
delivery  to  the  sender  to  a  postage  charge 
equal  to  the  amount  of  postage  originally  pre- 
paid on  the  parcel;  which  amount  should  be 
marked  on  the  parcel  by  the  United  States 
exchange  post  office  which  receives  it  back 
from  abroad,  and  collected  by  the  post  office 
which   delivers   it  to   the   sender. 

Customs  Declarations.— A  "customs  declara- 
tion" properly  filled  out  must  be  securely  at- 
tached to  every  parcel.  The  contents  must 
be  accurately  described.  General  terms  such 
as  "merchandise"  and  "samples"  will  not 
answer. 

Customs  Duties.— Customs  duties  cannot  be 
prepaid;  they  will  be  collected  of  addressees 
when    the   parcels    are    delivered. 


POSTAL  SAVINGS  SYSTEM. 


The  Third  Assistant  Postmaster  General,  as 
the  official  of  the  Post  Office  Department 
charged  with  the  general  supervision  of  the 
financial  operations  of  the  postal  service, 
supervises  the  conduct  of  postal  savings  busi- 
ness at  post  offices.  As  the  representative  of 
the   Board   of   Trustees   of   the   Postal    Savings 


System,  he  transacts  all  business  involving 
securities  and  the  investment  of  funds.  He 
conducts  all  correspondence  of  the  Postal  Sav- 
ings System  and  examines  the  accounts  of 
postmasters,  banks  and  other  financial  agents 
receiving  and   disbursing  funds. 


346 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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THE  WOOLWORTH  BUILDING. 
Highest  Office  Building  in  the  World.      51  stories;  750  feet  above  sidewalk  level. 


CHAPTER  XIII, 


PATENTS,  TRADE-MARKS,  AND 
COPYRIGHTS.* 

Revised  by  Loyd  H.  Sutton,  of  the  United  States  Patent  Ofice. 


GENERAL  INFORMATION  REGARDING  PATENTS. 


What  is  a  Patent? — The  term 
patent  or  letters  patent  is  derived  from 
Utterae  patentes,  signifying  that  which 
is  open  or  disclosed,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  lettre  de  cachet,  that  which 
is  sealed  or  secret.  This  term  is  the 
keynote  of  the  whole  principle  upon 
which  the  patent  system  is  built  up, 
namely,  disclosure.  The  disclosure 
must  be  honest,  absolute  and  unre- 
served. The  penalty  for  mental  crook- 
edness or  for  ignorance  in  giving  out 
fully  and  freely  the  nature  of  the  in- 
vention is  severe  and  direct,  and  is 
nothing  less  than  forfeiture  of  the  pat- 
ent itself.  The  reason  for  this  is  per- 
fectly logical  and  arises  from  the  very 
meaning,  spirit  and  nature  of  the  re- 
lationship existing  between  the  pat- 
entee and  the  government.  The  term 
of  a  patent  is  17  years.  During  this 
term  of  17  years  the  patentee  obtains 
a  monopoly  under  which  he  secures  ex- 
clusive right  of  manufacture,  use  and 
sale.  The  patent  itself,  however,  is  in 
the  nature  of  a  contract  between  the 
patentee  and  the  government,  presum- 
ably for  their  mutual  benefit.  The 
government  grants  to  the  inventor  the 
exclusive  right  of  manufacture  and 
sale  for  17  years  on  condition  that  the 
inventor  shall  disclose  fully  the  nature 
of  his  invention  or  discovery,  and  shall 
allow   the  public   the  unrestricted   use 


comes  public  property,  and  the  article 
may  be  freely  manufactured  by  any 
one.  It  can  never  thereafter,  as  in  so 
many  cases  in  the  Middle  Ages,  b^j- 
come  a  lost  art. 

Who  May  Obtain  a  Patent? — In 
order  to  secure  a  valid  patent,  the  ap- 
plicant must  declare  upon  oath  that  he 
believes  himself  to  be  the  original  and 
first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the  art, 
machine,  manufacture,  composition  or 
improvement  for  which  he  solicits  a 
patent ;  that  he  does  not  know  and 
does  not  believe  that  the  same  was 
ever  before  known  or  used ;  that  the 
invention  has  not  been  in  public  use  or 
on  sale  in  the  United  States  for  more 
than  two  years  before  the  application 
was  filed,  and  not  described  in  any 
printed  publication  or  patent  in.  this 
or  any  foreign  country  for  more  than 
two  years  prior  to  the  filing  of  his 
application ;  and  that  the  invention 
has  not  been  patented  to  himself  or 
to  others  with  his  knowledge  or  con- 
sent in  this  or  any  foreign  country 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his 
application,  or  on  an  application  for 
a  patent  filed  in  any  foreign  country 
by  himself  or  his  legal  representatives 
or  assigns  more  than  twelve  months 
prior  to  his  application.  Any  one 
who  can  subscribe  to  the  above  condi- 
tions   may    apply    for   a   patent,    irre- 


of  the  invention  after  this  term  has  spectiveof  race,  color,  age  or  nation 
expired.  If  he  fail  in  making  full  dis- 
closure, he  has  not  lived  up  to  the 
terms  of  the  implied  contract  and  the 
patent  thereby  becomes  null  and  void. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  an  inventor 
discloses  freely  part  of  the  invention, 
but  cunningly  conceals  some  essential 
step  in  the  process,  but  if  the  case  is 
tested  within  the  courts  and  the  real 
facts  are  brought  to  light,  the  patent 
will  be  declared  invalid.  At  the  end 
of  the  term  of  17  years  the  patent  be- 


ality.  Minors  and  women  and  even 
convicts  may  apply  for  patents  under 
our  law.  The  rights  even  of  a  dead 
man  in  an  invention  are  not  lost,  for 
an  application  may  be  filed  in  his 
name  by  his  executor  or  administrator, 
and  the  rights  of  his  heirs  thereby 
safeguarded.  The  patent  in  this  case 
would  issue  to  the  executor  or  ad- 
ministrator and  would  become  subject 
to  the  administration  of  the  estate  like 
any    other    property    left    by    the    de- 


»  Compiled  originally  for  Munn  &  Co.,  Patent  Attorneys. 
351 


352 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ceased.  Even  the  rights  of  an  insane 
person  may  not  be  lost,  as  the  appli- 
cation may  be  filed  by  his  legal  guar- 
dian. If  foreign  patents  for  the  same 
invention  have  been  previously  issued, 
having  been  filed  more  than  twelve 
months  before  the  filing  of  the  United 
States  application,  the  patent  will  be 
refused.  The  applicant  must  state  his 
nationality.  It  often  happens  that  two 
or  more  individuals  have  jointly 
Vv^orked  upon  the  invention,  and  in  this 
case  the  several  inventors  should  joint- 
ly apply  for  the  patent.  Should  they 
not  so  apply,  the  patent  when  issued 
will  be  invalid.  If  they  are  merely 
partners,  however,  and  not  co-invent- 
ors, they  should  njot  apply  jointly  for 
a  patent,  as  the  inventor  alone  is  en- 
titled to  file  the  application.  He  may, 
however,  assign  a  share  in  the  patent 
to  his  partner,  coupled  with  the  re- 
quest that  the  patent  should  issue  to 
them  jointly.  It  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance that  these  distinctions  should 
be  clearly  understood ;  otherwise,  the 
patent  may  be  rendered  invalid. 

What  May  be  Patented? — Any 
new  and  useful  art,  machine,  manufac- 
ture or  composition  of  matter,  or  any 
new  and  useful  improvements  thereon. 
The  thing  invented  must  be  new  and 
useful.  These  are  conditions  precedent 
to  the  granting  of  a  patent.  Of  these 
two  conditions  by  far  the  more  impor- 
tant is  the  former,  and  it  is  concerning 
the  interpretation  of  this  word  "new" 
and  its  bearing  upon  the  invention 
that  the  principal  work  and  labor  in- 
volved in  passing  an  application  safely 
through  the  Patent  Office  is  involved. 
When  the  invention  has  been  worked 
out  by  the  inventor  and  he  is  pre- 
pared to  file  his  application,  he  or  his 
attorney  prepares  the  necessary  papers 
as  provided  for  by  law,  namely :  An 
Oath,  a  Petition,  a  Specification  con- 
sisting of  a  description  of  the  inven- 
tion and  concludng  with  claims  which 
specifically  set  forth  what  the  inventor 
claims  to  be  the  novel  features  of  the 
invention,  and  drawings  which  are  pre- 
pared and  filed  with  the  case,  and  in 
due  course  the  application  is  ready 
for  examination  in  the  Patent  Office. 
The  question  of  whether  the  invention 
is  neiv  is  then  considered.  The  exam- 
ination consists  in  searching  through 
the  files  of  the  Patent  Office  among 
the  patents  that  have  been  already 
issued,  and  through  such  literature  as 
may  bear  upon  the  subject.  The  ques- 
tion of  whether  an  invention  is  new  is 


one  of  fact,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  upon  the  showing  that 
the  inventor  is  able  to  make  during 
the  prosecution  of  the  case,  depends 
largely  the  future  success  of  the  pat- 
ent. The  evidence  adduced  in  proving 
that  the  invention  is  not  new  must  be 
tangible  and  accessible.  A  patent 
would  not  be  refused  or  overturned  on 
a  mere  mental  concept.  There  must 
be  some  evidence  of  a  substantial  char- 
acter that  serves  to  show  that  the 
earlier  idea  was  reduced  to  practice 
or  at  least  that  there  was  such  a  de- 
scription or  drawing  made  as  would 
be  sufficient  for  one  skilled  in  the  art 
to  reduce  the  invention  to  practice. 
If  it  has  not  been  actually  reduced  to 
practice,  it  must  be  a  concrete,  not  an 
abstract,  idea. 

It  is  essential  that  the  application 
for  a  patent  should  be  filed  before  the 
invention  has  been  in  public  use  or  on 
sale  for  a  period  of  two  years.  If  the 
inventor  has  publicly  used  or  sold  his 
invention  for  a  period  of  two  years  it 
becomes  public  property  and  he  cannot 
regain  the  right  to  obtain  a  patent. 
He  may,  however,  make  models  and 
experiment  with  his  invention  for  a 
much  longer  period,  provided  he  does 
not  disclose  his  invention  to  the  public 
or  put  it  into  actual  use  or  on  sale 
for  a  period  of  two  years.  The  word 
"useful"  is  not  one  which  usually 
'gives  either  the  Patent  Office  or  the 
inventor  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  as 
any  degree  of  utility,  however  insignifi- 
cant, will  serve  to  entitle  the  inventor 
to  a  patent.  It  has  often  happened 
that  an  invention  which  appears,  at 
the  time  the  patent  is  applied  for,  to 
have  no  special  utility,  in  later  years, 
owing  to  new  discoveries  or  improve- 
ments in  the  arts,  is  found  to  possess 
the  greatest  merit  and  value.  Unless 
an  invention  is  positively  meretricious, 
therefore,  it  is  difficult  to  assume  that 
it  either  has  no  utility  or  never  will 
have  any.  Patents  are  granted  for 
"any  new  and  useful  art,  machine, 
manufacture  or  composition  of  matter, 
or  any  improvement  thereon."  It  is 
seen  from  the  terms  of  the  statute 
that  almost  any  creature  of  the  inven- 
tive faculty  of  man  becomes  a  proper 
subject  for  a  patent.  The  exceptions 
are  very  few.  Patents  will  not  be 
granted,  for  example,  for  any  inven- 
tion that  offends  the  law  of  nature. 
Under  this  category  may  be  mentioned 
perpetual  motion  machines.  Inven- 
tions of  an  immoral  nature  will  not  be 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


353 


considered.  Medicines  and  specifics 
are  not  now  proper  subjects  for  letters 
patent,  unless  some  important  new  dis- 
covery is  involved. 

Abandoned  Applications. — While 
abandonment  may  arise  in  different 
ways,  its  most  frequent  occurrence  re- 
sults from  a  failure  to  properly  pros- 
ecute the  application.  An  applicant 
is  given  one  year  by  the  statute  in 
which  to  respond  to  an  action  on  his 
application  by  the  Patent  Office.  This 
period  of  one  year  runs  from  the  day 
on  which  the  letter  from  the  Office  is 
dated.  If  the  last  day  of  the  year 
falls  on  Sunday  the  applicant's  response 
must  be  in  the  Patent  Office  on  the 
preceding  day,  i.  e.,  Saturday.  Where 
an  applicant  waits  until  the  close  of 
the  year  before  acting  on  his  case  he 
does  so  at  considerable  risk,  and  if  his 
response  fails  to  arrive  at  the  Office 
by  the  last  day  of  the  year  little 
leniency  will  be  shown  him  in  re- 
viving the  case  except  upon  a  showing 
of  good  and  sufficient  cause.  Not  only 
must  the  applicant's  response  come 
within  the  year,  but  it  must  be  fully 
responsive  to  the  last  action  by  the  Of- 
fice. In  other  words,  his  action  on  the 
application  must  be  all  that  the  state 
of  the  case  requires  as  shown  by  the 
last  Office  letter.  An  abandoned  appli- 
cation may  be  revived  upon  petition  to 
the  Commissioner  if  the  applicant  can 
show  that  the  delay  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  case  was  unavoidable. 

Appeals. — If  an  application  for  a 
patent  has  been  twice  rejected,  the  ap- 
plicant may  appear  from  the  Primary 
Examiner  to  the  Board  of  Examiners- 
in-Chief.  He  may  further  carry  the 
appeal  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
and  in  case  he  is  not  satisfied  with  the 
latter's  decision  he  may  carry  the  ap- 
peal finally  to  the  Court  of  Appeals  of 
the  District  of  Columbia. 

Interference. — If  two  or  more  in- 
dividuals have  made  inventions  which 
can  be  expressed  by  the  same  claim  or 
claims,  which  must  be  patentable,  in- 
terference proceedings  may  be  insti- 
tuted to  determine  which  applicant  is 
the  original  or  first  inventor.  Inter- 
ference proceedings  are  instituted  be- 
tween applicants  whose  applications 
are  pending  or  between  a  pending  ap- 
plication and  a  patent  already  issued, 
provided  the  latter  patent  has  not  been 
issued  for  more  than  two  years  prior 
to  the  filing  of  the  conflicting  applica- 
tion. The  proceedings  are  conducted 
before  the  Examiner  of  Interferences. 


Appeal  may  be  taken  from  the  Exam- 
iner of  Interferences  to  the  Board  of 
Examiners-in-Chief,  and  from  the 
Board  of  Examiners-in-Chief  to  the 
Commissioner,  and  thence  to  the  Court 
of  Appeals  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia. Not  all  the  claims  for  a  patent 
are  necessarily  involved,  but  only  such 
as  cover  the  particular  feature  of  the 
invention  which  is  declared  to  be  in 
interference.  The  unsuccessful  appli- 
cant by  eliminating  the  claim  or 
claims  in  controversy  and  all  other 
claims  readable  upon  the  disclosure  of 
the  successful  applicant,  may  procure 
allowance  of  other  claims  in  his  appli- 
cation. The  disclosure  of  the  success- 
ful party  virtually  becomes  a  part  of 
the  prior  art  and  in  the  further  pros- 
ecution of  the  case  it  will  be  so  treat- 
ed. In  determining  the  question  of 
priority  of  invention  witnesses  are  ex- 
amined and  the  proceedings  are  con- 
ducted much  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  a  suit  at  law.  The  first  step  in  the 
proceeding  consists  in  filing  with  the 
Commissioner  a  preliminary  state- 
ment made  under  oath,  giving  the  date 
at  which  the  invention  was  first  con- 
ceived and  reduced  to  some  tangible 
form,  such  as  the  making  of  drawings, 
the  construction  of  a  model,  or  the 
disclosing  of  the  invention  to  another. 
The  object  of  the  subsequent  examina- 
tion and  cross-examination  is  to  sub- 
stantiate the  date  of  invention  as 
claimed  by  the  applicants  respectively, 
and  to  establish  the  priority  of  inven- 
tion. 

Reissues. — A  reissue  is  granted  to 
the  original  patentee,  his  legal  repre- 
sentative or  the  assignees  of  the  entire 
interest,  when  the  original  patent  is 
inoperative  or  invalid  by  reason  of  a 
defective  or  insufficient  specification, 
or  by  reason  of  the  patentee  claiming 
as  his  invention  or  discovery  more 
than  he  had  a  right  to  claim  as  new, 
provided  the  error  has  arisen  through 
inadvertence,  accident  or  mistake,  and 
without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive 
intention.  The  reissue  application 
must  be  made  and  the  specification 
sworn  to  by  the  inventor  or  inventors 
if  he  or  they  be  living.  What  is  in- 
advertence, accident  or  mistake  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  litigation  and 
as  a  general  rule  the  courts  require 
a  clear  showing  of  such.  No  new 
matter  can  be  introduced  into  the  re- 
issue application,  but  its  subject  mat- 
ter must  be  capable  of  being  found 
within  the  four  corners  of  the  original 


554 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


application.  As  two  years'  publication 
of  the  subject  matter  of  an  invention 
is  a  bar  to  the  issue  of  a  patent,  the 
courts  as  a  general  rule  will  not  sus- 
tain a  reissue  patent  the  claims  of 
which  are  broader  than  those  of  the 
original  patent  where  the  reissue  ap- 
plication is  filed  more  than  two  years 
after  the  grant  of  the  original  patent. 
The  original  patent  must  be  surren- 
dered when  a  reissue  application  is 
made.  The  reissue  patent  is  good 
only  for  the  unexpired  term  of  the 
original  patent. 

Patented  Articles  Must  be 
Marked. — Articles  manufactured  and 
sold  under  a  patent  must  be  so  marked 
that  the  public  shall  have  notice  that 
the  article  is  a  patented  one.  This 
notice  consists  of  the  word  "Patented," 
together  with  the  date  when  the  patent 
was  issued.  Damages  cannot  be  re- 
covered in  an  infringement  suit  unless 
the  patented  articles  are  so  marked  or 
it  be  shown  that  the  defendant  was 
duly  notified  of  his  infringement,  but 
continued  after  such  notice  to  in- 
fringe. 

Infringement. — In  case  of  an  ac- 
tion for  the  infringement  of  a  patent, 
the  importance  of  the  question  of  nov- 
elty appears  from  the  special  pleadings 
which  the  defendant  may  enter,  which 
are  as  follows : 

1.  That  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving 
the  public  the  description  and  specifi- 
cation filed  by  the  patentee  in  the  Pat- 
ent Office  was  made  to  contain  less 
than  the  whole  truth  relative  to  his 
invention  or  discovery,  or  more  than  is 
necessary  to  produce  the  desired  ef- 
fect; or, 

2.  That  he  had  surreptitiously  or 
unjustly  obtained  the  patent  for  that 
which  was  in  fact  invented  by  another, 
who  was  using  reasonable  diligence  in 
adapting  and  perfecting  the  same ;  or, 

3.  That  it  had  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed in  some  printed  publication 
prior  to  his  supposed  invention  or  dis- 
covery thereof ;  or, 

4.  That  he  was  not  the  original  and 
first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  any 
material  and  substantial  part  of  the 
thing  patented  ;  or, 

5.  That  it  has  been  in  public  use  or 
on  sale  in  this  country  for  more  than 
two  years  before  his  application  for 
a  patent,  or  had  been  abandoned  to 
the  public. 

Damages  for  infringement  of  a  pat- 
ent may  be  recovered  at  law  by  action 
on  the  case,  or  in  equity  by  bill,  in 


the  name  of  the  patentee  or  his  as- 
signee. The  courts  having  jurisdic- 
tion over  such  cases  have  the  power 
(1)  to  grant  injunctions  against  the 
violation  of  any  right  secured  by  the 
patent;  (2)  to  allow  the  recovery  of 
damages  sustained  by  the  complainant 
through  such  infringement,  or  the 
profits  obtained  by  the  infringer  aris- 
ing from  such  infringement.  The  de- 
fendant may  be  compelled  to  furnish 
an  accounting  showing  the  amount  of 
the  articles  manufactured  and  sold  and 
the  profits  derived  from  such  sale. 

Design  Patents. — Design  patents 
are  issued  for  any  new  or  original  de- 
sign, whether  it  be  a  work  of  art, 
statue,  bas-relief,  design  for  prints  or 
fabrics,  or  for  any  new  design  or 
shape  or  ornament  in  any  article  of 
manufacture.  The  scope  of  the  de- 
sign patent  was  formerly  very  broad, 
but  recent  decisions  and  enactments 
have  greatly  restricted  its  availability 
and  a  design  patent  cannot  now  be  ob- 
tained unless  it  possesses  some  inher- 
ent artistic  quality.  Mere  utility  is 
not  sufficient  to  entitle  a  new  design 
to  letters  patent.  The  terms  of  design 
patents  are  31/^,  7  or  14  years. 

Assignments. — A  patent  or  any  in- 
terest therein  may  be  sold  or  assigned 
like  any  other  piece  of  property.  An 
inventor  may  sell  or  assign  his  in- 
terest or  a  part  interest  in  his  inven- 
tion, either  before  the  application  is 
filed  or  while  the  application  is  still 
pending.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  patent  may  be  issued  to  the  as- 
signee or  to  the  inventor  and  assignee 
jointly.  The  patent,  if  already  issued, 
may  be  assigned  by  the  owner  whether 
he  be  the  inventor  or  assignee.  The 
conveyance  is  effected  by  an  instru- 
ment in  writing  stating  the  conditions 
under  which  the  patent  is  assigned, 
and  the  assignment  should  be  recorded 
in  the  Patent  Office  to  protect  the  as- 
signee, as  the  assignment  is  void  as 
against  any  subsequent  purchase  or 
mortgagee  for  a  valuable  consideration 
u^ess  it  is  recorded  in  the  Patent 
Office  within  three  months  from  the 
date  thereof. 

(Note:  The  provisions  of  the  Pat- 
ent Statutes  relating  to  the  filing  of 
caveats  were  repealed  by  Act  of  July 
1,  1910.) 

The  stamp  "Patent  Applied  For"  or 
"Patent  Pending"  simply  means  that  an 
application  for  patent  has  been  filed  in  the 
Patent  Office.  Action  against  infringers  can- 
not be  taken  until  the  patent  actually  issues. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


355 


MATERIAL  FOR  FIGURES  SHOWING  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  PATENTS 
TO  DECEMBER  31,  1911. 


Issued 

During 

Year. 

109 


1837 

436 

515 

404 

458 

490 

488 

494 

1844 

478 

475 

1846 

495 

584 

1849 

988 

1850 

884 

1851 

757 

1852 

890 

1853 

846 

1854 

1,759 

1855 

1,892 

1856 

2,315 

1857 

2,686 

1858 

3,467 

1859 

4,165 

1860 

4,363 

1861 

3, 040 

1862          

3,221 

1863 

3,781 

1864 

4  638 

1865             . .  . 

6,099 

1866 

8  874 

1867 12  301 

1868  12  544 

1869  12  957 

1870   

12  157 

1871 

11  687 

1872     

12  200 

1873  .   .  . 

....     .   .  .  11  616 

1874 

....     .       12  230 

1875 

13  291 

1876 

14  172 

1877 

12  920 

1878    

12  345 

1879   

12  133 

1880 

12  926 

1881 

15  548 

1882 

18,135 

Issued 

During 

Year. 

1883 21, 196 

1884 : 19, 147 

1885 23, 331 

1886 21, 797 


1887. 


20,429 
19,585 
23,360 
25,322 
22,328 
22,661 
22,768 


1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 19, 875 

1895 20, 883 

1896 21,867 

1897 22,098 

1898 20,404 

1899 23, 296 

1900 24,660 

1901 25, 558 

1902 27, 136 

1903 31, 046 

1904 30, 267 

1905 29, 784 

1906 31, 181 

1907 35,880 

1908 32, 757 

1909 36, 574 

1910 35, 168 

1911 32,917 

United    States 1,023,051 

FraHce    456,644 

Great    Britain 443,035 

Germany    259,634 

Belgium     248,200 


Canada 

Italy    and    Sardinia. 

Austria-Hungary     .. 

Austria    

Switzerland      

Hungary    

Spain      

Sweden   

Russia     

Norway. 

Denmark    

Japan     


141,406 
106,902 
82,933 
70,463 
53,449 
50,474 
46,915 
35,325 
26,917 
23,856 
23,023 
21, 191 


THE  UNITED  STATES  PATENT  SYSTEM. 


The  fundamental  principles  upon 
which  the  present  commercial  suprem- 
acy of  the  United  States  is  based  can 
be  found  in  three  provisions  of  the 
Constitution :  First,  the  granting  of 
free  speech ;  second,  the  offer  of  re- 
muneration for  the  use  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  brain  by  providing  a  lim- 
ited period  during  which  a  man  shall 
enjoys  the  fruits  of  his  efforts ;  and 
third,  the  protection  of  personal  prop- 
erty by  the  provision  that  no  person 
shall  be  deprived  of  his  property  with- 
out due  process  of  law. 

The  Constitutional  provision  men- 
tioned as  second  is  as  follows :  "The 
Congress  shall  have  power  *  *  *  to 
promote  the  progress  of  Science  and 
Useful    Arts    by    securing    for    limited 


Times  to  Authors  and  Inventors,  the 
exclusive  Right  to  their  respective 
Writings  and  Discoveries." 

Upon  this  foundation  stands  the 
United  States  Patent  Ofl5ce,  established 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  in- 
tentions of  the  framers  of  the  Consti- 
tution and  developed  far  beyond  their 
fondest  dreams,  by  American  ingenuity 
and  perseverance. 

The  value  of  our  patent  system  is 
eloquently  outlined  by  Senator  Piatt, 
of  Connecticut.  In  speaking  on  a  bill 
for  the  reorganization  of  the  Patent 
Office,  he  said : 

"To  my  mind,  the  passage  of  the  act  of 
1836  creating  the  Patent  Office  marks  the 
most  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  our 
development — I    think   the   most   important 


856 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


event  in  the  history  of  our  Government  from 
the  Constitution  until  the  Civil  War.  The  es- 
tablishment of  the  Patent  Office  marked  the 
commencement  of  that  marvelous  develoiJ- 
ment  of  the  resources  of  the  coimtry  which  is 
the  admiration  and  wonder  of  the  world,  a 
development  which  challenges  all  history  for 
a  parallel;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
this  unexampled  progress  has  been  not  only 
dependent  upon,  but  has  been  coincident  with, 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  patent 
system  of  this  country.  Words  fail  in  attempt- 
ing to  portray  the  advancement  of  this  country 
for  the  last  fifty  years.  We  have  had  fifty 
years  of  progress,  fifty  years  of  inventions  ap- 
plied to  the  every -day  wants  of  life,  fifty  years 
of  patent  encouragement,  and  fifty  years 
of  a  development  in  wealth,  resources,  grand- 
eur, culture,  power,  which  is  little  short  of 
miraculous.  Population,  production,  business, 
wealth,  comfort,  culture,  power,  grandeur, 
these  have  all  kept  step  with  the  expansion  of 
the  inventive  genius  of  the  country;  and  this 
progress  has  been  made  possible  only  by  the 
inventions  of  its  citizens.  All  history  confirms 
us  in  the  conclusion  that  it  is  the  development 
by  the  mechanical  arts  of  the  industries  of  a 
country  which  brings  to  it  greatness  and  power 
and  glory.  No  purely  agricultural,  pastoral 
people  ever  achieved  any  high  standing  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  It  is  only  when  the 
brain  evolves  and  the  cunning  hand  fashions 
labor-saying  machines  that  a  nation  begins  to 
throb  with  new  energy  and  life  and  expands 
with  a  new  growth.  It  is  only  when  thought 
wrings  from  nature  her  untold  secret  treasures 
that  solid  wealth  and  strength  are  acciunu- 
lated  by  a  people." 

When  the  Japanese  Government  was  con- 
sidering the  establishment  of  a  patent  system, 
they  sent  a  commissioner  to  the  United  States 
and  he  spent  several  months  in  Washington, 
every  facility  being  given  him  by  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents.  One  of  the  examiners  said: 
"I  would  like  to  know  why  it  is  that  the 
people  of  Japan  desire  to  have  a  patent 
system." 

"I  will  tell  you,"  said  Mr.  Takahashi. 
"  You  know  it  is  only  since  Commodore  Perry, 
in  1854,  opened  the  ports  of  Japan  to  foreign 
commerce  that  the  Japanese  have  been  trying 
to  become  a  great  nation,  like  other  nations 
of  the  earth,  and  we  have  looked  about  us  to 
see  what  nations  are  the  greatest,  so  that  we 
could  be  like  them;  and  we  said,  'There  is  the 
United  States,  not  much  more  than  a  hvmdred 
years  old,  and  America  was  not  discovered  by 
Columbus  yet  four  hundred  years  ago';  and 
we  said,  'What  is  it  that  makes  the  United 
States  such  a  great  nation?'  And  we  investi- 
gated and  found  it  was  patents,  and  we  will 
have  patents." 

The  examiner,  in  reporting  this  interview, 
added:  "Not  in  all  history  is  there  an  instance 
of  such  unbiased  testimony  to  the  value  and 
worth  of  the  patent  system  as  practiced  in  the 
United  States." 

The  demonstration  thus  given  the  commer- 
cial world  during  the  last  three-quarters  of  a 
century  of  the  effect  of  beneficent  patent  laws 
has  led  to  their  modification  in  all  the  chief 
industrial  countries,  and  the  salient  feature  of 
our  system — a  preliminary  examination  as  to 
novelty  and  patentability  prior  to  the  grant 
of  a  patent — has  in  late  years  been  incorpor- 
ated into  the  patent  systems  of  many  foreign 
countries. 


The  theory  of  patents  is  essentially 
based  on  the  principle  of  monopoly. 
Hence  we  have  the  nature  and  scope 
of  patents  changing  through  the  cen- 
turies with  the  change  in  the  concep- 
tion of  the  rights  of  the  people.  In 
its  origin  the  patent  was  a  royal  grant 
of  special  privilege  to  a  favored  sub- 
ject in  the  form  of  a  private  monopoly. 
Political  evolution  has  restricted  it  to 
a  grant  for  a  limited  number  of  years 
of  an  exclusive  right  to  make,  use  and 
vend  that  which  is  the  product  of  the 
inventor's  brain.  The  discoverer  of 
new  products  in  the  arts,  and  the  in- 
ventor of  new  processes  or  machines  or 
improvements  in  machines,  adds  to 
the  public  wealth  and  is  entitled  to 
a  protection  in  their  enjoyment  as  a 
recompense.  The  knowledge  of  this 
protection  acts  also  as  a  stimulus  to 
endeavor.  Therefore  all  civilized  na- 
tions to-day  recognize  and  protect  the 
inventor's  rights. 

A  few  patents  for  inventions  were 
granted  by  the  provincial  governments 
of  the  American  colonies  and  by  the 
legislatures  of  the  States,  prior  to  the 
adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
On  the  5th  of  September,  1787,  it  was 
proposed  to  incorporate  in  a  consti- 
tution a  patent  and  copyright  clause. 
The  germinating  principle  of  this 
clause  of  the  Constitution  has  vitalized 
the  nation,  expanded  its  powers  be- 
yond the  wildest  dreams  of  its  fathers, 
and  from  it  more  than  from  any  other 
cause,  has  grown  the  magnificent  man- 
ufacturing and  industrial  development 
which  we  to-day  present  to  the  world. 

President  Washington  realized  the 
importance  of  formulating  a  law  to 
stimulate  inventions,  and  in  his  first 
annual  message  to  Congress,  in  1790, 
said : 

"I  can  not  forbear  intimating  to 
you  the  expediency  of  giving  effectual 
encouragement  as  well  to  the  intro- 
duction of  new  and  useful  inventions 
from  abroad  as  to  the  exertion  of  skill 
and  genius  in  producing  them  at 
home." 

Congress  was  quick  to  act,  and  on 
April  10,  1790,  the  first  law  upon  the 
subject  was  enacted.  It  constituted 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary 
of  War,  and  the  Attorney-General  a 
board  to  consider  all  applications  for 
patents.  Owing  to  the  fires  that  have 
destroyed  the  early  records  of  the 
Patent  Office,  some  question  has  arisen 
as  to  the  number  of  patents  issued 
under  this  act ;  but  from  the  best  in- 
formation  obtainable,    the   number   is 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


357 


placed  at  fifty-seven.  The  first  patent 
issued  was  to  Samuel  Hopkins,  July 
31,  1790,  for  making  pot  and  pearl 
ashes. 

The  archives  of  the  department  show 
that  the  issuance  of  a  patent  in  those 
days  was  a  state  occasion.  The  Presi- 
dent and  cabinet  met  in  solemn  con- 
clave and,  after  having  deliberated 
upon  whether  it  was  proper  for  the 
inventor  to  have  the  sole  right  to  the 
manufacture  of  the  child  of  his  brain, 
presented  him  with  the  papers  be- 
stowing this  privilege  upon  him.  Hop- 
kins was  warmly  congratulated  by 
President  Washington  and  the  event 
was  recorded  in  all  the  diaries  of  those 
present. 

At  this  period  the  clerical  part  of  the  work 
preparatory  to  the  issuance  of  a  patent  was 
performed  in  the  State  Department.  It  would 
be  interesting  to  see  Thomas  .Jefferson,  the 
Secretary  of  War,  and  the  Attorney-General, 
critically  examining  the  application  and  scru- 
tinizing each  point  carefully  and  rigorously. 
The  first  year  the  majority  of  the  applications 
failed  to  pass  the  ordeal,  and  only  three  pat- 
ents were  granted.  In  those  days  every  step 
in  the  issuing  of  a  patent  was  taken  with  great 
care  and  caution.  Mr.  Jefferson  always  seeking 
to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  his  officers  and 
the  public  that  the  granting  of  a  patent  was  a 
matter  of  no  ordinary  importance. 

The  act  of  1793  superseded  the  act  of  1790, 
and  remained  in  force  as  amended  from  time 
to  time  until  the  act  of  1836  was  passed.  The 
act  of  1793  was  the  only  act  ever  passed  in 
this  country  which  provided  for  the  issuance 
of  Letters  Patent  without  the  requirement  of 
an  examination  into  the  novelty  and  utility  of 
the  invention  for  which  the  patent  was  sought. 
The  act  of  1836,  with  modifications,  re- 
mained in  force  until  the  revision  of  the  patent 
laws  in  1870.  This  revision  was  largely  a  con- 
solidation of  the  statutes  then  in  force. 

Under  the  revision  of  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States  in  1874  the  act  of  1870  was 
repealed;  but  the  revision  substantially  re- 
enacted  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  1870. 

Under  the  acts  of  1790  and  1793  Letters 
Patent  were  granted  for  a  term  of  fourteen 
years.  There  was  no  provision  for  extension; 
but  while  the  act  of  1793  was  in  force  Congress 
extended  some  thirteen  patents. 

The  act  of  1836  provided  that  Letters  Pat- 
ent should  be  granted  for  a  term  of  fourteen 
years,  and  provision  was  made  for  an  exten- 
sion for  a  term  of  seven  years  upon  due  appli- 
cation and  upon  a  proper  showing.  Until  1848 
petitions  for  extensions  were  passed  upon  by 
a  board  consisting  of  the  Secretary  of  State, 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  the  Solicitor 
of  the  Treasury.  After  that  time  power  was 
vested  solely  in  the  Commissioner  of  Patents. 
The  patent  act  of  March  2,  1861  (section  16), 
provided  that  all  patents  thereafter  granted 
should  remain  in  force  for  a  term  of  seventeen 
years  from  the  date  of  issue,  and  the  extension 
of  such  patents  was  prohibited. 

The  consolidated  patent  act  of  1870,  while 
providing  that  patents  should  be  granted  for 
a  term  of  seventeen  years,  also  provided  that 


patents  granted  prior  to  March  2,  1861,  might, 
upon  due  application  and  a  proper  showing, 
be  extended  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
for  a  term  of  seven  years  from  the  expiration 
of  the  first  term. 

By  the  revision  of  the  patent  laws  in  1874 
the  prohibition  against  the  extension  of  pat- 
ents was  dropped,  and  since  that  time  Con- 
gress has  had  the  power  to  extend  Letters 
Patent.  Congress  extended  five  patents  grant- 
ed under  the  act  of  1836,  and  in  nine  instances 
authorized  patentees  to  apply  to  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents  for  extension  of  their  patents. 
So  far  as  one  has  been  able  to  discover,  no 
patent  granted  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years 
has  been  extended  by  Congress. 

It  was  not  until  1842  that  the  statute  was 
passed  authorizing  the  grant  of  patents  for 
designs.  Under  that  act  design  patents  were 
granted  for  seven  years.  Subsequently  provi- 
sions were  made  for  granting  them  for  terms  of 
three  and  one-half,  seven,  and  fourteen 
years,  at  the  election  of  the  applicant. 

By  the  act  of  March  2,  1861,  the  Board  of 
Examiners-in-Chief  was  established.  Prior  to 
that  time,  and  during  the  incumbency  of  Com- 
missioner Holt,  temporary  boards  oi  examin- 
ers to  decide  appeals  had  been  appointed  by 
him,  and  later  on  he  created  a  permanent 
board  of  three  examiners  who  were  to  decide 
on  appeal  rejected  cases  and  submit  their  de- 
cisions to  him  for  approval. 

The  act  of  1870  made  the  first  provision  for 
an  Assistant  Commissioner  and  an  Examiner 
of  Interferences.  Another  provision  in  that  act 
was  the  power  given  the  Commissioner,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  to  establish  regulations  for  the  con- 
duct of  proceedings  in  the  Office. 

On  January  1,  1898,  an  act  passed  March  3, 
1897,  went  into  force.  Some  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act  were  that  applications  for  patents 
should  be  completed  and  prepared  for  exami- 
nation within  one  year  after  the  filing  of  the 
application  and  that  the  applicant  should 
prosecute  the  same  within  one  year  after  an 
action  thereon  or  it  should  be  regarded  as 
abandoned  (prior  to  that  time  two  years  was 
the  limit) ;  that  an  inventor  should  be  debarred 
from  receiving  a  patent  if  his  invention  had 
been  first  patented  by  him  or  his  legal  repre- 
sentatives or  assigns  in  a  foreign  country,  pro- 
vided the  application  for  the  foreign  patent 
had  been  filed  more  than  seven  months  (made 
twelve  months  by  Act  of  March  3,  1897),  prior 
to  the  filing  of  the  application  in  this  country; 
and  that  if  the  invention  for  which  a  patent 
was  applied  for  had  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or 
any  foreign  country  for  more  than  two  vears 
prior  to  the  application  a  patent  could  not 
issue. 

The  first  provision  for  affording  accommo- 
dations for  the  Patent  Office  was  in  1810,  when 
Congress  authorized  the  purchase  of  a  building 
for  the  General  Post-office  and  for  the  office  oi 
the  Keeper  of  Patents.  The  building  purchased 
was  known  as  "Blodgett's  Hotel,"  and  stood 
on  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  south  front 
of  the  building  until  recently  occupied  by  the 
Post-office  Department,  and  now  used  by  sev- 
eral bureaus  of  the  Interior  Department.  The 
east  end  of  this  building  was  used  for  the  rec- 
ords, models,  etc.,  of  the  Patent  Office.  This 
building  was  destroyed  by  fire  December  13, 
1836.    On  July  4,  1836,  an  act  was  passed  ap- 


!58 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


propnatmg  8108,000  for  the  erection  of  a  suit- 
able building  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
Patent  Office,  and  within  that  month  the 
erection  of  the  building  was  begun. 

It  was  the  present  south  front  of  the  Patent 
Office,  excluding  the  south  ends  of  the  east 
and  west  wings.  The  basement  (which  is 
now  the  first  or  ground  floor)  was  to  be  used 
for  storage  and  analogous  purposes,  the  first 
or  portico  floor  for  office  rooms,  and  the  second 
floor  was  to  be  one  large  hall  with  galleries  on 
either  side,  and  to  have  a  vaulted  roof.  This 
hall  was  to  be  used  for  exhibition  purposes, 
for  the  display  of  models  of  patented  and  un- 
patented inventions,  and  also  as  a  national 
gallery  of  the  industrial  arts  and  manufactures. 
During  the  erection  of  the  Patent  Office 
building,  temporary  quarters  were  provided 
m  the  City  Hall.  In  the  spring  of  1840,  the 
building  was  completed  and  the  Office  moved 
mto  it.  The  sum  of  $422,011.65  was  ex- 
pended on  this  building.  The  patented  models 
were  then  classified  and  exhibited  in  suitable 
glass  cases,  while  the  national  gallery  was  ar- 
ranged for  exhibition  of  models  and  specimens. 
By  the  act  of  March  3,  1849,  the  Interior 
Department  was  established  and  the  Patent 
Office  attached  thereto.  This  same  act  ap- 
propriated $50,000  out  of  the  patent  fund  to 
begin  the  east  or  Seventh  street  wing,  which 
was  completed  in  1852  at  a  cost  of  $600,000, 
$250,000  of  which  was  taken  from  the  revenue 
of  the  Patent  Office.  In  1852  the  plans  for 
the  entire  building,  as  it  now  stands,  were 
prepared.  The  west  wing  was  completed  in 
1856  and  cost  $750,000.  Work  on  the  north 
or  G  street  wing  was  begun  the  same  year. 
In  1867  this  wing  was  finished  at  a  cost  of 
$575,000.  The  entire  building  cost  $2,347,- 
011.65. 

In    May,     1802,    President    Jefferson    ap- 
pointed Dr.  William  Thornton  as  a  clerk  at 
$1,400  per  year,  to  have  charge  of  the  issuance 
of  patents.     He  took  the  title  of  Superintend- 
ent, and  continued  to  act  in  that  capacity 
until   his   death,    March   28,    1828.     He  was 
succeeded    by    Dr.    William    P.    Jones,    who 
acted  imtil  his  removal  in  the  early  part  of 
President  Jackson's  administration.     John  D 
Craig  followed  Dr.  Jones,  and  in  1834  he  was 
succeeded  by  B.  F.  Pickett,  who  served  but  a 
brief  period.     The   last  Superintendent  was 
Henry   L.   Ellsworth,   who  became   the   first 
Commissioner   under   the   act   of    1836.    and 
served  until  1845.     The  other  Commissioners 
under  that  act  were: 
Edmund  Burke,  May  4,  1845. 
Thomas  Ewbank,  May  9,  1849. 
Silas  H.  Hodges,  November  8,  1852. 
Charles  Mason,  May  16,  1853. 
Joseph  Holt,  September  10,  1857. 
Wilham  D.  Bishop,  May  27,  1859 
Philip  F.  Thomas,  February  16,  1860. 

D.  P.  Holloway,  March  28,  1861. 
T.  C.  Theaker,  August  17,  1865. 
EUsha  Foote,  July  29,  1868 
Samuel  S.  Fisher,  April  26,  1869. 

Commissioner  Fisher  continued  as  Com- 
""ssioner  for  a  short  time  under  the  act  of 
1870.  Other  Commissioners  under  that  act 
have  been: 

M.  D.  Leggett,  January  16,  1871. 
John  M.  Thacher,  November  4,  1874. 
R.  H.  Duell,  October  1,  1875. 
Ellis  Spear,  January  30,  1877. 
H.  E.  Paine,  November  1,  1878. 

E.  M.  Marble,  May  7,  1880. 


^enjamm  Butterworth,  November  1,  1883 
^-  7- Montgomery,  Ma'-ch  23,  1885. 

B.  J.  Hall,  April  12,  1887. 

C.  E,  Mitchell,  April  1,  1889. 
William  E.  Simonds,  August  1,  1891 
John  S.  Seymour,  March  31,  1893. 
Benjamin  Buttei-worth,  April  7,  1897 
Charles  H.  Duell,  February  3,  1898. 
F.  I.  Allen,  April  11,  1901. 

E.  B.  Moore,  June  1,  1907. 

Coninaissioner  Fisher  was  the  first  to 
publish  his  decisions  and  to  have  the  copies  of 
the  specifications  and  drawings  made  by 
photo-hthography.  He  also  instituted  the 
practice  of  requiring  competitive  examina- 
tions for  entrance  to  and  promotions  in  the 
examming  force  of  the  office. 

Beginning  in  1843  and  annually  thereafter 
the  Patent  Office  reports  were  published, 
which,  until  1853,  contained  merely  an 
alphabetical  index  of  the  names  of  the  in- 
ventors, a  list  of  the  expired  patents,  and  the 
claims  of  the  patents  granted  during  the  week. 
In  1853  and  afterwards  small  engraved  copies 
of  a  portion  of  the  drawings  were  added  to 
the  reports  to  explain  the  claims. 

The  act  of  1870  authorized  the  Commis- 
sioner to  print  copies  of  the  claims  of  the 
current  issues  of  patents  and  of  such  laws, 
decisions,  and  rules  as  were  necessary  for  the 
information  of  the  public.  In  conformity 
with  this  provision  there  was  published  weekly 
a  list  giving  the  numbers,  titles,  and  claims  of 
the  patents  issued  during  the  week  im- 
mediately preceding,  together  with  the  names 
and  residences  of  the  patentees.  This  list 
was  first  published  under  the  name  of  The 
Official  Gazette  of  the  United  States  Patent 
Office,  on  January  3,  1872.  In  July,  1872, 
portions  of  the  drawings  were  introduced  to 
illustrate  the  claims  in  the  patented  cases. 
The  Official  Gazette  has  now  become  one  of 
the  most  valuable  and  important  of  Govern- 
ment publications.  Each  Senator  and 
Representative  is  authorized  to  designate 
eight  pubUc  Ubraries  to  receive  this  publica- 
tion free.  One  copy  is  also  furnished  free  to 
each  member  of  Congress.  It  is  also  sent  all 
over  the  world  in  exchange  for  similar  publica- 
tions by  other  Governments,  and  its  paid 
subscription  list  is  constantly  increasing. 

Industrial  demand  and  invention  go  hand 
in  hand.  They  act  and  react,  being  inter- 
dependent. Any  change  in  industrial  con- 
ditions creating  a  new  demand  is  at  once  met 
by  the  invention  of  the  means  for  supplying 
it,  and  through  new  inventions  new  industrial 
demands  are  every  year  being  created.  Thus 
through  the  process  of  evolution  the  industrial 
field  is  steadily  expanding,  and  a  study  of  the 
inventions  for  any  decade  will  point  out  the 
lines  of  industrial  growth  for  the  succeeding 
decade. 

The  one  millionth  patent  was  issued 
August  8,  1911,  to  Frank  H.  Holtou 
of  Akron,  Ohio,  on  an  improvement 
in  inflated  automobile  tires.  Patent 
number  one  had  been  issued  in  188G 
to  John  Ruggles  for  a  locomotive  en- 
gine. Patent  number  500,000  was  is- 
sued June  20,  1893.  It  therefore  took 
57  years  to  reach  the  half  million 
number  but  only  18  years  more  to 
reach  the  whole  million  number. 


i 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


359 


The  following  figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
relative  development  of  American  inventions, 
begiuning  with  1850,  remembering  that 
9,957  patents  were  issued  up  to  July  28,  1836, 
when  the  present  series  of  patents  was  com- 
menced, and  that  6,980  patents  were  issued 

from  July  28,  1836  to  December  31,  1849 

NUMBER  OF  PATENTS  FOR  INVENTIONS  ISSUED 

DURING       EACH       CALENDAR       YEAR,  AND 

I             NUMBER  OF  LIVE  PATENTS  AT  THE  BE- 
GINNING OF  EACH  CALENDAR  YEAR. 
Number 
of  Patents 

Issued  Dur-  Number 

ing  the  of  Uve 

Year.                                               Year.  Patents. 

1850 884  6.987 

1851 757  7.769 

1852 890  8.099 

1853 846  8,474 

1854 1.759  8,928 

1855 1.892  10.251 

1856 2,315  11.673 

1857 2,686  13.518 

1858 3,467  15,714 

1859 4,165  18,714 

1860 : 4,363  22.435 

1861 3.040  26.252 

1862 3.221  28,795 

1863 3.781  31,428 

1864 4.638  34,244 

1865 6,099  38,034 

1866 8,874  43,415 

1867 12.301  51,433 

1868 12.544  62.929 

1869 12,957  73,824 

1870 12,157  85,005 

1871 11.687  94,910 

1872 12,200  104,022 

1873 11,616  112,937 

1874 12,230  120,551 

1875 13,291  128,547 

1876 14,172  141.157 

1877 12,920  155.200 

1878 12,345  168.011 

1879 12,133  177.737 

1880 12,926  186.408 

1881 15,548  195.325 

1882 18,135  206,043 

1883 21.196  218,041 

1884 19,147  230,360 

1885 23,331  237,204 

1886 21,797  247,991 

1887 20,429  256,831 

1888 19,585  265,103 

1889 23,360  273,001 

1890 25,322  284,161 

1891 22.328  297,867 

1892 22,661  307,965 

1893 22.768  317,335 

1894 19.875  325.931 

1895 20,883  332,886 

1896 21,867  341,424 

1897  22,098  351,158 

1898 20,404  360,330 

1899 23,296  365,186 

1900 24,660  370,347 

1901 25,558  373,811 

1902 27,136  380,222 

1903 31,046  384,027 

1904 30,267  393,276 

1905 29,784  403,114 

1906 31,181  413,313 

1907 35,880  421,134 

1908 32,757  431.692 

1909 36,574  442,121 

1910 35,168  456,034 

1911 32,917  468,434 

1912 36,231  496,824 


The  marked  growth  in  the  number 
of  patents  to  aliens  to  be  noted  in 
recent  years  is  explained  by  the  very 
liberal  features  of  our  patent  system. 
B^oreigners  stand  here  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing with  citizens  of  this  country,  and 
they  are  neither  subjected  to  restric- 
tions in  the  matter  of  annuities  or 
taxes  payable  after  the  grant  of  a  pat- 
ent, nor  required  to  work  an  inven- 
tion in  this  country  to  maintain  it  in 
force,  as  is  the  case  in  most  foreign 
countries. 

Moreover,  the  thorough  examination 
made  by  our  Patent  OflSce  as  to  the 
novelty  of  an  invention  prior  to  the 
allowance  of  an  application  for  a  pat- 
ent— an  examination  that  includes  not 
only  the  patents  and  literature  of  our 
own  country  bearing  on  the  art  or  in- 
dustry to  which  the  invention  relates, 
but  the  patents  of  all  patent-granting 
countries  and  the  technical  literature 
of  the  world — and  the  care  exercised 
in  criticising  the  framing  of  the  claims 
have  come  to  be  recognized  as  of  great 
value  in  the  case  of  inventions  of 
merit,  and  hence  the  majority  of  for- 
eign inventors  patenting  in  this  coun- 
try take  advantage  of  this  feature  of 
our  patent  system,  and  secure  the  ac 
tion  of  the  Patent  Office  on  an  appli- 
cation for  a  patent  before  perfecting 
their  patents  in  their  own  and  other 
foreign  countries,  taking  due  precau- 
tion to  have  their  patents  in  the  dif- 
ferent countries  so  issued  as  to  se- 
cure the  maximum  term  in  each,  so  far 
as  possible. 

In  1911,  4,058  patents  were  granted 
to  citizens  of  foreign  countries.  The 
relative  distribution  is  as  follows : 

Germany    1.320 

England     935 

Canada   564 

France    347 

Austria-Hungary     140 

Switzerland      108 

Other    European    countries 406 

All    other    countries 248 

The  working  of  an  invention  has 
never  been  required  under  our  patent 
laws,  though  in  most  foreign  countries 
an  invention  must  be  put  into  com- 
mercial use  in  the  country  within  a 
specified  period  or  the  patent  may  be 
declared  void.  In  the  case  of  patents 
for  fine  chemicals  and  like  products, 
which  require  a  high  order  of  tech- 
nical knowledge  and  ability  for  their 
inception,  and  skilled  workmen  for 
their  manufacture,  the  effect  of  this 
requirement,  that  the  industry  must 
be  established  within  the  country,  has 


360 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


been  most  salutary  in  building  up 
chemical  industries  within  the  home 
country,  to  some  extent  at  the  ex- 
pense of  other  countries  where  the 
working  of  a  patent  is  not  obligatory. 
This  shows  most  strongly  in  the  case 
of  carbon  dyes  and  in  the  patents  for 
chemicals  of  the  class  known  as  car- 
bon compounds,  which  includes  nu- 
merous pharmaceutical  and  medicinal 
compounds  of  recent  origin,  aldehydes, 
alcohols,  phenols,  ethers,  etc.,  and 
many  synthetic  compounds,  as  vanil- 
lin, artificial  musk,  etc. 

Late  years  have  shown  a  greatly 
increased  number  of  patent  applica- 
tions filed  by  women.  With  the  in- 
crease in  number  there  has  been  a 
corresponding  broadening  of  the  field 
of  their  endeavors.  When  the  1910 
census  came  to  the  question  of  patents 
it  listed  944,525  patents  granted  to 
men  in  this  country  since  the  beginning 
of  the  patent  system,  but  8,596  patents 
were  credited  to  women,  nine-tenths  of 
one  per  cent,  of  the  total  issue.  But 
the  percentage  of  patents  granted  to 
woman  increases  yearly.  Thus,  from 
1790  until  1888  there  were  2,455  pat- 
ents granted  women,  and  from  1888  to 
1895,  2,526,  in  seven  years  more  than 
doubling  the  total  that  had  been  ac- 
cruing for  the  previous  ninety-eight 
years.  And  from  1895  until  1910  there 
were  3,615  patents  more,  bringing  the 
total  number  up  to  8,596,  as  stated. 

In  the  presence  of  much  discussion 
of  the  relative  protection  which  the 
several  sections  of  the  United  States 
receive  under  our  patent  system,  it 
will  be  instructive  to  consider  the 
distribution  of  patents  granted  during 
a  normal  year.  The  table  below  shows 
the  states  and  territories  arranged  in 
an  order  showing  the  ratio  of  patents 
granted  in  1911  to  the  population  of 
the  several  states  and  territories. 

Attention  is  now  directed  to  how  a 
patent  is  obtained  under  the  system 
in  the  United  States.  We  will  sup- 
pose a  new  form  of  door  hinge  has 
been  invented.  What  is  the  procedure 
that  the  inventor  should  resort  to? 

In  the  first  place  it  is  highly  de- 
sirable to  employ  a  competent  attorney, 
one  skilled  in  the  patent  law  and 
practice.  The  inventor  may  prepare 
and  prosecute  his  own  application  and 
his  case  will  receive  the  same  careful 
attention  in  the  Patent  Ofiice  as  if 
he  had  employed  an  attorney.  But 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  Patent 
practice  is  technical.     The  change  of 


Patents 

and  One  to 

States  and  Territories.        Designs,  every — 

Connecticut    845  1,319 

District    of    Columbia 239  1,385 

California     1,575  1,516 

Colorado     477  1,675 

Rhode   Island    315  1,723 

Illinois    3,172  1,778 

Massachusetts    1,842  1,828 

New   Jersey    1,360  1,866 

New    York    4,777  1,908 

Nevada    39  2,099 

Ohio      2,233  2,135 

Pennsylvania     2,919  2,626 

Michigan     1,035  2,715 

Oregon     246  2,735 

Washington    410  2,785 

Idaho     105  3,101 

Wisconsin    703  3,320 

Montana    112  3,357 

Missouri     945  3,486 

Delaware     56  3,613 

Utah    103  3,624 

Indiana     ■. 726  3,720 

Nebraska     318  3,749 

Iowa     583  3,816 

Minnesota     475  4,370 

North   Dakota    132  4,372 

Kansas     382  4,427 

Maryland     272  4,762 

Arizona     41  4,984 

Maine     142  5,228 

New    Hampshire    81  5,316 

South    Dakota    109  5,357 

Wyoming     26  5,614 

Vermont     61  5,835 

West    Virginia    196  6,230 

New    Mexico    50  6,546 

Texas 591  6, 593 

Oklahoma    235  7,052 

Florida     104  7,237 

Virginia    226  9,122 

Kentucky     240  9,541 

Louisiana    165  10,039 

North    Carolina    191  11,551 

Georgia     224  11,647 

Arkansas    135  11,663 

Tennessee    175  12, 484 

Alaska     5  12,871 

Alabama     163  13,117 

Mississippi     113  15,904 

South    Carolina    65  23,314 


a  word  here  and  there  may  make  the 
difference  between  protection  and  no 
protection.  If  the  invention  is  worth 
patenting  it  is  worth  as  good  a  patent 
as  is  obtainable,  and  the  inventor 
should  not  forget  that  the  patent  may 
have  to  go  through  the  mill  of  tech- 
nical construction  in  the  courts  at 
great  expense. 

Then  a  preliminary  search  should 
be  made.  The  applicant  can  make 
such  at  the  Patent  Office  or  his  at- 
torney will  have  such  made.  This 
searcia  is  made  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  if  the  device  is  old.  Again 
it  should  be  remembered  that  many 
patents  are  never  used  as  a  basis  for 
manufacture  for  one  reason  or  an- 
other, so  that,  while  the  inventor  may 
never    have    seen    a    device    like    that 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


361 


which  he  has  devised  and  may  have 
produced  it  from  wholly  original 
thought  and  experiment,  yet  someone 
else  may  have  reached  the  same  re- 
sult before,  patented  it,  and  then  done 
nothing  more  with  it. 

Assuming  that  the  preliminary 
search  brings  forth  no  device  like  the 
hinge  under  discussion  the  next  thing 
is  to  prepare  the  application  papers. 
These  include  a  petition,  an  oath,  a 
drawing,  a  specification  and  claims. 

The  petition  is  addressed  to  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  setting  forth 
applicant's  residence  and  other  formal 
matters  and  prays  the  grant  of  letters 
patent.  The  oath  states  that  appli- 
cant believes  himself  to  be  the  original, 
first  and  sole  inventor  and  the  other 
statutory  prerequisites.  Forms  for 
both  are  given  in  a  publication  entitled 
"Rules  of  Practice  in  the  United  States 
Patent  Ofiice,"  which  may  be  obtained 
from  the  Patent  Office  or  these  forms 
will  be  prepared  for  execution  by  the 
attorney. 

The  drawing  must  be  of  a  prescribed 
size  and  clearly  illustrate  the  construc- 
tion of  the  device. 

The  specification  is  a  detailed  de- 
scription of  the  device  referring  to  let- 
tered or  numbered  parts  of  the  draw- 
ing, for  amplification.  The  descrip- 
tion and  drawing  must  contain  a  dis- 
closure of  the  construction,  nature  and 
use  of  the  device  so  full,  clear  and 
complete  as  to  enable  others  skilled 
in  the  art  to  make  and  use  the  same, 
for  the  public  must  be  informed  that 
they  may  make  and  use  the  device 
after  the  patent  has  expired. 

The  claims  are  short  statements, 
drawn  in  technical  form,  setting  forth 
the  elements  of  the  machine  or  im- 
provement or  the  steps  of  the  process 
that  applicant  believes  he  has  invented. 
These  should  be  as  broad  as  the  state 
of  the  art  warrants,  and  should  be 
drawn  with  very  great  care  to  be  of 
any  value.  Only  one  skilled  in  patent 
practise  should  undertake  the  prepara- 
tion of  claims.  Too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  laid   on  this  point. 

These  application  papers,  together 
with  $15  for  a  filing  fee,  are  now  to 
be  sent  to  the  Patent  Office.  Here 
they  are  received  by  the  Application 
Division  and  duly  recorded  in  books 
kept  for  that  purpose,  and  each  ap- 
plication is  given  its  serial  number. 
The  application  is  then  sent  to  that 
division  in  the  office  where  devices  of 
that  nature  are  examined  and  given  to 


an  examiner  skilled  in  the  art  to  which 
the  device  appertains.  Then  begins 
the  prosecution  of  the  case.  The  first 
step  is  to  make  an  examination  of  the 
case. 

The  American  patent  system  is 
known  as  the  examination  system  be- 
cause of  the  careful  examination  given 
each  application  to  determine  the 
validity  of  the  claims  presented  for 
patenting.  The  examination  system  is 
the  ideal  system,  provided  the  exam- 
ination can  be  made  with  sufficient 
care  to  minimize  the  likelihood  of  the 
issue  of  patents  for  inventions  not  of 
a  patentable  nature.  The  field  of 
search,  however,  yearly  increases,  and 
it  becomes  more  and  more  difficult 
through  lack  of  time  to  make  a  perfect 
examination.  Something  more  than 
three  million  domestic  and  foreign  pat- 
ents have  been  issued,  while  the  num- 
ber of  scientific  publications  has  enor- 
mously increased.  It  is  only  by  means 
of  a  perfect  classification  that  this 
great  mass  of  matter  can  be  so  divided 
as  to  be  conveniently  accessible  for  use 
in  the  examination  of  any  individual 
case. 

The  claims  are  compared  with  the 
disclosures  of  these  United  States  and 
foreign  patents  to  see  if  they  are  met 
in  terms  by  devices  old  in  the  art.  If 
so  they  are  rejected,  and  the  applicant 
is  so  informed,  and  the  patents  or 
publications,  together  with  the  reasons 
if  they  are  not  .self-evident,  are  enu- 
merated in  a  letter  written  from  the 
office. 

Applicant  has  then  one  year  in 
which  to  take  action  on  his  case.  He 
may  amend  his  claims  to  avoid  the 
references  cited  or  he  may  ask  for  re- 
consideration. The  application  is  then 
taken  up  for  further  examination. 

During  the  prosecution  of  the  case 
questions  of  interference,  appeal,  peti- 
tion, etc.,  may  arise.  The  procedure 
in  such  events  is  more  or  less  techni- 
cal and  unless  applicant  has  employed 
an  attorney  he  should  study  carefully 
the  "Rules  of  Practice,"  before  he- 
ferred  to,  for  instructions.  The  nature 
of  this  section  will  not  admit  of  fur- 
ther detail  in  meeting  the  very  great 
number  of  different  situations  that  may 
arise. 

Assuming,  however,  that  the  claims 
are  found  to  be  patentable  and  the 
specification  and  claims  unobjection- 
able in  form,  the  application  is  passed 
to  issue.  The  application  is  sent  to 
the    Issue    and    Gazette   Division   and 


362 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


the  applicant  is  informed  that  the  pat- 
ent will  issue  upon  the  receipt  of  the 
final  fee  of  $20.  He  has^  six  months 
in  which  to  pay  this  fee.  *  When  paid 
the  application  is  given  its  patent  num- 
ber, the  specification  and  claims  are 
printed,  the  drawing  is  photolitho- 
graphed  and  the  printed  copy  and  the 
drawing,  together  with  a  copy  of  the 
form  of  patent  grant  with  seal  affixed, 
is  sent  to  the  Commissioner  for  his 
signature.  The  patent  has  then  issued 
amd  is  sent  to  the  inventor. 

The  country  is  enriched  by  inven- 
tions and  offers  for  them  a  small  pre- 
mium ;  this  premium  is  a  seventeen 
years'  monopoly  of  their  fruit — no 
more,  no  less.  Having  purchased  the 
invention  for  this  insignificant  price, 
the  purchase  is  consummated  by  the 
publication  in  the  patent  records  of 
the  details  of  the  invention  so  that  he 
who  runs  may  read.  The  whole  thing 
is  a  strictly  business  transaction,  and 
this  character  is  emphasized  by  the 
fact  that  the  inventor  is  required  to 
pay  for  the  clerical  and  expert  labor 
required  to  put  his  invention  into 
shape  for  issuing.  His  patent  fees  are 
designed  to  cover  this  expense,  and  do 
so,  with  a  considerable  margin  to 
spare.  Thus  the  people  of  the  United 
States  are  perpetually  being  enriched 
by  the  work  of  inventors,  at  absolutely 
no  cost  to  themselves. 

The  inventor  does  not  work  for  love 
nor  for  glory  alone,  but  in  the  hopes 
of  a  return  for  his  labor.  Glory  and 
love  of  his  species  are  elements  actuat- 
ing his  work,  and  in  many  cases  he 
invents  because  he  cannot  help  himself 
— because  his  genius  is  a  hard  task 
master  and  keeps  him  at  work.  But 
none  the  less,  the  great  incitement  to 


invention  is  the  hope  of  obtaining  a 
valuable  patent,  and  without  this  in- 
ducement inventions  would  be  few  and 
far  between,  and  America  would,  with- 
out the  patent  system,  be  far  in  ar- 
rears of  the  rest  of  the  world,  instead 
of  leading  it,  as  it  does  to-day.  The 
few  pregnant  sentences  of  the  patent 
statutes — sentences  the  force  of  whose 
every  word  has  been  laboriously  ad- 
judicated by  our  highest  tribunal,  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States — 
are  responsible  for  America's  most 
characteristic  element  of  prosperity, 
the  work  of  her  inventors,  to  whom  be- 
longs the  credit. 

It  should  continue  to  be  the  policy 
of  the  government  of  a  nation  whose 
inventors  have  given  to  the  world  the 
cotton  gin  and  the  reaper,  the  sewing 
machine  and  the  typewriter,  the  elec- 
tric telegraph  and  telephone,  the  ro- 
tary web  perfecting  printing  press  and 
the  linotype,  the  incandescent  lamp 
and  the  phonograph,  and  thousands  of 
other  inventions  that  have  revolution- 
ized every  industrial  art,  to  encourage 
invention  in  every  lawful  way  and  to 
provide  that,  so  far  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, the  money  paid  to  the  Govern- 
ment by  inventors  be  used  for  their 
benefit.  The  wisdom  of  the  policy  has 
been  demonstrated. 

The  world  owes  as  much  to  invent- 
ors as  to  statesmen  or  warriors.  To 
them  the  United  States  is  the  greatest 
debtor,  so  much  have  they  advanced 
American  manufactures.  Their  labor- 
saving  machinery  does  work  that  it 
would  take  millions  of  men  using  hand 
implements  to  perform.  In  this  cen- 
tury the  debt  will  be  piled  still  higher, 
for  inventors  never  rest. 


DISTINGUISHED  AMERICAN  INVENTORS. 


Benjamin  Franklin;  b.  Boston,  1706;  d. 
1790;  at  12,  printer's  apprentice,  fond  of  use- 
ful reading;  27  to  40,  teaches  himself  Latin, 
etc.,  makes  various  useful  improvements;  at 
40,  studies  electricity;  1752,  brings  electricity 
from  clouds  by  kite,  and  invents  the  lightning 
rod. 

Eli  Whitney,  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin;  b. 
Westborough,  Mass.,  1765;  d.  1825;  went  to 
Georgia  1792  as  teacher;  1793,  invents  the  cot- 
ton-gin, prior  to  which  a  full  day's  work  of 
one  person  was  to  clean  by  hand  one  pound  of 
cotton;  one  machine  performs  the  labor  of 
five  thousand  persons;  1800,  founds  Whitney- 
ville,  makes  firearms,  by  the  interchangeable 
system    for    the   parts. 

Robert  Fulton;  b.  Little  Britain,  Pa.,  1765; 
d.  1825;  artist  painter;  invents  steamboat  1793; 
Invents     submarine     torpedoes     1797     to     1801; 


builds  steamboat  in  France  1803;  launches 
passenger  boat  Clermont  at  N.  Y.  1807,  and 
steams  to  Albany;  1812,  builds  steam  ferry- 
boats;   1814,    builds  first  steam  war  vessel. 

Jethro  Wood,  inventor  of  the  modern  cast- 
iron  plough;  b.  White  Creek,  N.  Y.,  1774;  d. 
1834;  patented  the  plough  1814;  previously  the 
plough  was  a  stick  of  wood  plated  with  iron; 
lawsuits  against  infringers  consumed  his 
means;  Secretary  Seward  said:  "No  man  has 
benefited  the  country  pecuniarily  more  than 
Jethro  Wood,  and  no  man  has  been  as  in- 
adequately   rewarded." 

Thomas  Blanchard;  b.  1788,  Sutton,  Mass.; 
d.  1864;  invented  tack  machine  1806;  builds 
successful  steam  carriage  1825;  builds  the 
stern-wheel  boat  for  shallow  waters,  now  in 
common  use  on  Western  rivers;  1843,  patents 
the   lathe   for  turning  irregular   forms,    now   In 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


363 


common  use  all  over  the  world  for  turning 
lasts,  spokes,  axe-handles,  gun-stocks,  hat- 
blocks,    tackle-blocks,    etc. 

Ross  Winans,  of  Baltimore;  b.  1798,  N.  J.; 
d.  1877;  author  of  many  inventions  relating  to 
railways;  first  patent,  1828;  he  designed  and 
patented  the  pivoted,  double  truck,  long  pas- 
senger cars  now  in  common  use.  His  genius 
also    assisted    the    development    of    railways    in 


Cyrus  H.  McCormick,  inventor  of  harvesting 
machines;  b.  Walnut  Grove,  Va.,  1809;  d. 
1884;  in  1851  he  exhibited  his  invention  at 
the  World's  Fair,  London,  with  practical  suc- 
cess. The  mowing  of  one  acre  was  one  man's 
day's  work;  a  boy  with  a  mowing  machine 
now  cuts  10  acres  a  day.  Mr.  McCormick' s 
patents   made    him   a   millionaire. 

Charles  Goodyear,  inventor  and  patentee  of 
the  simple  mixture  of  rubber  and  sulphur,  the 
basis  of  the  present  great  rubber  industries 
throughout  the  world;  b.  New  Haven,  Conn., 
1800;  d.  1860;  in  1839,  by  the  accidental  mix- 
ture of  a  bit  of  rubber  and  sulphur  on  a  red- 
hot  stove  he  discovered  the  process  of  vul- 
canization. The  Goodyear  patents  proved  im- 
mensely   profitable. 

Samuel  P.  B.  Morse,  inventor  and  patentee 
of  electric  telegraph;  b.  Charlestown,  Mass., 
1791;  d.  1872;  artist  painter;  exhibited  first 
drawings  of  telegraph  1832;  half-mile  wire  in 
operation  1835;  caveat  1837;  Congress  appro- 
priated $30,000  and  in  1884  first  telegraph  line 
from  Washington  to  Baltimore  was  opened; 
after  long  contests  the  courts  sustained  his 
patents  and  he  realized  from  them  a  large 
fortune. 

Elias  Howe,  inventor  of  the  modern  sewing 
'machine;  b.  Spencer,  Mass.,  1819;  d.  1867; 
machinist;  sewing  machine  patented  1846; 
from  that  time  to  1854  his  priority  was  con- 
tested and  he  suffered  from  poverty,  when  a 
decision  of  the  courts  in  his  favor  brought 
him  large  royalties  and  he  realized  several 
millions    from    his    patent. 

James  B.  Eads;  b.  1820;  d.  1887;  author  and 
constructor  of  the  great  steel  bridge  over  the 
Mississippi  at  St.  Louis,  1867,  and  the  jetties 
below  New  Orleans,  1876.  His  remarkable 
energy  was  shown  in  1861  when  he  built  and 
delivered  complete  to  the  Government,  all 
within  sixty-five  days,  seven  iron-plated 
steamers,  600  tons  each;  subsequently  other 
steamers.  Some  of  the  most  brilliant  suc- 
cesses of  the  Union  arms  were  due  to  his 
extraordinary  rapidity  in  constructing  these 
vessels. 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry;  b.  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1799; 
d.  1878;  in  1828  invented  the  present  form  of 
the  electro-magnet  which  laid  the  foundation 
for  practically  the  entire  electrical  art  and  is 
probably  the  most  important  single  contribu- 
tion thereto.  In  1831  he  demonstrated  the 
practicability  of  the  electric  current  to  effect 
mechanical  movements  and  operate  signals  at 
a  distant  point,  which  was  the  beginning  of 
the  electro-magnetic  telegraph;  he  devised  a 
system  of  circuits  and  batteries,  which  con- 
tained the  principle  of  the  relay  and  local 
circuit,  and  also  invented  one  of  the  earliest 
electro-magnetic  engines.  He  made  many  sci- 
entific researches  in  electricity  and  general 
physics  and  left  many  valuable  papers  there- 
on. In  1826  he  was  a  professor  in  the  Albany 
Academy;  was  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1832,  and  in 
1846  was  chosen  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  at  Washington,  where  he  remained 
until  hia  death.  Prof.  Henry  was  probably  the 
greatest    of    American    physicists. 


Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  the  inventor 
of  the  telephone;  b.  1847  at  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, moved  to  Canada  1872  and  afterwards  to 
Boston;  here  he  became  widely  known  as  an 
instructor  in  phonetics  and  as  an  authority  in 
teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb;  in  1873  he  began 
the  study  of  the  transmission  of  musical  tones 
by  telegraph;  in  1876  he  invented  and  patented 
the  speaking  telephone,  which  has  become 
one  of  the  marvels  of  the  nineteenth  century 
and  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  enterprises 
of  the  world;  in  1880  the  French  Government 
awarded  him  the  Volta  prize  of  $10,000  and  he 
has  subsequently  received  the  ribbon  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  from  France  and  many  honor- 
ary degrees,  both  at  home  and  abroad;  Dr. 
Bell  still  continues  his  scientific  work  at  his 
home  in  Washington  and  has  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  phonograph  and  aerial 
navigation. 

Samuel  Colt;  b.  Hartford,  Conn.,  1814;  d. 
1862;  he  studied  chemistry  and  became  a  lec- 
turer on  that  subject;  in  1835  he  secured  pat- 
ents on  a  revolving  pistol,  a  model  of  which 
he  had  made  while  a  boy  when  at  sea;  he 
built  and  maintained  a  large  armory  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn;  in  1847  he  contracted  to  make 
1,000  weapons  for  General  Taylor;  In  1843  he 
laid  and  successfully  tested  the  first  sub- 
marine  telegraph    cable. 

Thomas  A.  Edison;  b.  1847,  at  Milan,  Ohio; 
from  a  poor  boy  in  a  country  village,  with  a 
limited  education,  he  has  become  the  most 
fertile  inventor  the  world  has  ever  known;  his 
most  important  inventions  are  the  phonograph 
in  1877,  the  incandescent  electric  lamp,  1878; 
the  quadruplex  telegraph,  1874-1878;  the  elec- 
tric pen,  1876;  magnetic  ore  separator,  1880; 
and  the  three-wire  electric  circuit,  1883;  his 
first  patent  was  an  electric  vote-recording  ma- 
chine, taken  in  1869;  early  in  life  Edison 
started  to  run  a  newspaper,  but  his  genius 
lay  in  the  field  of  electricity,  where  as  an 
expert  telegrapher  he  began  his  great  repu- 
tation; his  numerous  inventions  have  brought 
him  great  wealth;  a  fine  villa  in  Llewellyn 
Park,  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  Is  his  home,  and  his 
extensive  laboratory  near  by  is  still  the  scene 
of  his  constant  work;  he  is  the  world's  most 
persevering  inventor,  and  there  are  few  fields 
of  work  into  which  his  inventive  genius  has 
not  entered;  in  late  years  he  has  done  much 
work  in  connection  with  the  preparation  of 
detachable    molds    for    cement    houses. 

Captain  John  Ericsson;  b.  1803  in  Sweden; 
d.  in  New  York,  1889;  at  10  years  of  age, 
designed  a  sawmill  and  a  pumping  engine; 
made  and  patented  many  inventions  in  England 
in  early  life;  in  1829  entered  a  locomotive  in 
competition  with  Stephenson's  Rocket;  in  1836 
patented  in  England  his  double-screw  propeller 
and  shortly  after  came  to  the  United  States 
and  incorporated  it  in  a  steamer;  in  1861, 
built  for  the  United  States  Government  the 
turret  ironclad  Monitor;  was  the  inventor  of 
the  hot-air  engine  which  bears  his  name;  also 
a  torpedo  boat  which  was  designed  to  dis- 
charge a  torpedo  by  means  of  compressed  air 
beneath  the  water;  he  was  an  indefatigable 
worker  and  made  many  other  inventions;  his 
diary,  kept  daily  for  40  years,  comprehended 
14,000    pages. 

Charles  F.  Brush;  b.  near  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
1849;  prominently  identified  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  dynamo,  the  arc  light  and  the 
storage  battery,  in  which  fields  he  made  many 
Important  inventions;  in  1880  the  Brush  Com- 
pany put  its  electric  lights  into  New  York 
City  and  has  since  extended  its  installations 
into  most  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  United 


364 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


states;  in  1881,  at  the  Paris  Electrical  Expo- 
sition, he  received  the  ribbon  of  the  Legion 
of    Honor. 

George  Westinghouse,  Jr. ;  b.  at  Central 
Bridge,  N.  Y.,  1846;  while  still  a  boy  he 
modeled  and  built  a  steam  engine;  his  first 
profitable  invention  was  a  railroad  frog;  his 
most  notable  inventions,  however,  were  in 
railroad  airbrakes,  the  first  patents  for  which 
were  taken  out  in  1872;  the  system  now  known 
by  his  name  has  grown  to  almost  universal 
adoption  and  constitutes  a  great  labor  saving 
and  life  saving  adjunct  to  railroad  transporta- 
tion; Mr.  Vv'estinghouse,  whose  home  is  at 
Pittsburg,  was  one  of  the  earliest  to  develop 
and  use  natural  gas  from  deep  wells;  in  late 
years  he  has  made  and  patented  many  inven- 
tions in  electrical  machinery  for  the  develop- 
ment of  power  and  light,  and  has  commer- 
cially developed   the   same  on   a  large   scale. 

Ottmar  Mergenthaler;  b.  1854,  at  Wurtem- 
berg,  Germany;  d.  1899;  inventor  of  the  lino- 
type machine;  his  early  training  as  a  watch 
and  clock  maker  well  fitted  him  for  the  pains- 
taking and  complicated  work  of  his  life,  which 
was  to  make  a  machine  which  would  mold  the 
type  and  set  it  up  in  one  operation;  in  1872 
Mergenthaler  came  to  Baltimore  and  entered  a 
machine  shop,  in  which  he  subsequently  be- 
came a  partner;  the  first  linotype  machine  was 
built  in  1886  and  put  to  use  in  the  composing 
room  of  the  New  York  Tribune;  to-day  all 
large  newspapers  and  publishing  houses  are 
equipped  with  great  batteries  of  these  ma- 
chines, costing  over  $3,000  each,  and  each 
performing    the    work    of    five    compositors. 

Nicola    Tesla;    b.    in    the    border   country    of 


Austria-Hungary,  1857;  his  first  invention, 
made  at  Budapest,  Hungary,  in  1881,  was  a 
telephone  repeater;  he  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1884  and  later  became  a  naturalized 
citizen;  his  work  has  been  largely  in  elec- 
trical fields,  but  of  late  he  has  done  much 
work  In  the  direction  of  developing  steam 
turbines. 

Emile  Berliner;  b.  in  Hanover,  Germany, 
May  20,  1851;  he  invented  the  loose  contact 
telephone  transmitter  and  many  other  Impor- 
tant improvements  in  telephone;  in  1887  he 
invented  the  gramophone,  the  talking  machine 
well  known  as  the  Victor  type;  he  was 
awarded  the  John  Scott  medal  by  the  Franklin 
Institute. 

Wilbur  Wright;  b.  In  Henry  County,  Ind., 
April  16,  1867;  d.  May  30,  1912;  Orville  Wright; 
b.  Aug.  19,  1871;  the  Wright  brothers  became 
interested  in  mechanical  flight  in  1896;  at  the 
suggestion  of  Prof.  S.  P.  Langley,  Secretary 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  they  went  to 
the  sand  hills  of  Killdevil,  N.  C,  in  1900.  to 
carry  out  a  series  of  field  experiments;  they 
developed  a  motor  far  in  advance  of  those 
before  used  in  connection  with  mechanical 
flight  and  by  1905  they  had  a  flying  machine 
in  which  they  flew  nearly  35  miles  at  Dayton, 
Ohio;  the  first  public  exhibition  of  importance 
was  given  in  this  country  at  Fort  Myer  in 
1908  by  Orville  Wright;  Wilbur  Wright  at 
this  time  was  making  record  flights  at  Le 
Mans,  France;  from  then  until  Wilbur's  death 
the  two  were  constantly  associated  in  develop- 
ing their  heavier  than  air  machines;  they  be- 
came  the   world's   best   known    aviators. 


ABSTRACTS  OF  DECISIONS. 


Where  an  inventor  has  completed  his  in- 
vention, if  he  neither  applies  for  a  patent  nor 
puts  it  to  practical  use.  a  subsequent  inventor 
who  promptly  applies  is  entitled  to  the  patent, 
and  the  first  one  is  deemed  to  have  abandoned 
his  rights.  Pattee  v.  Russell,  3  O.  G.,  181; 
Ex  parte  Carre,  5  O.  G.,  30;  Johnson  v.  Root, 
1  Fisher,  351. 

As  between  two  rival  inventors,  the  test  of 
priority  is  the  diligence  of  the  one  first  to 
conceive  it.  If  he  has  been  diligent  in  per- 
fecting it,  he  is  entitled  to  receive  the  patent. 
If  he  has  been  negligent,  the  patent  is  awarded 
to  his  opponent.  Robinson  on  Patents,  Sec. 
375. 

The  construction  and  use  for  two  years  in 
public  of  a  working  machine,  whether  the  in- 
ventor has  or  has  not  abandoned  it,  excludes 
the  grant  of  a  patent  to  a  subsequent  in- 
ventor. An  abandonment  in  such  case  inures 
to  the  benefit  of  the  public  and  not  to  the 
benefit  of  a  subsequent  inventor.  Young  v. 
Van  Duser,  16  O.  G.,  95. 

Just  where  the  line  of  invention  lies  in  an 
accomplished  result  is  frequently  difficult  for 
the  courts  to  determine.  That  it  must  ex- 
tend beyond  the  merely  novel  and  useful  and 
into  the  domain  of  original  thought  has  been 
determined.  The  extent  of  the  mental 
process,  however,  is  immaterial.  The  result 
may  come  out  of  long  consideration  or  it  may 
be  the  revelation  of  a  flash  of  thought. 
Snyder  v.  Fisher,  78  O.  G.,  485. 

A  function  result  or  principle  is  not 
patentable,  but  a  party  is  entitled  to  claim 
his  invention  as  broadly  as  the  prior  art 
permits.     Ex  parte  Pisko,Bl3 ;  Gourick,  85-15. 


It  is  well  settled  law  that  a  patent  can  not 
issue  for  a  result  sought  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  inventor  of  a  machine  but  only  for  the 
mechanical  means  or  instrumentalities  by 
which  that  result  is  obtained.  One  cannot 
describe  a  machine  which  will  perform  a 
certain  function  and  then  claim  the  function 
itself  and  all  other  machines  that  may  be 
invented  by  others  to  perform  the  same 
fvmction.     In  re  Gardner,  140  O.  G.,  258. 

A  mere  aggregation  or  combination  of  old 
devices  is  not  patentable  when  the  elements 
are  unchanged  in  function  and  effect.  They 
are  patentable  when,  "by  the  action  of  the 
elements  upon  each  other,  or  by  their  joint 
action  on  their  common  object,  they  perform 
additional  functions  and  accomplish  addi- 
tional effects."  Robinson  on  Patents,  Sec. 
154. 

A  change  of  shape  enabling  an  instrument 
to  perform  new  functions  is  sometimes  in- 
vention. Wilson  V.  Oao,  18  Blatch,  532; 
Collar  Co.  v.  White,  7  O.  G.,  690,  877. 

A  patent  which  is  simply  for  a  method  of 
transacting  business  or  keeping  accounts  is 
not  valid.  U.  S.  Credit  System  Co.  v. 
American  Indemnity  Co.,  63  O.  G.,  318. 

The  mere  combination  of  articles  disclosed 
in  two  former  patents  will  not  constitute  in- 
vention, unless  it  results  in  producing  a  new 
and  useful  article  not  applied  by  those 
familiar  with  the  state  of  the  art.  In  re 
Faber,  136  O.  G.,  229. 

Patentable  novelty  may  be  found  in  an 
improvement  which  simpHfies  a  complicated 
train  of  mechanism  by  eliminating  some  of 
the  elements  with  the  result  that  defects  due 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


365 


to  the  presence  of  those  elements  are  done 
away  with.  Brown  v.  Huntington  Piano  Co., 
134  Fed.,  735. 

It  involves  no  invention  to  omit  a  part 
together  with  its  function.  Ex  parte 
McElroy,  161  O.  G.,  753. 

Where  the  claims  are  distinguishable  over 
the  prior  art  by  mere  arbitrary  variations 
which  amount  only  to  changes  of  mechanical 
design  and  which  accomplish  no  new  result, 
held  that  such  claims  are  unpatentable. 
Ex  parte  Hill,  117  O.  G.,  2365. 

The  substitution  of  one  material  for  another 
involves  invention  where  the  substituted 
material  is  used  in  a  relation  in  which  it  had 
not  before  been  used  and  in  which  it  ac- 
complished new  and  very  beneficial  results 
which  were  long  sought  by  those  skilled  in  the 
art.  George  Frost  Co.  et  al  v.  Cohn  et  al, 
119  Fed.,  505. 

There  is  no  invention  apparently  involved 
in  putting  some  other  mechanism  well  known 
in  the  art  and  well  adapted  for  such  use  in  the 
place  of  previously  used  mechanism  in  an  old 
device  operating  in  an  old  way  when  such 
substitution  does  not  involve  any  material 
rearrangement.  New  Departure  Bell  Co.  v. 
Bevin  Bros.  Manufacturing  Co.    75  O.  G.,2196. 

Mere  change  of  proportion  is  not  sufficient 
to  avoid  a  charge  of  infringement  and  is  not, 
therefore,  sufficient  to  establish  difference  of 
invention.  Thompson-Houston  Electric  Co. 
V.  Western  Electric  Co.  et  al.     75  O.  G.,  347. 

In  claiming  a  patent  for  the  discovery  of  a 
useful  result  in  any  art,  machine,  manu- 
facture or  composition  of  matter  by  the  use 
of  certain  means,  the  apphcant  must  specify 
the  means  he  uses  in  a  manner  so  full  and 
exact  that  any  one  skilled  in  the  science  to 
which  it  appertains  can  by  using  the  means 
he  specifies  without  any  addition  or  sub- 
traction from  them  produce  precisely  the 
result  he  describes.  In  re  Blackmore,  140 
O.  G.,  1209. 

A  patentee  is  bound  by  the  limitations 
imposed  on  his  patent,  whether  they  are 
voluntary  or  enforced  by  the  Patent  Office, 
and  if  he  accepts  claims  not  covering  his  entire 


invention  he  abandons  the  remainder. 
Toepfer  v.  Goetz,  41  O.  G.,  933. 

Claims  should  be  construed,  if  possible,  to 
sustain  the  patentee's  right  to  all  he  has 
invented.  Ransom  v.  Mayor  of  N.  Y.  (1856), 
Fisher,  252. 

Ihe  law  requires  that  manufacturers  of 
patented  articles  give  notice  to  the  public 
that  the  goods  are  patented  by  marking 
thereon  the  date  of  the  patent  or  giving 
equivalent  notice.  When  this  law  is  not 
complied  with,  only  nominal  damages  can  be 
recovered.  Wilson  v.  Singer  Mfg.  Co.,  4 
Bann.  &  A.  637;  McCourt  v.  Brodie,  5  Fisher, 
384. 

To  prevent  fraudulent  impositions  on  the 
pubUc  it  is  forbidden  that  unpatented  articles 
be  stamped  "Patented,"  and  where  this  is 
done  with  intention  to  deceive,  a  penalty  of 
one  hundred  dollars  and  costs  for  each  article 
so  stamped  is  provided.  Any  person  may 
bring  action  against  such  offenders.  Walker 
V.  Hawxhurst,  5  Blatch.  494;  Tompkins  v. 
Butterfield,  25  Fed.  Rep  556. 

The  assignor  of  a  patented  invention  is 
estopped  from  denying  the  validity  of  his  own 
patent  or  his  own  title  to  the  interest  trans- 
ferred. He  cannot  become  the  owner  of  an 
older  patent  and  hold  it  against  his  assignee. 
Robinson  on  Patents,  Sec.  787,  and  notes. 

Any  assignment  which  does  not  convey  to 
the  assignee  the  entire  and  unqualified 
monoply  which  the  patentee  holds  in  the 
territory  specified,  or  an  undivided  interest 
in  the  entire  monoply,  is  a  mere  license. 
Sanford  v.  Messer,  2  O.  G.,  470. 

Where  a  patented  machine  was  sold  by 
complainant  with  a  license  agreement  that  it 
was  to  be  used  only  with  ink  made  by  com- 
plainant and  defendant  with  knowledge  of 
such  license  agreement  sold  to  the  owner  of 
such  machine,  ink  not  made  by  complainant 
with  the  expectation  that  this  ink  was  to  be 
used  in  connection  with  such  machine,  held 
that  the  acts  of  defendant  constituted  con- 
tributory infringement'  of  complainant's 
patent.  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  Henry  et  al 
v.  A.  B.  Dick  Co.,  176  O.  G.,  751. 


FOREIGN  PATENTS. 


Canada,  Dominion  of. — The  laws  oi  Can- 
ada follow  somewhat  closely  the  practice  in 
the  United  States.  The  term  of  a  patent  is 
eighteen  years.  The  general  practice,  however, 
is  to  divide  the  fees,  making  payment  only  for 
a  term  of  six  years  at  one  time.  Applications 
are  subjected  to  examination  as  to  novelty  and 
usefulness,  as  in  the  United  States.  The  appli- 
cation must  be  filed  in  Canada  not  later  than 
during  the-  year  following  the  issue  of  the 
United  States  or  other  foreign  patent.  If  the  ■ 
inventor  neglects  to  file  his  application  within 
the  twelve  months,  the  invention  becomes 
public  property.  It  is  not  permissible  to  im- 
port the  patented  article  into  the  Dominion 
after  twelve  months  from  the  date  of  the  Cana- 
dian patent.  Within  two  years  from  said  date 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  the  article  under 
the  patent  must  have  been  begun.  These  exac- 
tions may  be  relaxed  under  certain  conditions. 

Great  Britain. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
fourteen  years.  An  examination  is  made  in 
Great  Britain  to  ascertain  whether  the  inven- 


tion has  been  disclosed  in  the  specifications  of 
British  patents  granted  within  fifty  years  of 
the  filing  of  the  British  appUcation.  While  this 
is  the  extent  of  the  examination  by  the  Patent 
Office,  it  is  sufficient  to  invalidate  a  British 
patent  to  show  in  court  that  the  invention  was 
published,  or  was  in  public  use,  in  Great  Brit- 
ain before  the  date  of  the  invention  of  the 
British  application.  In  Great  Britain  the  true 
inventor  should  apply  for  the  patent  in  his 
own  name;  but  if  the  invention  has  been  con- 
ceived in  a  foreign  country,  the  first  introducer 
may  obtain  the  patent  whether  he  be  the  true 
inventor  or  not.  Under  these  circumstances, 
therefore,  a  foreign  assignee  may  apply  for  the 
patent  in  his  own  name  without  the  true  in- 
ventor being  known.  After  the  fourth  year 
there  are  annual  taxes,  gradually  increasing  in 
amount.  The  patent  becomes  void  if  the  tax 
is  not  paid.  No  time  is  set  within  which  the 
manufacture  of  the  invention  must  be  com- 
menced, but  after  three  years  if  the  manufac- 
ture has  not  begun,  the  patentee  may  be  com- 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


367 


pelled  to  grant  licenses,  or  the  patent  may  be 
declared  invalid. 

France. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  There  is  no  examination  as  to  novelty, 
and  the  patent  is  granted  to  the  first  applicant, 
whether  or  not  he  be  the  true  inventor.  The 
life  of  the  patent  depends  upon  the  payment 
of  annual  taxes.  The  patent  must  be  worked 
in  France  within  two  years  from  the  date  of 
the  signing  of  the  patent.  If  these  conditions 
are  not  complied  with  the  patent  becomes 
public  property  but  the  working  provisions 
referred  to  are  modified  by  the  terms  of  the 
International  Convention,  under  which  the 
revocation  of  a  French  patent  is  prevented 
when  the  patent  is  granted  to  a  citizen  of  a 
country  which  is  a  member  of  the  Convention 
until  after  the  expiration  of  the  third  year 
counting  from  the  filing  of  the  French  ap- 
plication. 

Germany. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  patent  is  issued  to  the  first  appli- 
cant, but  if  he  is  not  the  true  inventor  he 
should,  before  filing  the  application,  obtain 
the  written  consent  of  the  inventor.  The  ap- 
plication is  subjected  to  a  rigid  examination. 
The  patent  is  subject  to  an  annual  progressive 
tax,  and  must  be  worked  within  a  period  of 
three  years  but  the  working  provisions  in 
Germany  are  modified  by  a  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Germany,  under  the 
provisions  of  which  the  revocation  of  a 
German  patent  granted  to  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  is  prevented  when  the  patented 
article  is  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 
Austria. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  practice  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
practice  in  Germany,  although  the  examina- 
tion is  generally  not  so  exacting.  The  patent 
is  subject  to  an  annual  tax  and  it  must  be 
worked  within  a  period  of  three  years. 

Hungary. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  laws  are  similar  to  those  of  Ger- 
many. There  is  a  progressive  annual  tax  and 
the  patent  must  be  worked  within  a  period  of 
three  years. 

Belgium. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  twenty 
years.  The  first  applicant  obtains  the  patent 
whether  or  not  he  is  the  true  inventor.  There 
is  a  small  annual  tax,  and  the  patent  should 
be  worked  within  one  year  of  the  working 
elsewhere  but  the  working  provisions  in 
Belgium  are  modified  under  the  terms  of  the 
International  Convention  which  prevent  the 
revocation  of  a  Belgian  patent  granted  to  a 
citizen  of  a  country  which  is  a  member  of  the 
Convention  until  after  the  expiration  of  three 
years  counting  from  the  filing  of  the  Belgian 
patent  Application. 

Italy. — The  maximum  term  of  a  patent  is 
fifteen  years.  The  patent  is  granted  to  the 
first  applicant.  The  patent  is  subject  to  an 
annual  tax.  The  patent  becomes  invalid  if  it 
is  not  worked  within  one  year  or  if  work  under 
it  has  been  suspended  for  a  whole  year,  where 
the  term  is  five  years  or  less;  or,  where  the 
term  is  more  than  five  years,  if  it  is  not  worked 
within  two  years  or  work  under  it  has  been 
suspended  for  two  years  but  the  workmg 
provisions  in  Italy  are  modified  by  the  Pfo- 
visions  of  the  International  Convention,  with 
reference  to  which  see  "France,"  referred  to 
above. 

Russia. — The  term  of  the  patent  is  fifteen 
years.    The  patent  is  subject  to  the  payment 


of  annual  taxes  and  must  be  worked  within 
five  years. 

Spain. — The  term  of  the  patent  is  twenty 
years,  subject  to  the  payment  of  annual  taxes. 
It  must  be  worked  within  two  years.  The  pat- 
ent is  issued  to  the  first  applicant,  whether  or 
not  be  .the  true  inventor.  The  working 
provisions  are  modified  under  the  terms  of 
the  International  Convention. 

Switzerland. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
fifteen  years,  subject  to  an  annual  tax.  Work- 
ing must  take  place  within  three  years.  The 
true  inventor  or  his  assignee  can  obtain  a 
patent  but  when  the  Swiss  patent  is  granted 
to  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  it  is  un- 
necessary for  him  to  work  the  patent  pro- 
vided the  invention  is  being  worked  in  the 
United  States. 

Norway. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fourteen 
years.  The  patent  is  subject  to  a  small  annual 
tax.  The  application  must  be  filed  in  the  name 
of  the  true  inventor  or  his  assignee.  Applica- 
tions must  be  filed  within  twelve  months  of 
the  publication  of  the  patent  in  any  foreign 
country.  The  patentee  may  be  compelled  to 
grant  licenses.  The  application  must  be 
filed  either  before  the  issue  of  the  United 
States  patent  or  during  the  year  following 
the  filing  of  the  United  States  application. 

Sweden. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  patent  is  subject  to  an  annual  tax. 
The  conditions  are  similar  to  those  existent  in 
Norway.  Working  is  not  now  necessary  in 
Sweden,  but  the  patentee  may  be  compelled 
to  grant  licenses  should  he  fail  to  carry  on 
the  manufacture  in  Sweden. 

Denmark. — The  laws  are  similar  to  those 
of  Sweden  but  the  patent  should  be  worked 
within  three  years. 

Portugal. — The  term  of  the  patent  varies 
from  one  to  fifteen  years,  the  fees  payable 
depending  upon  the  term  of  the  patent.  A 
patent  must  be  worked  within  two  years  but 
the  working  provisions  are  modified  by  the 
provisions  of  the  International  Convention 
under  which  the  working  is  not  required  when 
the  patentee  is  a  citizen  of  a  country  which  is 
a  member  of  the  Convention  until  after  the 
expiration  of  three  years  from  the  date  of 
filing  of  the  application  in  Portugal. 

Netherlands. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
fifteen  years.  The  patent  is  granted  to  the  first 
apphcant.  The  patentee  must  have  a  bona 
fide  industrial  establishment  where  the  pat- 
ented article  is  manufactured  within  five  years 
or  the  patent  is  revocable.  The  patent  is  sub- 
ject to  an  annually  increasing  tax. 

Australia. — The  Australian  patent  pro- 
tects an  invention  in  Victoria,  New  Soutp 
Wales,  Queensland,  South  Australia,  Tas. 
mania.  West  AustraUa  and  Papua,  but  not  in 
New  Zealand,  which  has  its  own  patent  law. 
The  term  of  the  Australian  patent  is  fourteen 
years,  a  tax  being  due  before  the  expiration  of 
the  seventh  year.  When  the  patent  is  not 
worked  a  compulsory  license  or  revocation  of 
the  patent  may  be  enforced  after  two  years 
from  the  granting  of  the  patent  but  Australia 
is  a  member  of  the  International  Convention, 
and  the  working  provisions  are  therefore 
modified  by  the  terms  of  the  convention. 

New  Zealand. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
fourteen  years,  taxes  being  due  before  the  end 
of  the  fourth  and  seventh  years.  Compulsory 
licenses  may  be  obtained. 


368 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


British  India.— The  patent  is  granted  for 
fourteen  years  with  a  possible  term  of  ex- 
^.ension.  The  application  should  be  filed 
within  one  year  of  the  issue  of  the  patent  in 
any  other  country  and  before  the  invention  has 
been  pubUcly  used  or  made  publicly  known 
in  any  part  of  British  India.  Taxes  are 
payable  before  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  and 
annually  thereafter.  If  the  patent  is  not 
worked   to  an  adequate  extent  within  four 

Sears  the  patentee  may  be  compelled  to  grant 
censes  to  prevent  the  revocation  of  the 
patent. 

Turkey. — Patents  are  granted  for  five,  ten 
or  fifteen  years.  The  application  must  be  filed 
by  the  inventor  or  his  assignee.  The  patent  is 
subject  to  an  annual  tax.  The  patent  must  be 
worked  within  two  years. 

Porto  Rico. — Protection  is  secured  by  fil- 
ing a  certified  copy  of  the  United  States  pat- 
ent with  the  Secretary  of  the  Government  and 
by  complying  with  certain  legal  formalities. 

Philippines. — The  modus  operandi  is  the 
same  as  that  just  described  as  applying  to 
Porto  Rico. 

Cuba. — Since  Cuba  has  become  an  inde- 
pendent republic  it  has  established  a  patent 
system.  The  term  of  the  patent  is  seventeen 
years.  Working  should  be  established  within 
one  year  but  the  term  for  the  working  of  the 
Cuban  patent  is  modified  by  the  provisions 
of  the  Convention.  No  taxes  after  the  issue 
of  the  patent. 

Mexico. — The  term  is  twenty  years.  The 
application  must  be  filed  in  Mexico  either 
within  twelve  months  from  the  date  of  filing 
of  the  first  apphcation  in  another  country  or 


within  three  months  from  the  date  of  issue 
of  the  foreign  patent.  There  are  no  taxes 
after  the  issue  of  the  patent.  If  the  Mexican 
patent  is  not  worked  the  patentee  may  be 
required,  after  the  expiration  of  three  years 
of  the  patent  term,  to  grant  licenses  per- 
mitting others  to  manufacture  in  Mexico. 

South  American  Republics. — Patents  are 
issued  by  all  of  the  South  American  Republics. 
The  principal  countries  in  which  patent  pro- 
tection is  sought  are  Brazil,  in  which  the  laws 
are  quite  favorable  to  foreigners  and  where  the 
term  is  fifteen  years;  Chile,  where  the  term  is 
generally  ten  years,  and  Argentina,  where  the 
terms  are  five,  ten  and  fifteen  years,  according 
to  the  merits  of  the  invention.  Patents  are 
also  frequently  secured  in  Venezuela,  Peru, 
Ecuador,  Colombia  and  Paraguay,  but  only 
for  certain  classes  of  invention,  owing  to  the 
expense  involved  in  procuring  the  patents. 

South  Africa. — Patents  are  obtainable  in 
four  important  states.  Cape  Colony,  Transvaal, 
Congo  Free  State  and  Orange  Free  State.  In 
Cape  Colony  the  term  is  fourteen  years.  There 
are  no  conditions  as  to  working  the  patent. 
The  law  is  otherwise  similar  to  that  of  Great 
Britain. 

Japan. — The  term  of  the  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  applicant  must  be  the  inventor  or 
derive  his  title  from  the  inventor.  There  is  an 
examination  of  the  application.  The  patent  is 
subject  to  an  increasing  tax,  and  must  be 
worked  within  three  years.  The  taxes  for  the 
first,  second  and  third  years  of  the  patent 
term  are  paid  before  the  patent  is  issued.  The 
subsequent  taxes  are  paid  annually  after  the 
expiration  of  the  third  year  of  the  patent  term. 


THE  PATENT  LAWS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  Constitutional  Provision.— The  Congress 
shall  have  power  *  *  *  to  promote  the 
progress  of  Science  and  Useful  Arts,  by  se- 
curing for  limited  Times  to  Authors  and  In- 
ventors the  exclusive  Right  to  their  respective 
Writings    and    Discoveries. 

STATUTES. 
ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    PATENT    OFFICE. 

Title   XI,    Rev.    Stat.,    p.    80: 

Sec.  475.  There  shall  be  in  the  Department 
of  the  Interior  an  office  known  as  the  Patent 
Office,  where  all  records,  books,  models,  draw- 
ings, specifications,  and  other  papers  and 
things  pertaining  to  patents  shall  be  safely 
kept    and    preserved. 

Sec.  476.  There  shall  be  in  the  Patent  Of- 
fice a  Commissioner  of  Patents,  one  Assistant 
Commissioner,  and  three  examiners-in-chief, 
who  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ate. "  All  other  offices,  clerks  and  employees 
authorized  by  law  for  the  Office  shall  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  upon 
the  nomination  of  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents. 

Sec.  480.  All  officers  and  employees  of  the 
Patent  Office  shall  be  incapable,  during  the 
period  for  which  they  hold  their  appoint- 
ments, to  acquire  or  take,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, except  by  inheritance  or  bequest,  any 
right  of  interest  in  any  patent  issued  by  the 
Office. 

Sec.  481.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents, 
under    the    direction    of    the    Secretary    of    the 


Interior,  shall  superintend  or  perform  all  du- 
ties respecting  the  granting  and  issuing  of 
patents  directed  by  law;  and  he  shall  have 
charge  of  all  books,  records,  papers,  models, 
machines,  and  other  things  belonging  to  the 
Patent    Office. 

Sec.  482.  The  examiners-in-chief  shall  be 
persons  of  competent  legal  knowledge  and  sci- 
entific ability,  whose  duty  it  shall  be,  on  the 
written  petition  of  the  appellant,  to  revise  and 
determine  upon  the  validity  of  the  adverse 
decisions  of  examiners  upon  applications  for 
patents,  and  for  reissues  of  patents,  and  in 
interference  cases;  and  when  required  by  the 
Commissioner,  they  shall  hear  and  report  upon 
claims  for  extensions,  and  perform  such  other 
like  duties  as   he  may   assign  them. 

Sec.  483.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  may  from  time  to  time  establish  regu- 
lations, not  inconsistent  with  law,  for  the 
conduct    of   proceedings    in   the    Patent    Office. 

Sec.  488.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents  may 
require  all  papers  filed  in  the  Patent  Office, 
if  not  correctly,  legibly,  and  clearly  written, 
to  be  printed  at  the  cost  of  the  party  filing 
them. 

Title    XIII,    Rev.    Stat.,    p.    169: 

Sec.  892.  Written  or  printed  copies  of  any 
records,  books,  papers,  or  drawings  belonging 
to  the  Patent  Office,  and  of  letters  patent 
authenticated  by  the  seal  and  certified  by  the 
Commissioner  or  Acting  Cojnmissioner  thereof, 
shall  be  evidence  in  all  cases  wherein  the 
originals  could  be  evidence;  and  any  person 
making    application    therefor,    and    paying    the 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


369 


fee  required  by  law,   shall  have  certified   copies 
thereof. 

Sec.  893.  Copies  of  the  specifications  and 
drawings  of  foreign  letters  patent  certified  as 
provided  in  the  preceding  section,  shall  be 
prima  facie  evidence  of  the  fact  of  the  granting 
of  such  letters  patent,  and  of  the  date  and 
contents    thereof. 

Sec.  894.  The  printed  copies  of  specifica- 
tions and  drawings  of  patents,  which  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  is  authorized  to  print 
for  gratuitous  distribution,  and  to  deposit  in 
the  capitols  of  the  States  and  Territories,  and 
in  the  clerks'  ofilces  of  the  district  court, 
shall,  when  certified  by  him  and  authenticated 
by  the  seal  of  his  office,  be  received  in  all 
courts  as  evidence  of  all  matters  therein  con- 
tained. 

Sec.  973.  When  judgment  or  decree  is  ren- 
dered for  the  plaintiff  or  complainant,  in  any 
suit  at  law  or  in  equity,  for  the  infringement 
of  a  part  of  a  patent,  in  which  it  appears 
that  the  patentee,  in  his  specification,  claimed 
to  be  the  original  and  first  inventor  or  dis- 
coverer of  any  material  or  substantial  part  of 
the  thing  patented,  of  which  he  was  not  the 
original  and  first  inventor,  no  costs  shall  be 
recovered,  unless  the  proper  disclaimer,  as 
provided  by  the  patent  laws,  has  been  entered 
at  the  Patent  Office  before  the  suit  was 
brought.      (See   Sees.    4917,    4922.) 

Sec.  1537.  No  patented  article  connected 
with  marine  engines  shall  hereafter  be  pur- 
chased or  used  in  connection  with  any  steam 
vessels  of  war  until  the  same  shall  have  been 
submitted  to  a  competent  board  of  naval  engi- 
neers, and  recommended  by  such  board,  in 
writing,  for  purchase  and  use. 
Title  XVII,  Rev.  Stat.,  p.  292: 
Sec.  1673.  No  royalty  shall  be  paid  by  the 
United  States  to  any  one  of  its  officers  or 
employees  for  the  use  of  any  patent  for  the 
system,  or  any  part  thereof,  nor  for  any  such 
patent  in  which  said  officers  or  employees 
may  be  directly  or  indirectly  interested. 
Title  LX,  Rev.  Stat.,  1878,  chap.  1,  p.  945: 
Sec.  4883.  All  patents  shall  be  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
under  the  seal  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  shall 
be  signed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and 
they  shall  be  recorded,  together  with  the  spe- 
cifications, in  the  Patent  Office  in  books  to  be 
kept    for   that   purpose. 

Sec.  4884.  Every  patent  shall  contain  a 
short  title  or  description  of  the  invention  or 
discovery,  correctly  indicating  its  nature  and 
design,  and  a  grant  to  the  patentee,  his  heirs 
or  assigns,  for  the  term  of  seventeen  years, 
of  the  exclusive  right  to  make,  use,  and  vend 
the  invention  or  discovery  throughout  the 
United  States  and  the  Territories  thereof,  re- 
ferring to  the  specification  for  the  particulars 
thereof.  A  copy  of  the  specification  and  draw- 
ings shall  be  annexed  to  the  patent  and  be 
a    part    thereof. 

Sec.  4885.  Every  patent  shall  issue  within 
a  period  of  three  months  from  the  date  of 
the  payment  of  the  final  fee,  which  fee  shall 
be  paid  not  later  than  six  months  from  the 
time  at  which  the  application  was  passed  and 
allowed  and  notice  thereof  was  sent  to  the 
applicant  or  his  agent;  and  if  the  final  fee 
is  not  paid  within  that  period  the  patent 
shall  be  withheld. 

Sec.  4886.  Any  person  who  has  Invented  or 
discovered  any  new  and  useful  art,  machine, 
manufacture,  or  composition  of  matter,  or  any 
new  and  useful  Improvements  thereof,  not 
known  or  used  by   others  in  this  country,   be- 


fore his  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  and 
not  patented  or  described  in  any  printed  pub- 
lication in  this  or  any  foreign  country,  before 
his  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  or  more 
than  two  years  prior  to  his  application,  and 
not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in  this  country 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  appli- 
cation, unless  the  same  is  proved  to  have 
been  abandoned,  may,  upon  payment  of  the 
fees  required  by  law,  and  other  due  proceed- 
ing  had,    obtain   a  patent  therefor. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents  are  authorized  to  grant 
any  officer  of  the  Government,  except  officers 
and  employees  of  the  Patent  Office,  a  patent 
for  any  invention  of  the  classes  mentioned  in 
section  4886  of  the  Revised  Statutes  when  such 
invention  is  used  or  to  be  used  in  the  public 
service,  without  the  payment  of  any  fee;  Pro- 
vided, That  the  applicant  in  his  application 
shall  state  that  the  invention  described  therein, 
if  patented,  may  be  used  by  the  Government, 
or  any  of  its  officers  or  employees  in  prose- 
cution of  work  for  the  Government,  or  by 
any  other  person  in  the  United  States,  without 
the  payment  to  him  of  any  royalty  thereon, 
which  stipulation  shall  be  included  in  the 
patent. 

Sec.  4887.  No  person  otherwise  entitled 
thereto  shall  be  debarred  from  receiving  a 
patent  for  his  invention  or  discovery,  nor 
shall  any  patent  be  declared  invalid  by  reason 
of  its  having  been  first  patented  or  caused  to 
be  patented  by  the  inventor  or  his  legal  rep- 
resentatives or  assigns  in  a  foreign  country, 
unless  the  application  for  said  foreign  patent 
was  filed  more  than  twelve  months,  in  cases 
within  the  provisions  of  section  4886  of  the 
Revised  Statutes,  and  four  months  in  cases 
of  designs,  prior  to  the  filing  of  the  appli- 
cation in  this  country,  in  which  case  no 
patent   shall   be   granted    in   this   country. 

An  application  for  patent  for  an  invention 
or  discovery  or  for  a  design  filed  in  this 
country  by  any  person  who  has  previously 
regularly  filed  an  application  for  a  patent 
for  the  same  invention,  discovery,  or  design 
in  a  foreign  country  which,  by  treaty,  con- 
vention, or  law,  affords  similar  privileges  to 
citizens  of  the  United  States  shall  have  the 
same  force  and  effect  as  the  same  application 
would  have  if  filed  in  this  country  on  the 
date  on  which  the  application  for  patent  for 
the  same  invention,  discovery,  or  design  was 
first  filed  in  such  foreign  country,  provided 
the  application  in  this  country  is  filed  within 
twelve  months  in  cases  within  the  provisions 
of  section  4886  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  and 
within  four  months  in  cases  of  designs,  from 
the  earliest  date  on  which  any  such  foreign 
application  was  filed.  But  no  patent  shall  be 
granted  on  an  application  for  patent  for  an 
invention  or  discovery  or  a  design  which  had 
been  patented  or  described  in  a  printed  pub- 
lication in  this  or  any  foreign  country  more 
than  two  years  before  the  date  of  the  actual 
filing  of  the  application  In  this  country,  or 
which  had  been  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in 
this  country  for  more  than  two  years  prior 
to   such   filing. 

Sec.  4888.  Before  any  inventor  or  discoverer 
shall  receive  a  patent  for  his  invention  or 
discovery,  he  shall  make  application  therefor, 
in  writing,  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents, 
and  shall  file  in  the  Patent  Office  a  written 
description  of  the  same,  and  of  the  manner 
and  process  of  making,  constructing,  compound- 
ing, and  using  it,  In  such  full,  clear,  con- 
cise, and  exact  terms  as  to  enable  any  person 
skilled   in  the  art   or  science  to  which  it  ap- 


S70 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


pertains,  or  with  which  it  is  most  nearly  con- 
nected, to  make,  construct,  compound,  and 
use  the  same;  and  in  case  of  a  machine,  he 
shall  explain  the  principle  thereof,  and  the 
best  mode  in  which  he  has  contemplated  ap- 
plying that  principle,  so  as  to  distinguish  it 
from  other  Inventions;  and  he  shall  particu- 
larly point  out  and  distinctly  claim  the  part, 
improvement,  or  combination  which  he  claims 
as  his  invention  or  discovery.  The  specifica- 
tion and  claim  shall  be  signed  by  the  in- 
ventor   and    attested    by    two    witnesses. 

Sec.  4889.  When  the  nature  of  the  case 
admits  of  drawings,  the  applicant  shall  fur- 
nish one  copy  signed  by  the  inventor  or  his 
attorney  in  fact,  and  attested  by  two  wit- 
nesses, which  shall  be  filed  in  the  Patent 
Office;  and  a  copy  of  the  drawing,  to  be  fur- 
nished by  the  Patent  Office,  shall  be  attached 
to    the    patent    as    a    part    of    the    specification. 

Sec.  4890.  When  the  invention  or  discovery 
is  of  a  composition  of  matter,  the  applicant, 
If  required  by  the  Commissioner,  shall  furnish 
specimens  of  ingredients  and  of  the  compo- 
sition, sufficient  in  quantity  for  the  purpose 
of    experiment. 

Sec.  4891.  In  all  cases  which  admit  of 
representation  by  model,  the  applicant,  if 
required  by  the  Commissioner,  shall  furnish 
a  model  of  convenient  size  to  exhibit  advan- 
tageously the  several  parts  of  his  invention  or 
discovery. 

Sec.  4892.  The  applicant  shall  make  oath 
that  he  does  verily  believe  himself  to  be  the 
original  and  first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the 
art,  machine,  manufacture,  composition,  or 
improvement  for  which  he  solicits  a  patent; 
that  he  does  not  know  and  does  not  believe 
that  the  same  was  ever  before  known  or  used; 
and  shall  state  of  what  country  he  is  a  citi- 
zen. Such  oath  may  be  made  before  any 
person  within  the  United  States  authorized 
by  law  to  administer  oaths,  or,  when  the 
applicant  resides  in  a  foreign  country,  before 
any  minister,  charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or 
commercial  agent  holding  commission  under 
the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  before 
any  notary  public,  judge,  or  magistrate  having 
an  official  seal  and  authorized  to  administer 
oaths  in  the  foreign  country  in  which  the 
applicant  may  be,  whose  authority  shall  be 
proved  by  certificate  of  a  diplomatic  or  con- 
sular  officer   of   the   United    States. 

Sec.  4893.  On  the  filing  of  any  such  appli- 
cation and  the  payment  of  the  fees  required 
by  law,  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  shall 
cause  an  examination  to  be  made  of  the  al- 
leged new  invention  or  discovery;  and  if  on 
such  examination  it  shall  appear  that  the 
claimant  is  justly  entitled  to  a  patent  under 
the  law,  and  that  the  same  is  sufficiently  useful 
and  important,  the  Commissioner  shall  issue 
a    patent    therefor. 

Sec.  4894.  All  applications  for  patents  shall 
be  completed  and  prepared  for  examination 
within  one  year  after  the  filing  of  the  appli- 
cation, and  in  default  thereof,  or  upon  failure 
of  the  applicant  to  prosecute  the  same  within 
one  year  after  any  action  therein,  of  which 
notice  shall  have  been  given  to  the  applicant, 
they  shall  be  regarded  as  abandoned  by  the 
parties  thereto,  unless  it  be  shown  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
that    such    delay    was    unavoidable. 

Sec.  4895.  Patents  may  be  granted  and  is- 
sued or  reissued  to  the  assignee  of  the  inventor 
or  discoverer;  but  the  assignment  must  first 
be  entered  of  record  in  the  Patent  Office.  And 
in  all  cases  of  an  application  by  an  assignee 
for  the  issue  of  a  patent,   the  application  shall 


be  made  and  the  specification  sworn  to  by  the 
inventor  or  discoverer;  and  in  all  cases  of  an 
application  for  a  reissue  of  any  patent,  the 
application  must  be  made  and  the  corrected 
specification  signed  by  the  inventor  or  dis- 
coverer, if  he  is  living,  unless  the  patent 
was  issued  and  the  assignment  made  before 
the  eighth   day   of  July,    1870. 

Sec.  4896.  When  any  person,  having  made 
any  new  invention  or  discovery  for  which  a 
patent  might  have  been  granted,  dies  beforo 
a  patent  is  granted,  the  right  of  applying  for 
and  obtaining  the  patent  shall  devolve  on  his 
executor  or  administrator,  in  trust  for  the 
heirs  at  law  of  the  deceased,  in  case  he  shall 
have  died  intestate;  or  if  he  shall  have  left 
a  will  disposing  of  the  same,  then  in  trust 
for  his  devisees,  in  as  full  manne?  and  on  the 
same  terms  and  conditions  as  the  same  might 
have  been  claimed  or  enjoyed  by  him  in  his 
lifetime;  and  when  any  person  having  made 
any  new  invention  or  discovery  for  which  a 
patent  might  have  been  granted  becomes  in- 
sane before  a  patent  is  granted  the  right  of 
applying  for  and  obtaining  the  patent  shall 
devolve  on  his  legally  appointed  guardian, 
conservator,  or  representative  in  trust  for  his 
estate  in  as  full  manner  and  on  the  same 
terms  and  conditions  as  the  same  might  have 
been  claimed  or  enjoyed  by  him  while  sane 
and  when  the  application  is  made  by  such 
legal  representatives  the  oath  or  affirmation 
required  to  be  made  shall  be  so  varied  in 
form  that  it  can  be  made  by  them.  The  exec- 
utor or  administrator  duly  authorized  under 
the  law  of  any  foreign  country  to  administer 
upon  the  estate  of  the  deceased  inventor  shall, 
in  case  the  said  inventor  was  not  domiciled 
in  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
have  the  right  to  apply  for  and  obtain  the 
patent.  The  authority  of  such  foreign  exec- 
utor or  administrator  shall  be  proved  by  cer- 
tificate of  a  diplomatic  or  consular  officer  of 
the    United    States. 

The  foregoing  section,  as  to  insane  persons. 
Is  to  cover  all  applications  now  on  file  in 
the  Patent  Office  or  which  may  be  hereafter 
made. 

Sec.  4897.  Any  person  who  has  an  interest 
in  an  invention  or  discovery,  whether  as  in- 
ventor, discoverer  or  assignee,  for  which  a 
patent  was  ordered  to  issue  upon  the  pay- 
ment of  the  final  fee,  but  who  fails  to  make 
payment  thereof  within  six  months  from  the 
time  at  which  it  was  passed  and  allowed,  and 
notice  thereof  was  sent  to  the  applicant  or 
his  agent,  shall  have  a  right  to  make  an 
application  for  a  patent  for  such  invention 
or  discovery  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  an 
original  application.  But  such  second  appli- 
cation must  be  made  within  two  years  after 
the  allowance  of  the  original  application.  But 
no  person  shall  be  held  responsible  in  damages 
for  the  manufacture  or  use  of  any  article  or 
thing  for  which  a  patent  was  ordered  to  issue 
under  such  renewed  application  prior  to  the 
issue  of  the  patent.  And  upon  the  hearing 
of  renewed  applications  preferred  under  this 
section,  abandonment  shall  be  considered  as  a 
question    of    fact. 

Sec.  4898.  Every  patent  or  any  interest 
therein  shall  be  assignable  in  law  by  an  in- 
strument in  writing,  and  the  patentee  or  his 
assigns  or  legal  representatives  may  in  like 
manner  grant  and  convey  an  exclusive  right 
under  his  patent  to  the  whole  or  any  specified 
part  of  the  United  States.  An  assignment, 
grant,  or  conveyance  shall  be  void  as  against 
any  subsequent  purchaser  or  mortgagee  for  a 
valuable   consideration,    without   notice,    unless 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


371 


It  Is  recorded  in  the  Patent  Office  within  three 
months   from   the   date   thereof. 

If  any  such  assignment,  grant,  or  convey- 
ance of  any  patent  shall  be  acknowledged  be- 
fore any  notary  public  of  the  several  States 
or  Territories  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  or 
any  commissioner  of  the  United  States  Circuit 
Court,  or  before  any  secretary  of  legation  or 
consular  officer  authorized  to  administer  oaths 
or  perform  notarial  acts  under  section  1750  of 
the  Revised  Statutes,  the  certificate  of  such 
acknowledgment,  under  the  hand  and  official 
seal  of  such  notary  or  other  officer,  shall  be 
prima  facie  evidence  of  the  execution  of  such 
assignment,    grant   or    conveyance. 

Sec.  4899.  Every  person  who  purchases  of 
the  inventor  or  discoverer,  or,  with  his  knowl- 
edge and  consent,  constructs  any  newly  in- 
vented or  discovered  machine,  or  other  patent- 
able article,  prior  to  the  application  by  the 
inventor  or  discoverer  for  a  patent,  or  who 
sells  or  uses  one  so  constructed,  shall  have 
the  right  to  use,  and  vend  to  others  to  be 
used,  the  specific  thing  so  made  or  purchased, 
without    liability    therefor. 

Sec.  4900.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  pat- 
entees, and  their  assigns  and  legal  represen- 
tatives, and  of  all  persons  making  or  vending 
any  patented  article  for  or  under  them,  to 
give  sufficient  notice  to  the  public  that  the 
same  is  patented  either  by  fixing  thereon  the 
word  "patented,"  together  with  the  day  and 
year  the  patent  was  granted;  or  when,  from 
the  character  of  the  article,  this  cannot  be 
done,  by  fixing  to  it,  or  to  the  package  where- 
in one  or  more  of  them  is  inclosed,  a  label 
containing  the  like  notice;  and  in  any  suit  for 
infringement,  by  the  party  failing  so  to  mark, 
no  damages  shall  be  recovered  by  the  plain- 
tiff, except  on  proof  that  the  defendant  was 
duly  notified  of  the  Infringement,  and  con- 
tinued, after  such  notice,  to  make,  use,  or 
vend    the    article    so    patented. 

Sec.  4901.  Every  person  who,  In  any  man- 
ner, marks  upon  anything  made,  used,  or  sold 
by  him  for  which  he  has  not  obtained  a  pat- 
ent, the  name  or  any  imitation  of  the  name 
of  any  person  who  has  obtained  a  patent 
therefor,  without  the  consent  of  such  pat- 
entee, or  his  assigns  or  legal  representatives; 
or 

Who,  in  any  manner,  marks  upon  or  affixes 
to  any  such  patented  article  the  word  "pat- 
ent" or  "patentee,"  or  the  words  "letters 
patent,"  or  any  word  of  like  import,  with 
intent  to  imitate  or  counterfeit  the  mark  or 
device  of  the  patentee,  without  having  the 
license  or  consent  of  such  patentee  or  his 
assigns   or   legal   representatives;    or 

Who,  in  any  manner,  marks  upon  or  affixes 
to  any  unpatented  article  the  word  "patent" 
or  any  word  importing  that  the  same  is  pat- 
ented, for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the  public, 
ehall  be  liable,  for  every  such  offense,  to  a 
penalty  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars, 
with  costs;  one-half  of  said  penalty  to  the 
person  who  shall  sue  for  the  same,  and  the 
other  to  the  use  of  the  United  States,  to  be 
recovered  by  suit  in  any  district  court  of  the 
United  States  within  whose  jurisdiction  such 
offense    may    have    been    committed. 

Sec.  4903.  Whenever,  on  examination,  any 
claim  for  a  patent  is  rejected,  the  Commis- 
sioner shall  notify  the  applicant  thereof,  giving 
him  briefly  the  reasons  for  such  rejection,  to- 
gether with  such  information  and  references 
as  may  be  useful  in  judging  of  the  propriety 
of  renewing  his  application  or  of  altering  his 
specification;  and  if,  after  receiving  such 
notice,    the  applicant  persists   in  his   claim  for   > 


a  patent,  with  or  without  altering  his  specifica- 
tions, the  Commissioner  shall  order  a  re-ex- 
amination   of    the    case. 

Sec.  4904.  Whenever  an  application  is  made 
for  a  patent  which,  m  the  opinion  of  the 
Commissioner,  would  Interfere  with  any  pend- 
ing application,  or  with  any  unexpired  patent, 
he  shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the  applicants, 
or  applicant  and  patentee,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  shall  direct  the  primary  examiner  to 
proceed  to  determine  the  question  of  priority 
of  invention.  And  the  Commissioner  may 
issue  a  patent  to  the  party  who  is  adjudged 
the  prior  inventor,  unless  the  adverse  party 
appeals  from  the  decision  of  the  primary  ex- 
aminer, or  of  the  board  of  examiners-in-chief, 
as  the  case  may  be,  within  such  time,  not 
less  than  twenty  days,  as  the  Commissioner 
shall    prescribe. 

Sec.  4905.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents  may 
establish  rules  for  taking  affidavits  and  depo- 
sitions required  in  cases  pending  in  the  Pat- 
ent Office,  and  such  affidavits  and  depositions 
may  be  taken  before  any  officer  authorized  by 
law  to  take  depositions  to  be  used  in  the 
courts  of  the  United  States  or  of  the  State 
where    the    officer    resides. 

Sec.  4906.  The  clerk  of  any  court  of  the 
United  States,  for  any  district  or  Territory 
wherein  testimony  is  to  be  taken  for  use  in 
any  contested  case  pending  in  the  Patent 
Office,  shall,  upon  the  application  of  any  party 
thereto,  or  of  his  agent  or  attorney,  issue 
a  subpoena  for  any  witness  residing  or  being 
within  such  district  or  Territory,  commanding 
him  to  appear  and  testify  before  any  officer  in 
such  district  or  Territory  authorized  to  take 
depositions  and  affidavits,  at  any  time  and 
place  in  the  subpoena  stated..  But  no  witness 
shall  be  required  to  attend  at  any  place  more 
than  forty  miles  from  the  place  where  the 
subpoena    is    served    upon    him. 

Sec.  4907.  Every  witness  duly  subpoenaed 
and  in  attendance  shall  be  allowed  the  same 
fees  as  are  allowed  to  witnesses  attending  the 
courts    of    the    United    States. 

Sec.  4908.  Whenever  any  witness,  after  be- 
ing duly  served  with  such  subpoena,  neglects 
or  refuses  to  appear,  or  after  appearing  re- 
fuses to  testify,  the  judge  of  the  court  whose 
clerk  issued  the  subpoena  may,  on  proof  of 
such  neglect  or  refusal,  enforce  obedience  to 
the  process,  or  punish  the  disobedience,  as  in 
other  like  cases.  But  no  witness  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  contempt  for  disobeying  such 
subpoena,  unless  his  fees  and  traveling  ex- 
penses in  going  to,  returning  from,  and  one 
day's  attendance  at  the  place  of  examination, 
are  paid  or  tendered  him  at  the  time  of  the 
service  of  the  subpoena;  nor  for  refusing  to 
disclose  any  secret  invention  or  discovery 
made    or    owned    by    himself. 

Sec.  4909.  Every  applicant  for  a  patent  or 
for  the  reissue  of  a  patent,  any  of  the  claims 
of  which  have  been  twice  rejected,  and  every 
party  to  an  interference,  may  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  the  primary  examiner,  or  of 
the  examiner  in  charge  of  interferences  In 
such  case,  to  the  board  of  examiners-ln-chief ; 
having  once  paid  the   fee  for  such  appeal. 

Sec.  4910.  If  such  party  is  dissatisfied  with 
the  decision  of  the  examiners-in-chief,  he  may, 
on  payment  of  the  fee  prescribed,  appeal  to 
the    Commissioner    in    person. 

Sec.  4911.  If  such  party,  except  a  party  to 
an  interference,  is  dissatisfied  with  the  de- 
cision of  the  Commissioner,  he  may  appeal 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia,   sitting    in    banc. 


372 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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373 


Sec.  4912.  When  an  appeal  is  taken  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
the  appellant  shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the 
Commissioner,  and  file  in  the  Patent  Office 
within  such  time  as  the  Commissioner  shall 
appoint,  his  reasons  of  appeal,  specifically  set 
forth    in    writing. 

Sec.  4913.  The  court  shall,  before  hearing 
such  appeal,  give  notice  to  the  Commissioner 
of  the  time  and  place  of  the  hearing,  and  on 
receiving  such  notice  the  Commissioner  shall 
give  notice  of  such  time  and  place  in  such 
manner  as  the  court  may  prescribe,  to  all 
parties  who  appear  to  be  interested  therein. 
The  party  appealing  shall  lay  before  the  court 
certified  copies  of  all  the  original  papers  and 
evidence  in  the  case,  and  the  Commissioner 
shall  furnish  the  court  with  the  grounds  of  his 
decision,  fully  set  forth  in  writing,  touching 
all  the  points  involved  by  the  reasons  of 
appeal.  And  at  the  request  of  any  party  in- 
terested, or  of  the  court,  the  Commissioner 
and  the  examiners  may  be  examined  under 
oath,  in  explanation  of  the  principles  of  the 
thing   for    which    a    patent    is    demanded 

Sec.  4914.  The  court,  on  petition,  shall  hear 
and  determine  such  appeal,  and  revise  the 
decision  appealed  from  in  a  summary  way, 
on  the  evidence  produced  before  the  Commis- 
sioner, at  such  early  and  convenient  time  as 
the  court  may  appoint;  and  the  revision  shall 
be  confined  to  the  points  set  forth  in  the 
reasons  of  appeal.  After  hearing  the  case  the 
court  shall  return  to  the  Commissioner  a  cer- 
tificate of  its  proceedings  and  decision,  which 
shall  be  entered  of  record  in  the  Patent  Of- 
fice, and  shall  govern  the  further  proceedings 
in  the  case.  But  no  opinion  or  decision  of  the 
court  in  any  such  case  shall  preclude  any 
person  interested  from  the  right  to  contest 
the  validity  of  such  patent  in  any  court 
wherein  the  same  may  be  called  in  question. 

Sec.  4915.  Whenever  a  patent  on  applica- 
tion is  refused,  either  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents  or  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia  upon  appeal  from  the 
Commissioner,  the  applicant  may  have  remedy 
by  bill  in  equity;  and  the  court  having  cog- 
nizance thereof,  on  notice  to  adverse  parties 
and  other  due  proceedings  had,  may  adjudge 
that  such  applicant  is  entitled,  according  to 
law,  to  receive  a  patent  for  his  invention,  as 
specified  in  his  claim,  or  for  any  part  thereof, 
as  the  facts  in  the  case  may  appear.  And  such 
adjudication,  if  it  be  in  favor  of  the  right 
of  the  applicant,  shall  authorize  the  Commis- 
sioner to  issue  such  patent  on  the  applicant 
filing  in  the  Patent  Office  a  copy  of  the  ad- 
judication, and  otherwise  complying  with  the 
requirements  of  law.  In  all  cases  where  there 
is  no  opposing  party,  a  copy  of  the  bill  shall 
be  served  on  the  Commissioner;  and  all  the 
expenses  of  the  proceeding  shall  be  paid  by 
the  applicant,  whether  the  final  decision  is  in 
his    favor    or    not. 

R.  S.,  U.  S.,  Sup.,  Vol.  2,  c.  74,  Feb.  9, 
1893.  Be  it  enacted,  etc..  That  there  shall 
be,  and  there  is  hereby,  established  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  a  court,  to  be  known  as 
the  court  of  appeals  ot  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia. 

Sec.  6.  That  the  said  court  of  appeals 
shall  establish  a  term  of  the  court  during 
each  and  every  month  in  each  year  excepting 
the  months  of  July  and   August. 

Sec.  8.  That  any  final  judgment  or  decree 
of  the  said  court  of  appeals  may  be  re-exam- 
ined and  aflQrmed,  reversed,  or  modified  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  upon 
writ  of  error  or  appeal,  in  all  causes  in  which 


the  matter  in  dispute,  exclusive  of  costs,  shall 
exceed  the  sura  of  five  thousand  dollars,  in 
the  same  manner  and  under  the  same  regula- 
tions as  heretofore  provided  for  in  cases  of 
writs  of  error  on  judgment  or  appeals  from 
derrecs  rendered  in  the  supreme  court  of  the 
District    of    Columbia. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica in  Congress  assembled.  That  in  any  case 
heretofore  made  final  in  the  court  of  appeals 
of  the  District  of  Columbia,  it  shall  be  com- 
petent for  the  Supreme  Court  to  require,  by 
certiorari  or  otherwise,  any  such  case  to  be 
certified  to  the  Supreme  Court  for  its  review 
and  determination,  with  the  same  power  and 
authority  in  the  case  as  if  it  had  been  car- 
ried by  appeal  or  writ  of  error  to  the  Supreme 
Court. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  determination  of  appeals 
from  the  decision  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents,  now  vested  in  the  general  term  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
in  pursuance  of  the  provisions  of  section  780 
of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States, 
relating  to  the  District  of  Columbia,  shall 
hereafter  be  and  the  same  is  hereby  vested 
in  the  court  of  appeals  created  by  this  act; 

And  in  addition,  any  party  aggrieved  by  a 
decision  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  in 
any  interference  case  may  appeal  therefrom  to 
said    court    of    appeals. 

Title    LX,    Rev.    Stat.,    1878,    p.    950: 

Sec.  4916.  Whenever  any  patent  is  inopera- 
tive or  invalid,  by  reason  of  a  defective  or 
insufficient  specification,  or  by  reason  of  the 
patentee  claiming  as  his  own  invention  or 
discovery  more  than  he  had  a  right  to  claim 
as  new,  if  the  error  has  arisen  by  inadvertence, 
accident,  or  mistake,  and  without  any  fraud- 
ulent or  deceptive  intention,  the  Commissioner 
shall,  on  the  surrender  of  such  patent  and 
the  payment  of  the  duty  required  by  law, 
cause  a  new  patent  for  the  same  invention, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  corrected  speci- 
fication, to  be  issued  to  the  patentee,  or,  in 
case  of  his  death  or  of  an  assignment  of  the 
whole  or  any  undivided  part  of  the  original 
patent,  then  to  his  executors,  administrators, 
or  assigns,  for  the  unexpired  part  of  the  term 
of  the  original  patent.  Such  surrender  shall 
take  effect  upon  the  issue  of  the  amended 
patent.  The  Commissioner  may, "  in  his  dis- 
cretion, cause  several  patents  to  be  Issued  for 
distinct  and  separate  parts  of  the  thing  pat- 
ented, upon  demand  of  the  applicant,  and  upon 
payment  of  the  required  fee  for  a  reissue  for 
each  cf  such  reissued  letters  patent.  The  spe- 
cifications and  claim  in  every  such  case  shall 
be  subject  to  revision  and  restriction  in  the 
same  manner  as  original  applications  are. 
Every  patent  so  reissued,  together  with  the  cor- 
rected specifications,  shall  have  the  same  ef- 
fect and  operation  in  law,  on  the  trial  of  all 
actions  for  causes  thereafter  arising,  as  if  the 
same  had  been  originally  filed  in  such  cor- 
rected form;  but  no  new  matter  shall  be  in- 
troduced into  the  specification,  nor  in  case 
of  a  machine  patent  shall  the  model  or  draw- 
ings be  amended,  except  each  by  the  other; 
but  when  there  is  neither  model  nor  drawing; 
amendments  may  be  made  upon  proof  satis- 
factory to  the  Commissioner  that  such  new 
matter  or  amendment  was  a  part  of  the  orig- 
inal invention,  and  was  omitted  from  the  spe- 
cification by  inadvertence,  accident,  or  mis- 
take,   as  aforesaid. 

Sec.  4917.  Whenever,  through  inadvertence, 
accident,  or  mistake,  and  without  any  fraud- 
ulent   or   deceptive    intention,    a   patentee  hai 


374 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


claimed  more  than  that  of  which  he  was  the 
original  or  first  inventor  or  discoverer,  his 
patent  shall  be  valid  tor  all  that  part  which 
is  truly  and  justly  his  own,  provided  the 
same  is  a  material  or  substantial  part  of  the 
thing  patented;  and  any  such  patentee,  his 
heirs  or  assigns,  whether  of  the  whole  or  any 
sectional  interest  therein,  may,  on  payment 
of  the  fee  required  by  law,  make  disclaimer 
of  such  parts  of  the  thing  patented  as  he 
shall  not  chose  to  claim  or  to  hold  by  virtue 
of  the  patent  or  assignment,  stating  therein 
the  extent  of  his  interest  in  such  patent.  Such 
disclaimer  shall  be  in  writing,  attested  by 
one  or  more  witnesses,  and  recorded  in  the 
patent  office;  and  it  shall  thereafter  be  con- 
sidered as  part  of  the  original  specification  to 
the  extent  of  the  interest  possessed  by  the 
claimant  and  by  those  claiming  under  him 
after  the  record  thereof.  But  no  such  dis- 
claimer shall  affect  any  action  pending  at  the 
time  of  its  being  filed,  except  so  far  as  may 
relate  to  the  question  of  unreasonable  neglect 
or    delay    in    filing    it. 

Sec.  4918.  Whenever  there  are  interfering 
patents,  any  person  interested  in  any  one 
of  them,  or  in  the  working  of  the  invention 
claimed  under  either  of  them,  may  have  re- 
lief against  the  interfering  patentee,  and  all 
parties  interested  under  him,  by  suit  in  equity 
against  the  owners  of  the  interfering  patent; 
and  the  court,  on  notice  to  adverse  parties, 
and  other  due  proceedings  had  according  to 
the  course  of  equity,  may  adjudge  and  declare 
either  of  the  patents  void  in  whole  or  in  part, 
or  inoperative  or  invalid  in  any  particular 
part  of  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
interest  of  the  parties  in  the  patent  or  the 
invention  patented.  But  no  such  judgment 
or  adjudication  shall  affect  the  right  of  any 
person  except  the  parties  to  the  suit  and  those 
deriving  title  under  them  subsequent  to  the 
rendition   of   such  judgment. 

Sec.  4919.  Damages  for  the  infringement 
of  any  patent  may  be  recovered  by  action  on 
the  case,  in  the  name  of  the  party  inter- 
ested either  as  patentee,  assignee,  or  grantee. 
And  whenever  in  any  such  action  a  verdict  is 
rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  the  court  may  enter 
judgment  thereon  for  any  sum  above  the 
amount  found  by  the  verdict  as  the  actual 
damages  sustained,  according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  not  exceeding  three  tlmea 
the  amount  of  such  verdict,  together  with  the 
costs. 

Sec.  4920.  In  any  action  for  infringement 
the  defendant  may  plead  the  general  issue, 
and,  having  given  notice  in  writing  to  the 
plaintiff  or  his  attorney  thirty  days  before, 
may  prove  on  trial  any  one  or  more  of  the 
following    special    matters: 

First. — That  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the 
public  the  description  and  specification  filed  by 
the  patentee  in  the  Patent  Office  was  made 
to  contain  less  than  the  whole  truth  relative 
to  his  invention  or  discovery,  or  more  than 
is   necessary  to   produce  the   desired   effect;    or. 

Second. — That  he  had  surreptitiously  or  un- 
justly obtained  the  patent  for  that  which  was 
in  fact  invented  by  another,  who  was  using 
reasonable  diligence  in  adapting  and  perfect- 
ing  the   same;    or. 

Third. — That  it  has  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed in  some  printed  publication  prior  to 
his  supposed  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  or 
more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  application 
for   a   patent    therefor;    or, 

Fourth. — That  he  was  not  the  original  and 
first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  any  material 
and  substantial  part  of  the  thing  patented;  or, 


Fifth. — That  it  had  been  in  public  use  or 
on  sale  in  this  country  for  more  than  two 
years  before  his  application  for  a  patent,  or 
had   been   abandoned   to  the   public. 

And  in  notices  as  to  proof  of  previous  in- 
vention, knowledge,  or  use  of  the  thing  pat- 
ented, the  defendant  shall  state  the  names  of 
the  patentees  and  the  dates  of  their  patents, 
and  when  granted,  and  the  names  and  resi- 
dences of  the  persons  alleged  to  have  invented 
or  to  have  had  the  prior  knowledge  of  the 
thing  patented,  and  where  and  by  whom  it 
had  been  used;  and  if  any  one  or  more  of 
the  special  matters  alleged  shall  be  found  for 
the  defendant,  judgment  shall  be  rendered  for 
him  with  costs.  And  the  like  defenses  may 
be  pleaded  in  any  suit  in  equity  for  relief 
against  an  alleged  infringement;  and  proofs 
of  the  same  may  be  given  upon  like  notice 
in  the  answer  of  the  defendant,  and  with  the 
like  effect. 

Sec.  4921.  The  several  courts  vested  with 
jurisdiction  of  cases  arising  under  the  patent 
laws  shall  have  power  to  grant  injunctions 
according  to  the  course  and  principles  of 
courts  of  equity,  to  prevent  the  violation 
of  any  right  secured  by  patent,  on  such 
terms  as  the  court  may  deem  reasonable; 
and  upon  a  decree  being  rendered  in  any 
such  case  for  an  infringement  the  complain- 
ant shall  be  entitled  to  recover,  in  addition 
to  the  profits  to  be  accounted  for  by  the 
defendant,  the  damages  the  complainant  has 
sustained  thereby;  and  the  court  shall  assess 
the  same  or  cause  the  same  to  be  assessed 
under  its  direction.  And  the  court  shall  have 
the  same  power  to  increase  such  damages,  in 
its  discretion,  as  is  given  to  increase  the 
damages  found  by  verdicts  in  actions  in  the 
nature    of    actions    of    trespass    upon    the    case. 

But  in  any  suit  or  action  brought  for 
the  infringement  of  any  patent  there  shall 
be  no  recovery  of  profits  or  damages  for  any 
infringement  committed  more  than  six  years 
before  the  filing  of  the  bill  of  complaint  or 
the  issuing  of  the  writ  in  such  suit  or  action, 
and  this  provision  shall  apply  to  existing 
causes     of    action. 

Sec.  2.  That  said  courts,  when  sitting  in 
equity  for  the  trial  of  patent  causes,  may 
impanel  a  jury  of  not  less  than  five  and 
not  more  than  twelve  persons,  subject  to 
such  general  rules  in  the  premises  as  may, 
from  time  to  time,  be  made  by  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  submit  to  them  such,  questions  of 
fact  arising  in  such  cause  as  such  circuit 
court    shall    deem    expedient. 

And  the  verdict  of  such  jury  shall  be 
treated  and  proceeded  upon  in  the  same 
manner  and  with  the  same  effect  as  in  the 
case  of  issues  sent  from  chancery  to  a  court 
of  law  and  returned  with  such  findings. 

Sec.  4922.  Whenever,  through  inadvertence, 
accident,  or  mistake,  and  without  any  wilful 
default  or  intent  to  defraud  or  mislead  the 
public,  a  patentee  has,  in  his  specification, 
claimed  to  be  the  original  and  first  inventor 
or  discoverer  of  any  material  or  substan- 
tial part  of  the  thing  patented,  of  which 
he  was  not  the  original  and  first  inventor 
or  discoverer,  every  such  patentee,  his  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  and  assigns,  whether 
of  the  whole  or  any  sectional  interest  in  the 
patent,  may  maintain  a  suit  at  law  or  in 
equity,  for  the  infringement  of  any  part 
thereof,  which  was  bona  fide  his  own,  if  it 
is  a  material  and  substantial  part  of  the 
thing  patented,  and  definitely  distinguishable 
from    the    parts    claimed    without    right,    not- 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


375 


withstanding  the  specifications  may  embrace 
more  than  that  of  which  the  patentee  was 
the  first  inventor  or  discoverer.  But  in  every 
such  case  in  which  a  judgment  or  decree 
shall  be  rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  no  costs 
shall  be  recovered  unless  the  proper  disclaimer 
has  been  entered  at  the  Patent  Office  before 
the  commencement  of  the  suit  But  no  patentee 
shall  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  this 
section  if  he  has  unreasonably  neglected  or 
delayed    to    enter    a    disclaimer. 


Sec.  4923.  Whenever  it  appears  that  a  pat- 
entee, at  the  time  of  making  his  application 
for  the  patent,  believed  himself  to  be  the 
original  and  first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the 
thing  patented,  the  same  shall  not  be  held 
to  be  void  on  account  of  the  invention  or 
discovery  or  any  part  thereof  having  been 
known  or  used  in  a  foreign  country,  before 
his  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  if  it  had 
not  been  patented  or  described  in  a  printed 
publication. 


DESIGNS. 


Sec.  4929.  Any  person  who  has  invented  any 
new,  original,  and  ornamental  design  for  an 
article  of  manufacture,  not  known  or  used 
by  others  in  this  country  before  his  invention 
thereof,  and  not  patented  or  described  in  any 
printed  publication  in  this  or  any  foreign 
country  before  his  invention  thereof,  or  more 
than  two  years  prior  to  his  application,  and 
not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in  this  country 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  applica- 
tion, unless  the  same  is  proved  to  have  been 
abandoned,  may,  upon  payment  of  the  fees 
required  by  law  and  other  due  proceedings 
had,  the  same  as  in  cases  of  invention  or 
discoveries  covered  by  section  4886,  obtain  a 
patent   therefor. 

Sec.  4930.  The  Commissioner  may  dispense 
with  models  of  designs  when  the  design  can 
be  sufficiently  represented  by  drawings  or 
photographs. 

Sec  4931.  Patents  for  designs  may  be  granted 
for  the  term  of  three  years  and  six  months, 
or  for  seven  years,  or  for  fourteen  years,  as 
the  applicant  may,    in  his  application,    elect. 

Sec.  4932.  Patentees  of  designs  issued  prior 
to  the  second  day  of  March,  1861,  shall  be 
entitled  to  extension  of  their  respective  pat- 
ents for  the  term  of  seven  years,  in  the  same 
manner  and  under  the  same  restrictions  as 
are  provided  for  the  extension  of  patents 
for  inventions  or  discoveries  Issued  prior  to 
the    second    day    of    March,    1861. 

Sec.  4933.  All  the  regulations  and  provisions 
which  apply  to  obtaining  or  protecting  pat- 
ents for  inventions  or  discoveries  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  provisions  of  this  Title,  shall 
apply    to    patents    for    designs. 

CHAPTER  105.— An  Act  to  Amend  the  Law 
Relating  to  Patents,  Trade-marks,  and  Copy- 
rights. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc..  That  hereafter  during 
the  term  of  letters  patent  for  a  design,  it 
shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  other  than 
the  owner  of  said  letters  patent,  without  the 
license  of  such  owner  to  apply  the  design 
secured  by  such  letters  patent,  or  any  colorable 
imitation  thereof,  to  any  article  of  manufac- 
ture for  the  purpose  of  sale,  or  to  sell  or 
expose  for  sale  any  article  of  manufacture  to 
which  such  design  or  colorable  imitation  shall, 
without  the  license  of  the  owner,  have  been 
applied,  knowing  that  the  same  has  been  so 
applied.  Any  person  violating  the  provisions, 
or  either  of  them,  of  this  section,  shall  be 
liable  in  the  amount  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars;  and  in  case  the  total  profit  made 


by  him  from  the  manufacture  or  sale,  as 
aforesaid,  of  the  article  or  articles  to  which 
the  design,  or  colorable  imitation  thereof, 
has  been  applied,  exceeds  the  sum  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  he  shall  be  further 
liable  for  the  excess  of  such  profit  over  and 
above  the  sum  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
lars; and  the  full  amount  of  such  liability 
may  be  recovered  by  the  owner  of  the  letters 
patent,  to  his  own  use,  in  any  circuit  court 
of  the  United  States  having  jurisdiction  of 
the  parties,  either  by  action  at  law  or  upon 
a  bill  in  equity  for  an  injunction  to  restrain 
such    infringement. 

Sec.  2.  That  nothing  in  this  act  contained 
shall  prevent,  lessen,  impeach,  or  avoid  any 
remedy  at  law  or  in  equity  which  any  owner 
of  letters  patent  for  a  design,  aggrieved  by 
the  infringement  of  the  same,  might  have  had 
if  this  act  had  not  been  passed ;  but  such 
owner  shall  not  twice  recover  the  profit  made 
from    the    infringement 

Sec.  4934.  The  following  shall  be  the  rates 
for    patent     fees : 

On  filing  each  original  application  for  a 
patent,    except    in    design    cases,    fifteen    dollars. 

On  issuing  each  original  patent,  except  in 
design  cases,    twenty   dollars. 

In  design  cases:  For  three  years  and  six 
months,  ten  dollars;  for  seven  years,  fifteen 
dollars;    for   fourteen    years,    thirty    dollars. 

On  every  application  for  the  reissue  of  a 
patent,    thirty    dollars. 

On    filing    each    disclaimer,    ten    dollars. 
******* 

On  an  appeal  for  the  first  time  from  the 
primary  examiners  to  the  examiners-in-chief, 
ten  dollars. 

On  every  appeal  from  the  examiners-in-chief 
to    the    Commissioner,    twenty    dollars. 

For  certified  copies  of  patents  and  other 
papers,  including  certified  printed  copies,  ten 
cents   per   hundred   words.  . 

For  recording  every  assignment,  power  of 
attorney,  or  other  paper,  of  three  hundred 
words  or  under,  one  dollar;  of  over  three 
hundred  and  under  one  thousand  words,  two 
dollars;  and  for  each  additional  thousand  words 
or  fraction  thereof,    one   dollar. 

Certified  copies  of  such  drawings  and  speci- 
fications may  be  furnished  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents  to  persons  applying  therefor  upon 
payment  of  the  present  rates  for  uncertified 
copies,  and  twenty-five  cents  additional  for 
each   certification. 

For  copies  of  drawings,  the  reasonable  cost 
of  making  them. 


PATENT  RIGHTS  VEST  IN  ASSIGNEE  IN  BANKRUPTCY. 


Sec.  5046.  All  property  conveyed  by  the  bank- 
rupt in  fraud  of  his  creditors;  all  rights  in 
equity,  choses  in  action,  patent  rights,  and 
copyrights;  all  debts  due  him,  or  any  person 
for  his  use,  and  all  liens  and  securities  there- 
for;   and    all   his   rights   of  action   for   property 


or  estate,  real  or  personal,  and  for  any  cause 
of  action  which  he  had  against  any  person 
arising  from  contract  or  from  the  unlawful 
taking  or  detention,  or  injury  to  the  property 
of  the  bankrupt;  and  all  his  rights  of  re- 
deeming such  property  or  estate;  together  with 


376 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


377 


the  like  right,  title,  power,  and  authority 
to  sell,  manage,  dispose  of,  sue  for,  and 
recover  or  defend  the  same,  as  the  bankrupt 
might  have  had  if  no  assignment  had  been 
made,  shall,  in  virtue  of  the  adjudication  of 
bankruptcy  and  the  appointment  of  his  as- 
signee, but  subject  to  the  exceptions  stated 
in  the  preceding  section,  be  at  once  vested 
is    [in]    such    assignee. 

Sec.  70.  Title  to  Property,  The  trustee  of 
the  estate  of  a  bankrupt,  upon  his  appoint- 
ment and  qualification,  and  his  successor  or 
successors,  if  he  shall  have  one  or  more,  upon 
his  or  their  appointment  and  qualification, 
shall  in  turn  be  vested  by  operation  of  law 
with  the  title  of  the  bankrupt,  as  of  the  date 
he  was  adjudged  a  bankrupt,  except  in  so  far 
as  it  is  to  property  which  is  exempt,  to  all 
(1)  documents  relating  to  his  property;  (2) 
Interests  in  patents,  patent  rights,  copyrights, 
and  trade-marks. 

PUBLIC— No.    305.     June    25,    1910. 

An  act  to  provide  additional  protection  for 
owners  of  patents  of  the  United  States  and 
for     other    purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America 


In  Congress  assembled.  That  whenever  an  In- 
vention described  in  and  covered  by  a  patent 
of  the  United  States  shall  hereafter  be  used 
by  the  United  States  without  license  of  the 
owner  thereof  or  lawful  right  to  use  the 
same,  such  owner  may  recover  reasonable  com- 
pensation for  such  use  by  suit  in  the  Court 
of  Claims:  Provided,  however,  that  said  Court 
of  Claims  shall  not  entertain  a  suit  or  re- 
ward compensation  under  the  provisions  of 
this  Act  where  the  claim  for  compensation  is 
based  on  the  use  by  the  United  States  of 
any  article  heretofore  owned,  leased,  used  by 
or  in  the  possession  of  the  United  States: 
Provided  further.  That  in  any  such  suit  the 
United  States  may  avail  itself  of  any  and  all 
defenses,  general  or  special,  which  might  be 
pleaded  by  a  defendant  in  an  action  for  In- 
fringement, as  set  forth  in  Title  Sixty  of  the 
Revised  Statutes,  or  otherwise;  And  provided 
further.  That  the  benefits  of  this  Act  shall 
not  inure  to  any  patentee,  who,  when  he 
makes  such  claim,  is  in  the  employment  or 
service  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States; 
or  the  assignee  of  any  such  patentee;  nor 
shall  this  act  apply  to  any  device  discovered 
or  Invented  by  such  employee  during  the  time 
of   his  employment   or   service. 


COURTS. 


Public— No.   475.     March  3,   1911 

Ah  Act  to  codify,  revise  and  amend  the  laws 
relating   to   the   judiciary. 

Title— The    Judiciary. 

Sec.  24.  The  district  courts  shall  have  orig- 
inal  jurisdiction   as   follows: 

Seventh.  Of  all  suits  at  law  or  in  equity 
arising  under  the  patent,  the  copyright,  and 
the   trade-mark    laws. 

Sec.  48.  In  suits  brought  for  the  infringe- 
ment of  letters  patent,  the  district  courts  of 
the  United  States  shall  have  jurisdiction,  in 
law  or  In  equity,  in  the  district  of  which  the 
defendant  is  an  inhabitant,  or  in  any  district 
in  which  the  defendant,  whether  a  person, 
partnership,  or  corporation,  shall  have  com- 
mitted acts  of  infringement  and  have  a  regu- 
lar and  established  place  of  business.  If  such 
suit  is  brought  in  a  district  of  which  the 
defendant  is  not  an  inhabitant,  but  in  which 
such  defendant  has  a  regular  and  established 
place  of  business,  service  of  process,  summons, 
or  subpoena  upon  the  defendant  may  be  made 
by  service  upon  the  agent  or  agents  engaged 
in  conducting  such  business  in  the  district  in 
which   suit    is  brought. 

Sec.  128.  The  circuit  courts  of  appeals  shall 
exercise  appellate  jurisdiction  to  review  by 
appeal  or  writ  or  error  final  decisions  in  the 
district  courts,  ♦  ♦  *  *  *  in  all  cases 
other  than  those  in  which  appeals  and  writs 
of  error  may  be  taken  direct  to  the  Supreme 
Court  «♦***;  the  judgments  and  de- 
crees of  the  circuit  courts  of  appeal  shall  be 
final  *  *  *  in  all  cases  arising  under 
the  patents  laws,  under  the  copyright 
laws,   *  *   *. 

Sec.  239.  In  any  case  within  its  appellate 
jurisdiction,  as  defined  in  section  one  hundred 
and  twenty-eight,  the  circuit  court  of  appeals 
at  any  time  may  certify  to  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  any  questions  or  proposi- 
tions of  law  concerning  which  it  desires  the 
Instruction  of  that  court  for  its  proper  deci- 
sion; and  thereupon  the  Supreme  Court  may 
either  give  its  Instruction  on  the  questions 
and  propositions  certified  to  It,  which  shall  be 
binding  upon  the  circuit  court  of  appeals  In 
such   case,    or   It   may   require   that   the   whole 


record  and  cause  be  sent  up  to  it  for  Its 
consideration,  and  thereupon  shall  decide  the 
whole  matter  in  controversy  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  if  it  had  been  brought  there  for  review 
by   writ   of   error  or  appeal. 

Sec,  250.  Any  final  judgment  or  decree  of 
the  court  of  appeals  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia may  be  re-examined  and  affirmed,  re- 
versed, or  modified  by  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States  upon  writ  of  error  or  appeal, 
in   the  following  cases: 

********* 

Except  as  provided  in  the  next  succeeding 
section,  the  judgments  and  decrees  of  said  court 
of  appeals  shall  be  final  in  all  cases  arising 
under  the  patent  laws,  the  copyright 
laws,    *    *   *. 

Sec.  251.  In  any  case  in  which  the  judgment 
or  decree  of  said  court  of  appeals  is  made  final 
by  the  section  last  preceding,  it  shall  be 
competent  for  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  to  require,  by  certiorari  or 
otherwise,  any  such  case  to  be  certified  to  It 
for  its  review  and  determination,  with  the 
same  power  and  authority  In  the  case  as  If 
It  had  been  carried  by  writ  of  error  or  ap- 
peal to  said  Supreme  Court,  It  shall  also 
be  competent  for  said  court  of  appeals,  in 
any  case  in  which  Its  judgment  or  decree 
is  made  final  under  th©  section  last  preceding, 
at  any  time  to  certify  to  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  any  questions  or  proposi- 
tions of  law  concerning  which  It  desires  the 
instruction  of  that  court  for  their  proper  de- 
cision; and  thereupon  the  Supreme  Court 
may  either  give  its  instruction  on  the  ques- 
tions and  propositions  certified  to  it,  which 
shall  be  binding  upon  said  court  of  appeals  in 
such  case,  or  it  may  require  that  the  whole 
record  and  cause  be  sent  up  to  it  for  its 
consideration,  and  thereupon  shall  decide  the 
whole  matter  in  controversy  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  if  it  had  been  brought  there  for  review 
by  writ  of  error  or  appeal. 

Sec.  ?56.  The  jurisdiction  vested  in  the 
courts  of  the  United  States  In  the  cases  and 
proceedings  hereinafter  mentioned  shall  be  ex- 
clusive of  the  courts  of  the  several   States. 

Fifth.  Of  all  cases  arising  under  the  patent- 
right,   or  copyright  laws  of  the  United  States. 


378 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINTS  AND  LABELS. 


Excerpts  from  an  Act  approved  March  4, 
1909,  entitled  an  Act  to  amend  and  consolidate 
the  Acts  respecting  copyright,  relating  to 
prints  and   labels. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America 
in  Congress  assembled,  That  any  person  en- 
titled thereto,  upon  complying  with  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act,  shall  have  the  exclusive 
right: 

(a)  To  print,  reprint,  publish,  copy,  and 
vend    the    copyrighted    work; 

Sec.  7.  That  no  copyright  shall  subsist  in 
the  original  text  of  any  work  which  is  in 
the  public  domain,  or  in  any  work  which  was 
published  in  this  country  or  any  foreign 
country  prior  to  the  going  into  effect  of  this 
Act  and  has  not  been  already  copyrighted  in 
the  United  States,  or  in  any  publication  of 
the  United  States  Government,  or  any  re- 
print, in  whole  or  in  part,  thereof:  Provided, 
however.  That  the  publication  or  republica- 
tion by  the  Government,  either  separately  or  in 
a  public  document,  of  any  material  in  which 
copyright  is  subsisting  shall  not  be  taken  to 
cause  any  abridgment  or  annulment  of  the 
copyright  or  to  authorize  any  use  or  appropri- 
ation of  such  copyright  material  without  the 
consent    of    the    copyright    proprietor. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  author  or  proprietor  of 
any  work  made  the  subject  of  copyright  by  this 
Act,  or  his  executors,  administrators,  or  as- 
signs, shall  have  copyright  for  such  work  un- 
der the  conditions  and  for  the  terms  specified 
in  this  Act.  Provided,  however.  That  the 
copyright  secured  by  this  Act  shall  extend  to 
the  work  of  an  author  or  proprietor  who  is 
a  citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  state  or 
nation,    only: 

(a)  When  an  alien  author  or  proprietor  shall 
be  domiciled  within  the  United  States  at  the 
time  of  the  first  publication  of  his  work; 
or 

(b)  When  the  foreign  state  or  nation  of 
which  such  author  or  proprietor  is  a  citizen 
or  subject  grants,  either  by  treaty,  conven- 
tion, agreement,  or  law,  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States  the  benefit  of  copyright  on 
substantially  the  same  basis  as  to  its  own 
citizens,  or  copyright  protection  substantially 
equal  to  the  protection  secured  to  such  foreign 
author  under  this  Act  or  by  treaty;  or  when 
such  foreign  state  or  nation  is  a  party  to 
an  International  agreement  which  provides  for 
reciprocity  in  the  granting  of  copyright,  by 
the  terms  of  which  agreement  the  United 
States  may,  at  its  pleasure,  become  a  party 
thereto. 

The  existence  of  the  reciprocal  conditions 
aforesaid  shall  be  determined  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  by  proclamation  made 
from  time  to  time,  as  the  purposes  of  this 
Act    may    require. 

Sec.  9.  That  any  person  entitled  thereto  by 
this  Act  may  secure  copyright  for  his  work 
by  publication  thereof  with  the  notice  of  copy- 
right required  by  this  Act;  and  such  notice 
shall  be  affixed  to  each  copy  thereof  pub- 
lished or  offered  for  sale  in  the  United  States 
by  authority  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  books  seeking  ad  Interim 
protection.     •     *     • 

Sec.  18.  That  the  notice  of  copyright  re- 
quired by  section  nine  of  this  Act  shall  con- 
sist either  of  the  word  "Copyright"  or  the 
abbreviation  "Copr.",  accompanied  by  the 
name  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  and  if  the 
work  be  a  printed  literary,  musical,   or  drama- 


tic work,  the  notice  shall  include  also  the 
year  in  which  the  copyright  was  secured  by 
publication.  In  the  case,  however,  of  copies 
of  works  specified  in  subsections  (f)  to  (k), 
inclusive,  of  section  five  of  this  Act,  the 
notice  may  consist  of  the  letter  C  inclosed 
within  a  circle,  accompanied  by  the  initials, 
monogram,  mark,  or  symbol  of  the  copy- 
right proprietor:  Provided,  That  on  some 
accessible  portion  of  such  copies  or  of  the 
margin,  back,  permanent  base,  or  pedestal, 
or  of  the  substance  on  which  such  copies  shall 
be  mounted,  his  name  shall  appear.  But  in 
the  case  of  works  in  which  copyright  is  sub- 
sisting when  this  Act  sliall  go  into  effect, 
the  notice  of  copyright  may  be  either  in 
one  of  the  forms  prescribed  herein  or  in 
one  of  those  prescribed  by  the  Act  of  June 
eighteenth,    eighteen   hundred   and  seventy-four. 

Sec.  23.  That  the  copyright  secured  by  this 
Act  shall  endure  for  twenty-eight  years  from 
the  date  of  first  publication,  whether  the 
copyrighted  work  bears  the  author's  true  name 
or  is  published  anonymously  or  under  an 
assumed  name:  Provided,  That  in  the  case 
of  any  posthumous  work  or  of  any  periodical, 
cyclopaedic,  or  other  composite  work  upon 
which  the  copyright  was  originally  secured  by 
the  proprietor  thereof,  or  of  any  work  copy- 
righted by  a  corporate  body  (otherwise  than 
as  assignee  or  licensee  of  the  individual  au- 
thor) or  by  an  employer  for  whom  such 
work  is  made  for  hire,  the  proprietor  of  such 
copyright  shall  be  entitled  to  a  renewal  and 
extension  of  the  copyright  in  such  work  for 
the  further  term  of  twenty-eight  years  when 
application  for  such  renewal  and  extension 
shall  have  been  made  to  the  copyright  oflBce 
and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  original  term 
of  copyright:  And  Provided  further.  That  in 
the  case  of  any  other  copyrighted  work,  in- 
cluding a  contribution  by  an  individual  au- 
thor to  a  periodical  or  to  a  cyclopaedic  or 
other  composite  work  when  such  contribution 
has  been  separately  registered,  the  author  of 
such  work  if  still  living,  or  the  widow,  widow- 
er, or  children  of  the  author,  if  the  author 
be  not  living,  or  if  such  author,  widow,  wid- 
ower, or  children  be  not  living,  then  the  au- 
thor's, executor's  or  in  the  absence  of  a  will, 
his  next  of  kin  shall  be  entitled  to  a  renewal 
and  extension  of  the  copyright  in  such  work 
for  a  further  term  of  twenty-eight  years  when 
application  for  such  renewal  and  extension 
shall  have  been  made  to  the  copyright  office 
and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  original  term  of 
copyright:  And  provided  further.  That  in 
default  of  the  registration  of  such  application 
for  renewal  and  extension,  the  copyright  in 
any  work  shall  determine  at  the  expiration  of 
twenty-eight   years  from   first  publication. 

Sec.  24.  That  the  copyright  subsisting  in 
any  work  at  the  time  when  this  Act  goes 
into  effect  may,  at  the  expiration  of  the 
term  provided  for  under  existing  law,  be 
renewed  and  extended  by  the  author  of  such 
work  If  still  living,  or  the  widow,  widower, 
or  children  of  the  author,  if  the  author  be 
not  living,  or  if  such  author,  widow,  widower, 
or  children  be  not  living,  then  by  the  au- 
thor's executors,  or  in  the  absence  of  a  will, 
his  next  of  kin,  for  a  further  period  such 
that  the  entire  term  shall  be  equal  to  that 
secured  by  this  Act,  including  the  renewal 
period:  Provided,  however,  That  if  the  work 
be    a    composite    work    upon    which    copyright 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


379 


was  originally  secured  by  the  proprietor  there- 
of, then  such  proprietor  shall  be  entitled  to 
the  privilege  of  renewal  and  extension  granted 
under  this  section:  Provided,  That  applica- 
tion for  such  renewal  and  extension  shall  be 
made  to  the  copyright  office  and  duly  registered 
therein  within  one  year  prior  to  the  expira- 
tion  of   the    existing  term. 

Sec.  42.  That  copyright  secured  under  this 
or  previous  Acts  of  the  United  States  may 
be  assigned,  granted,  or  mortgaged  by  an 
instrument  in  writing  signed  by  the  proprietor 
of  the  copyright,  or  may  be  bequeathed  by 
will. 

Act  approved  June  18,  1874,  relating  to 
registration    of    prints    and    labels. 

Sections  3,  4,  and  5  of  the  act  of  Congress 
relating  to  patents,  trade-marks,  and  copy- 
rights, approved  June  18,  1874  (18  Stat.  L., 
p.    78)    are   as    follows: 

Sec  3.  That  in  the  construction  of  this  aq( 
the  words  "engraving,   cut,  and  print"   shall  be 


applied  only  to  pictorial  illustrations  or  works 
connected  with  the  fine  arts,  and  no  prints  or 
labels  designed  to  be  used  for  any  other 
articles  of  manufacture  shall  be  entered  under 
the  copyright  law,  but  may  be  registered  in 
the  Patent  Office.  And  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  is  hereby  charged  with  the  supervi- 
sion and  control  of  the  entry  or  registry  of 
such  prints  or  labels,  in  conformity  with  the 
regulations  provided  by  law  as  to  copyright  of 
prints,  except  that  there  shall  be  paid  for 
recording  the  title  of  any  print  or  label,  not 
a  trade-mark,  six  dollars,  which  shall  cover 
the  expense  of  furnishing  a  copy  of  the 
record,  under  the  seal  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents,    to  the   party  entering   the  same. 

Sec.  4.  That  all  laws  and  parts  of  laws  In- 
consistent with  the  foregoing  provisions  be, 
and    the    same    are    hereby,    repealed. 

Sec.  5.  That  this  act  shall  take  effect  on 
and  after  the  first  day  of  August,  eighteen 
hundred    and    seventy-four. 


TRADE-MARKS. 


Act  of  February  20,  1905  (As  Amended). 
AN  ACT  To  authorize  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks used  in  commerce  with  foreign  na- 
tions or  among  the  several  States  or  with 
Indian  tribes,  and  to  protect  the  same. 
Be  It  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  Ameri- 
ca in  Congress  assembled.  That  the  owner 
of  a  trade-mark  used  in  commerce  with  for- 
eign nations,  or  among  the  several  States,  or 
with  Indian  tribes,  provided  such  owner  shall 
be  domiciled  within  the  territory  of  the  United 
States,  or  resides  in  or  is  located  in  any  for- 
eign country  which,  by  treaty,  convention,  or 
law,  affords  similar  privileges  to  the  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  may  obtain  registration 
for  such  trade-mark  by  complying  with  the  fol- 
lowing requirements:  First,  by  filing  in  the 
Patent  Office  an  application  therefor,  in  writ- 
ing, addressed  to  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, signed  by  the  applicant,  specifying  his 
name,  domicile,  location,  and  citizenship;  the 
class  of  merchandise  and  the  particular  de- 
scription of  goods  comprised  in  such  class  to 
which  the  trade-mark  is  appropriated;  a  state- 
ment of  the  mode  In  which  the  same  is  ap- 
plied and  affixed  to  goods,  and  the  length  of 
time  during  which  the  trade-mark  has  been 
used;  a  description  of  the  trade-mark  Itself 
shall  be  included,  if  desired  by  the  applicant 
or  required  by  the  commissioner,  provided  such 
description  is  of  a  character  to  meet  the  ap- 
proval of  the  commissioner.  With  this  state- 
ment shall  be  filed  a  drawing  of  the  trade- 
mark, signed  by  the  applicant,  or  his  attorney, 
and  such  number  of  specimens  of  the  trade- 
mark as  actually  used  as  may  be  required  by 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  Second,  by  pay- 
ing Into  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  the 
sum  of  ten  dollars,  and  otherwise  complying 
with  the  requirements  of  this  act  and  such 
regulations  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Com- 
missioner   of   Patents. 

Sec.  2  That  the  application  prescribed  In 
the  foregoing  section,  in  order  to  create  any 
right  whatever  in  favor  of  the  party  filing  it, 
must  be  accompanied  by  a  written  declaration 
verified  by  the  applicant,  or  by  a  member 
of  the  firm  or  an  officer  of  the  corporation 
or  association  applying,  to  the  effect  that  the 
applicant  believes  himself  or  the  firm,  cor- 
poration,    or    association    in    whose    behalf    he 


makes  the  application  to  be  the  owner  of  the 
trade-mark  sought  to  be  registered,  and  that 
no  other  person,  firm,  corporation,  or  associa- 
tion, to  the  best  of  the  applicant's  knowledge 
and  belief,  has  the  right  to  use  such  trade- 
mark in  the  United  States,  either  in  the 
identical  form  or  in  such  near  resemblance 
thereto  as  might  be  calculated  to  deceive;  that 
such  trade-mark  is  used  in  commerce  among 
the  several  States,  or  with  foreign  nations,  or 
with  Indian  tribes,  and  that  the  description 
and  drawing,  presented  truly  represent  the 
trade-mark  sought  to  be  registered.  If  the 
applicant  resides  or  is  located  in  a  foreign 
country,  the  statement  required  shall.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  foregoing,  set  forth  that  the 
trade-mark  has  been  registered  by  the  appli- 
cant, or  that  an  application  for  the  registra- 
tion thereof  has  been  filed  by  him  in  the 
foreign  country  In  which  he  resides  or  la 
located,  and  shall  give  the  date  of  such 
registration,  or  the  application  therefor,  as 
the  case  may  be,  except  that  in  the  applica- 
tion In  such  cases  it  shall  not  be  necessary  to 
state  that  the  mark  has  been  used  In  com- 
merce with  the  United  States  or  among  the 
States  thereof.  The  verification  required  by 
this  section  may  be  made  before  any  person 
within  the  United  States  authorized  by  law 
to  administer  oaths,  or,  when  the  applicant 
resides  In  a  foreign  country,  before  any  min- 
ister, charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or  commercial 
agent  holding  commission  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  or  before  any  no- 
tary public,  judge,  or  magistrate  having  an 
official  seal  and  authorized  to  administer  oaths 
In  the  foreign  country  in  which  the  applicant 
may  be  whose  authority  shall  be  proved  by  a 
certificate  of  a  diplomatic  or  consular  officer 
of  the  United   States. 

Sec.  3.  That  every  applicant  for  registra- 
tion of  a  trade-mark,  or  for  renewal  of  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark,  who  is  not  domiciled 
within  the  United  States,  shall,  before  the 
Issuance  of  the  certificate  of  registration,  as 
hereinafter  provided  for,  designate,  by  a  no- 
tice In  writing,  filed  in  the  Patent  Office, 
some  person  residing  within  the  United  States 
on  whom  process  or  notice  of  proceedings 
affecting  the  right  of  ownership  of  the  trade- 
mark of  which  such  applicant  may  claim  to  be 
the  owner,  brought  under  the  provisions  of 
this    act    or    under    other    laws    of    the    United 


380 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


states,  may  be  served,  with  the  same  force 
and  effect  as  if  served  upon  the  applicant 
or  registrant  in  person.  For  the  purposes  of 
this  act  it  shall  be  deemed  sufficient  to 
serve  such  notice  upon  such  applicant,  regis- 
trant, or  representative  by  leaving  a  copy  of 
such  process  or  notice  addressed  to  him  at 
the  last  address  of  which  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  has  been   notified. 

Sec.  4.  That  an  application  for  registration 
of  a  trade-mark  filed  in  this  country  by  any 
person  who  has  previously  regularly  filed  in 
any  foreign  country  which,  by  treaty,  conven- 
tion, or  law,  affords  similar  privileges  to  cit- 
izens of  the  United  States  an  application  for 
registration  of  the  same  trade-mark  shall  be 
accorded  the  same  force  and  effect  as  would 
be  accorded  to  the  same  application  if  filed 
in  this  country  on  the  date  on  which  appli- 
cation for  registration  of  the  same  trade-mark 
was  first  filed  in  such  foreign  country:  Pro- 
vided, That  such  application  is  filed  in  th  s 
country  within  four  months  from  the  date  on 
which  the  application  was  first  filed  in  such 
foreign  country:  And  provided.  That  certificate 
of  registration  shall  not  be  issued  for  any 
mark  for  registration  of  which  application  has 
been  filed  by  an  applicant  located  in  a  foreign 
country  until  such  mark  has  been  actually 
registered  by  the  applicant  in  the  country  in 
which  he  is  located. 

Sec.  5.  That  no  mark  by  which  the  goods 
of  the  owner  of  the  mark  may  be  disting- 
uished from  other  goods  of  the  same  class 
shall  be  refused  registration  as  a  trade-mark 
on  account  of  the  nature  of  such  mark  unless 
such   mark — 

(a)  Consists  of  or  comprises  immoral  or 
scandalous  matter. 

(b)  Consists  of  or  comprises  the  flag  or 
coat  of  arms  or  other  insignia  of  the  United 
States,  or  any  simulation  thereof,  or  of  any 
State,  or  municipality,  or  of  any  foreign  na- 
tion, or  of  any  design  or  picture  that  has 
been  or  m-ay  hereafter  be  adopted  by  any 
fraternal  society  as  its  emblem:  Provided,  That 
trade-marks  which  are  identical  with  a  regis- 
tered or  known  trade-mark  owned  and  in  use 
by  another,  and  appropriated  to  merchandise 
of  the  same  descriptive  properties,  or  which  so 
nearly  resemble  a  registered  or  known  trade- 
mark owned  and  in  use  by  another  and  ap- 
propriated to  merchandise  of  the  same  de- 
scriptive properties,  as  to  be  likely  to  cause 
confusion  or  mistake  in  the  mind  of  the  pub- 
lic, or  to  deceive  purchasers,  shall  not  be 
registered:  Provided,  That  no  mark  which 
consists  merely  in  the  name  of  an  individual, 
firm,  corporation,  or  association  not  written, 
printed,  impressed,  or  woven  in  some  par- 
ticular or  distinctive  manner  or  in  association 
with  a  portrait  of  the  individual  or  merely  in 
words  or  devices  which  are  descriptive  of  the 
goods  with  which  they  are  used,  or  of  the 
character  or  quality  of  such  goods,  or  merely 
a  geographical  name  or  term,  shall  be  regis- 
tered under  the  terms  of  the  act:  Provided 
further,  That  no  portrait  of  a  living  individual 
may  be  registered  as  a  trade-mark,  except  by 
the  consent  of  such  individual,  evidenced  by 
an  instrument  in  writing:  And  provided  fur- 
ther. That  nothing  herein  shall  prevent  the 
registration  of  any  mark  used  by  the  appli- 
cant or  his  predecessors,  or  by  those  from 
whom  title  to  the  mark  is  derived,  in  com- 
merce with  foreign  nations  or  among  the  sev- 
eral States,  or  with  Indian  tribes,  which  was 
in  actual  and  exclusive  use  as  a  trade-mark 
of  the  applicant  or  his  predecessors  from 
whom  he  derived  title  for  ten   years  next  pre- 


ceding February  twentieth,  nineteen  hundred 
and  five:  Provided  further.  That  nothing  here- 
in shall  prevent  the  registration  of  a  trade- 
mark otherwise  registrable  because  of  its  being 
the  name  of  the  applicant  or  a  portion  thereof. 

Sec.  6.  That  on  the  filing  of  an  application 
for  registration  of  a  trade-mark  which  com- 
plies with  the  requirements  of  this  act,  and 
the  payment  of  the  fees  herein  provided  for, 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents  shall  cause  an 
examination  thereof  to  be  made,  and  if  on 
such  examination  it  shall  appear  that  the  ap- 
plicant is  entitled  to  have  his  trade-mark 
registered  under  the  provisions  of  this  act, 
the  commissioner  shall  cause  the  mark  to  be 
published  at  least  once  in  the  Official  Gazette 
of  the  Patent  Office.  Any  person  who  believes 
he  would  be  damaged  by  the  registration  of  a 
mark  may  oppose  the  same  by  filing  notice  of 
opposition,  stating  the  grounds  therefor,  in  the 
Patent  Office  within  thirty  days  after  the  pub- 
lication of  the  mark  sought  to  be  registered, 
which  said  notice  of  opposition  shall  be  veri- 
fied by  the  person  filing  the  same  before  one 
of  the  officers  mentioned  in  section  two  of 
this  act.  An  opposition  may  be  filed  by  a 
duly  authorized  attorney,  but  such  opposition 
.shall  be  null  and  void  unless  verified  by  the 
opposer  within  a  reasonable  time  after  such 
filing.  If  no  notice  of  opposition  is  filed 
within  said  time,  the  commissioner  shall  issue 
a  certificate  of  registration  therefor,  as  here- 
inafter provided  for.  If  on  examination  an 
application  is  refused,  the  commissioner  shall 
notify  the  applicant,  giving  him  his  reasons 
therefor. 

Sec.  7.  That  in  all  cases  where  notice  of 
opposition  has  been  filed  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  shall  notify  the  applicant  thereof  and 
the   grounds   therefor. 

Whenever  application  is  made  for  the  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark  which  is  substantially 
identical  with  a  trade-mark  appropriated  to 
goods  of  the  same  descriptive  properties,  for 
which  a  certificate  of  registration  has  been 
previously  issued  to  another,  or  for  registra- 
tion of  which  another  has  previously  made 
application,  or  which  so  nearly  resembles  such 
trade-mark,  or  a  known  trade-mark  owned  and 
used  by  another,  as,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
commissioner,  to  be  likely  to  be  mistaken 
therefor  by  the  public,  he  may  declare  that 
an  interference  exists  as  to  such  trade-mark, 
and  in  every  case  of  interference  or  opposition 
to  registration  he  shall  direct  the  examiner  in 
charge  of  interferences  to  determine  the  ques- 
tion of  the  right  of  registration  to  such  trade- 
mark, and  of  the  sufficiency  of  objections  to 
registration,  In  such  manner  and  upon  such 
notice  to  those  interested  as  the  commissioner 
may   by   rules  prescribe. 

The  commissioner  may  refuse  to  register  the 
mark  against  the  registration  of  which  objec- 
tion is  filed,  or  may  refuse  to  register  both  of 
two  interfering  marks,  or  may  register  the 
mark,  as  a  trade-mark,  for  the  person  first  to 
adopt  and  use  the  mark,  if  otherwise  entitled 
to  register  the  same,  unlesa  an  appeal  is  taken, 
as  hereinafter  provided  for,  from  his  decision, 
by  a  party  interested  in  the  proceeding,  within 
such  time  (not  less  than  twenty  days)  as  the 
commissioner   may   prescribe. 

Sec.  8.  That  every  applicant  for  the  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark,  or  for  the  renewal 
of  the  registration  of  a  trade-mark,  which 
application  is  refused,  or  a  party  to  an  inter- 
ference against  whom  a  decision  has  been  ren- 
dered, or  a  party  who  has  filed  a  notice  of 
opposition  as  to  a  trade-mark,  may  appeal 
from   the   decision    of   the    examiner    in    charge 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


381 


of  trade-marks,  or  the  examiner  in  charge  of 
interferences,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  com- 
missioner in  person,  having  once  paid  the  fee 
for  such  appeal. 

Sec.  9.  That  if  an  applicant  for  registration 
of  a  trade-mark,  or  a  party  to  an  interference 
as  to  a  trade-mark,  or  a  party  who  has  filed 
opposition  to  the  registration  of  a  trade-mark, 
or  party  to  an  application  for  the  cancellation 
of  the  registration  of  a  trade-mark,  is  dissatis- 
fied with  the  decision  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents,  he  may  appeal  to  the  court  of  ap- 
peals of  the  District  of  Columbia,  on  comply- 
ing with  the  conditions  required  in  case  of 
an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  commis- 
sioner by  an  applicant  for  patent,  or  a  party 
to  an  interference  as  to  an  invention,  and  the 
same  rules  of  practice  and  procedure  shall 
govern  in  every  stage  of  such  proceedings,  as 
far   as  the   same  may  be  applicable. 

Sec.  10.  That  every  registered  trade-mark, 
and  every  mark  for  the  registration  of  which 
application  has  been  made,  together  with  the 
application  for  registration  of  the  same,  shall 
be  assignable  in  connection  with  the  good  will 
of  the  business  in  which  the  mark  is  used. 
Such  assignment  must  be  by  an  instrument  in 
writing  and  duly  acknowledged  according  to 
the  laws  of  the  country  or  State  in  which  the 
same  is  executed;  any  such  assignment  shall 
be  void  as  against  any  subsequent  purchaser 
for  a  valuable  consideration,  without  notice, 
unless  it  is  recorded  in  the  Patent  Office 
within  three  months  from  date  thereof.  The 
commissioner  shall  keep  a  record  of  such  as- 
signments. 

Sec.  11.  That  certificates  of  registration  of 
trade-marks  shall  be  issued  in  the  name  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  under  the  seal  of 
the  Patent  Office,  and  shall  be  signed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  a  record  thereof, 
together  with  printed  copies  of  the  drawing 
and  statement  of  the  applicant,  shall  be  kept 
in  books  for  that  purpose.  The  certificate 
shall  state  the  date  on  which  the  application 
for  registration  was  received  in  the  Patent 
Office.  Certificates  of  registration  of  trade- 
marks may  be  issued  to  the  assignee  of  the 
applicant,  but  the  assignment  must  first  be. 
entered   of  record   in   the  Patent   Office. 

Written  or  printed  copies  of  any  records, 
books,  papers,  or  drawings  relating  to  trade- 
marks belonging  to  the  Patent  Office,  and  of 
certificates  of  registration,  authenticated  by 
the  seal  of  the  Patent  Office  and  certified  by 
the  commissioner  thereof,  shall  be  evidence 
in  all  cases  wherein  the  originals  could  be 
evidence;  and  any  person  making  application 
therefor  and  paying  the  fee  required  by  law 
shall  have   certified   copies  thereof. 

Sec.  12. — That  a  certificate  of  registration 
shall  remain  in  force  for  twenty  years,  except 
that  in  the  case  of  trade-marks  previously 
registered  in  a  foreign  country  such  certificate 
shall  cease  to  be  in  force  on  the  day  on 
which  the  trade-mark  ceases  to  be  protected 
in  such  foreign  country,  and  shall  in  no  case 
remain  in  force  more  than  twenty  years,  unless 
renewed.  Certificates  of  registration  may  be 
from  time  to  time  renewed  for  like  periods  on 
payment  of  the  renewal  fees  required  by  this 
act,  upon  request  by  the  registrant,  his  legal 
representatives,  or  transferees  of  record  in  the 
Patent  Office,  and  such  request  may  be  made 
at  any  time  not  more  than  six  months  prior 
to  the  expiration  of  the  period  for  which  the 
certificates  of  registration  were  issued  or  re- 
•  newed.  Certificates  of  registration  in  force  at 
the  date  at  which  this  act  takes  effect  shall 
remain  in   force  for  the  period  for  which  they 


were  issued,  but  shall  be  renewable  on  the 
same  conditions  and  for  the  same  periods  as 
certificates  issued  under  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  and  when  so  renewed  shall  have  the  same 
force  and  effect  as  certificates  issued  under  this 
act. 

Sec.  13.  That  whenever  any  person  shall 
deem  himself  injured  by  the  registration  of  a 
trade-mark  in  the  Patent  Office  he  may  at  any 
time  apply  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
to  cancel  the  registration  thereof.  The  com- 
missioner shall  refer  such  application  to  the 
examiner  in  charge  of  interferences,  who  is 
empowered  to  hear  and  determine  this  question 
and  who  shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the  regis- 
trant. If  it  appear  after  a  hearing  before  the 
examiner  that  the  registrant  was  not  entitled 
to  the  use  of  the  mark  at  the  date  of  his 
application  for  registration  thereof,  or  that  the 
mark  is  not  used  by  the  registrant,  or  has 
been  abandoned,  and  the  examiner  shall  so 
decide,  the  commissioner  shall  cancel  the  regis- 
tration. Appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  com- 
missioner in  person  from  the  decision  of  ex- 
aminer of   interferences. 

Sec.  14.  That  the  following  shall  be  the 
rates  for  trade-mark  fees: 

On  filing  each  original  application  for  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark,  ten  dollars:  Provided, 
That  an  application  for  registration  of  a 
trade-mark  pending  at  the  date  of  the  passage 
of  this  act,  and  on  which  certificate  of  regis- 
tration shall  not  have  issued  at  such  date,  may, 
at  the  option  of  the  applicant,  be  proceeded 
with  and  registered  under  the  provisions  of 
this  act  without  the  payment  of  further  fee. 

On  filing  each  application  for  renewal  of  the 
registration   of  a  trade-mark,   ten  dollars. 

On  filing  notice  of  opposition  to  the  regis- 
tration   of    a   trade-mark,    ten    dollars. 

On  an  appeal  from  the  examiner  in  charge 
of  trade-marks  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents, 
fifteen  dollars. 

On  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  ex- 
aminer in  charge  of  interferences,  awarding 
ownership  of  a  trade-mark  or  canceling  the 
registration  of  a  trade-mark,  to  the  Commis- 
sioner   of  Patents,    fifteen    dollars 

For  certified  and  uncertified  copies  of  cer- 
tificates of  registration  and  other  papers,  and 
for  recording  transfers  and  other  papers,  the 
same  fees  as  required  by  law  for  such  copies 
of  patents  and  for  recording  assignments  and 
other  papers   relating  to   patents. 

Sec.  15.  That  sections  forty-nine  hundred  and 
thirty-five  and  forty-nine  hundred  and  thirty- 
six  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  relating  to  the 
payment  of  patent  fees  and  to  the  repayment 
of  fees  paid  by  mistake,  are  hereby  made  ap- 
plicable to   trade-mark  fees. 

Sec.  16.  That  the  registration  of  a  trade- 
mark under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be 
prima  facie  evidence  of  ownership.  Any  per- 
son who  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner  thereof,  reproduce,  counterfeit,  copy, 
or  colorably  imitate  any  such  trade-mark  and 
affix  the  same  to  merchandise  of  substantially 
the  same  descriptive  properties  as  those  set 
forth  in  the  registration,  or  to  labels,  signs, 
prints,  packages,  wrappers  or  receptacles  intend- 
ed to  be  used  upon  or  in  connection  with  the 
sale  of  merchandise  of  substantially  the  same 
descriptive  properties  as  those  set  forth  in  such 
registration,  and  shall  use,  or  shall  have  used, 
such  reproduction,  counterfeit,  copy,  or  color- 
able imitation  in  commerce  among  the  several 
States,  or  with  a  foreign  nation,  or  with  the 
Indian  tribes,  shall  be  liable  to  an  action  for 
damages  therefor  at  the  suit  of  the  owner 
thereof;    and    whenever    In   any    such    action   a 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


verdict  is  rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  the  court 
may  enter  judgment  therein  for  any  sum  above 
the  amount  found  by  the  verdict  as  the  actual 
damages,  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  case,  not  exceeding  three  times  the  amount 
of  such  verdict,   together  with  the  costs. 

Sec.  17.  That  the  circuit  and  territorial 
courts  of  the  United  States  and  the  supreme 
court  of  the  District  of  Columbia  shall  have 
original  jurisdiction,  and  the  circuit  courts  of 
appeal  of  the  United  States  and  the  court  of 
appeals  of  the  District  of  Columbia  shall  have 
appellate  jurisdiction  of  all  suits  at  law  or  in 
equity  respecting  trade-marks  registered  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  this  act,  aris- 
ing under  the  present  act,  without  regard  to 
the   amount  in  controversy. 

Sec.  18.  That  writs  of  certiorari  may  be 
granted  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  for  the  review  of  cases  arising  under 
this  act  in  the  same  manner  as  provided  for 
patent  cases  by  the  act  creating  the  circuit 
court    of   appeals. 

Sec.  19.  That  the  several  courts  vested  with 
jurisdiction  of  cases  arising  under  the  present 
act  shall  have  power  to  grant  injunctions,  ac- 
cording to  the  course  and  principles  of  equity, 
to  prevent  the  violation  of  any  right  of  the 
owner  of  a  trade-mark  registered  under  this 
act,  on  such  terms  as  the  court  may  deem 
reasonable;  and  upon  a  decree  being  rendered 
in  any  such  case  for  wrongful  use  of  a  trade- 
mark the  complainant  shall  be  entitled  to  re- 
cover, in  addition  to  the  profits  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  defendant,  the  damages-  the  com- 
plainant has  sustained  thereby,  and  the  court 
shall  assess  the  same  or  cause  the  same  to  be 
assessed  under  its  direction.  The  court  shall 
have  the  same  power  to  increase  such  dam- 
ages, in  its  discretion,  as  is  given  by  section 
sixteen  of  "this  act  for  increasing  damages 
found  by  verdict  in  actions  of  law;  and  in 
assessing  profits  the  plaintiff  shall  be  required 
to  prove  defendant's  sales  only;  defendant  must 
prove  all    elements   of   cost   which    are  claimed. 

Sec.  20.  That  in  any  case  involving  the 
right  to  a  trade-mark  registered  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act,  in  which  the 
verdict  has  been  found  for  the  plaintiff,  or  an 
injunction  issued,  the  court  may  order  that  all 
labels,  signs,  prints,  packages,  wrappers,  or 
receptacles  in  the  possession  of  the  defendant, 
bearing  the  trade-mark  of  the  plaintiff  or 
complainant,  or  any  reproduction,  counterfeit, 
copy,  or  colorable  imitation  thereof,  shall  be 
delivered  up  and  destroyed.  Any  injunction 
that  may  be  granted  upon  hearing,  after  notice 
to  the  defendant,  to  prevent  the  violation  of 
any  right  of  the  owner  of  a  trade-mark  regis- 
tered in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  by  any  circuit  court  of  the  United  States, 
or  by  a  judge  thereof,  may  be  served  on  the 
parties  against  whom  such  injunction  may  be 
granted  anywhere  in  the  United  States  where 
they  may  be  found,  and  shall  be  operative,  and 
may  be  enforced  by  proceedings  to  punish  for 
contempt,  or  otherwise,  by  the  court  by  which 
such  injunction  was  granted,  or  by  any  other 
circuit  court,  or  judge  thereof,  in  the  United 
States,  or  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  or  a  judge  thereof.  The 
said  courts,  or  judges  thereof,  shall  have  juris- 
diction to  enforce  said  injunction,  as  herein 
provided,  as  fully  as  if  the  injunction  had 
been  granted  by  the  circuit  court  in  which  it 
Is  sought  to  be  enforced.  The  clerk  of  the 
court  or  judge  granting  the  injunction  shall, 
when  required  to  do  so  by  the  court  before 
which  application  to  enforce  said  injunction  is 
made,    transfer   without    delay   to '  said   court   a 


certified  copy  of  all  the  papers  on  which  the 
said  injunction  was  granted  that  are  on  file 
in   his  office. 

Sec.  21.  That  no  action  or  suit  shall  be 
maintained  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  in 
any  case  when  the  trade-mark  is  used  in  un- 
lawful business,  or  upon  any  article  injurious 
in  itself,  or  which  mark  has  been  used  with 
the  design  of  deceiving  the  public  in  the  pur- 
chase of  merchandise,  or  has  been  abandoned, 
or  upon  any  certificate  of  registration  fraudu- 
lently  obtained. 

Sec.  22.  That  whenever  there  are  interfering 
registered  trade-marks,  any  person  interested 
in  any  one  of  them  may  have  relief  against 
the  interfering  registrant,  and  all  persons  in- 
terested under  him,  by  suit  in  equity  against 
the  said  registrant,  and  the  court,  on  notice 
to  adverse  parties  and  other  due  proceedings 
had  according  to  the  course  of  equity,  may 
adjudge  and  declare  either  of  the  registrations 
void  in  whole  or  in  part  according  to  the  in- 
terest of  the  parties  in  the  trade-mark,  and 
may  order  the  certificate  of  registration  to  be 
delivered  up  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
for   cancellation. 

Sec.  23.  That  nothing  in  this  act  shall  pre- 
vent, lessen,  impeach,  or  avoid  any  remedy  at 
law  or  in  equity  which  any  party  aggrieved  by 
any  wrongful  use  of  any  trade-mark  might 
have  had  if  the  provisions  of  this  act  had  not 
been  passed. 

Sec.  24.  That  all  applications  for  registration 
pending  in  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act 
may  be  amended  with  a  view  to  bringing 
them,  and  the  certificates  issued  upon  such 
applications,  under  its  provisions,  and  the 
prosecution  of  such  applications  may  be  pro- 
ceeded with  under  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sec.  25.  That  any  person  who  shall  procure 
registration  of  a  trade-mark,  or  entry  thereof, 
in  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
by  a  false  or  fraudulent  declaration  or  repre- 
sentation, oral  or  in  writing,  or  by  any  false 
means,  shall  be  liable  to  pay  any  damages 
sustained  in  consequence  thereof  to  the  injured 
party,  to  be  recovered  by  an  action  on  the 
case. 

Sec.  26.  That  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
is  authorized  to  make  rules  and  regulations, 
not  inconsistent  with  law,  for  the  conduct  of 
proceedings  in  reference  to  the  registration  of 
trade-marks  provided  for  by  this  act. 

Sec.  27.  That  no  article  of  imported  mer- 
chandise which  shall  copy  or  simulate  the 
name  of  any  domestic  manufacture,  or  manu- 
facturer or  trader,  or  of  any  manufacturer  or 
trader  located  in  any  foreign  country  which, 
by  treaty,  convention,  or  law  affords  similar 
privileges  to  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or 
which  shall  copy  or  simulate  a  trade-mark 
registered  in  accordance  with  the  provisions 
of  this  act  or  shall  bear  a  name  or  mark 
calculated  to  induce  the  public  to  believe  that 
the  article  is  manufactured  in  the  United 
States,  or  that  it  is  manufactured  in  any  for- 
eign country  or  locality  other  than  the  coun- 
try or  locality  in  which  it  is  in  fact  manu- 
factured, shall  be  admitted  to  entry  at  any 
custom  house  of  the  United  States,  and,  in 
order  to  aid  the  officers  of  the  customs  in  en- 
forcing this  prohibition,  any  domestic  manu- 
facturer or  trader,  and  any  foreign  manufac- 
turer or  trader,  who .  is  entitled  under  the 
provisions  of  a  treaty,  convention,  declaration 
or  agreement  between  the  United  States  and 
any  foreign  country  to  the  advantages  afforded 
by  law  to  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  re- 
spect   to    trade-marks    and    commercial    names. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


383 


may  require  his  name  and  residence,  and  the 
name  of  the  locality  in  which  his  goods  are 
manufactured,  and  a  copy  of  the  certificate  of 
registration  of  his  trade-mark,  issued  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  this  act,  to  be 
re  crded  in  books  which  shall  be  kept  for  this 
purpose  in  the  Department  of  the  Treasury, 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  shall  prescribe,  and  may  furnish  to 
the  department  facsimiles  of  his  name,  the 
name  of  the  locality  in  which  his  goods  are 
manufactured,  or  of  his  registered  trade-mark; 
and  thereupon  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
shall  cause  one  or  more  copies  of  the  same 
to  be  transmitted  to  each  collector  or  other 
proper   officer   of   the    customs. 

Sec.  28.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
registrant  to  give  notice  to  the  public  that  a 
trade-mark  Is  registered,  either  by  affixing 
thereon  the  words  "Registered  in  U.  S.  Patent 
Office."  or  abbreviated  thus,  "Reg.  U.  S.  Pat, 
Off.,"  or  when,  from  the  character  or  size  of 
the  trade-mark,  or  from  its  manner  of  attach- 
ment to  the  article  to  which  it  is  appropriated, 
this  cannot  be  done,  then  by  affixing  a  label 
containing  a  like  notice  to  the  package  or  re- 
ceptacle wherein  the  article  or  articles  are 
inclosed;,  and  in  any  suit  for  infringement  by 
a  party  failing  so  to  give  notice  of  registration 
no  damages  shall  be  recovered,  except  on 
proof  that  the  defendant  was  duly  notified  of 
infringement  and  continued  the  same  after  such 
notice. 

Sec.  29.  That  in  construing  this  act  the  fol- 
lowing rules  must  be  observed,  except  where 
the  contrary  intent  is  plainly  apparent  from 
the  context  thereof:  The  United  States  in- 
cludes and  embraces  all  territory  which  is 
under  the  jurisdiction  and  control  of  the 
United  States.  The  word  "States"  includes 
and  embraces  the  District  of  Columbia,  the 
Territories  of  the  United  States,  and  such  other 
territory  as  shall  be  under  the  jurisdiction  and 
control  of  the  United  States.  The  terms  "per- 
son" and  "owner,"  and  any  other  word  or 
term  used  to  designate  the  applicant  or  other 
entitled  to  a  benefit  or  privilege  or  rendered 
liable  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  include 
a  firm,  corporation,  or  association  as  well  as  a 
natural  person.  The  terms  "applicant"  and 
"registrant"  embrace  the  successors  and  as- 
signs of  such  applicant  or  registrant.  The 
term  "trade-mark"  includes  any  mark  which 
is  entitled  to  registration  under  the  terms  of 
this  act,  and  whether  registered  or  not,  and 
a  trade-mark  shall  be  deemed  to  be  "affixed" 
to  an  article  when  it  is  placed  in  any  manner 
in  or  upon  either  the  article  itself  or  the 
receptacle  or  package  or  upon  the  envelope 
or  other  thing  in,  by,  or  with  which  the 
goods  are  packed  or  inclosed  or  otherwise  pre- 
pared for   sale   or   distribution. 

Sec.  30.  That  this  act  shall  be  in  force  and 
take  effect  April  first,  nineteen  hundred  and 
five.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent 
with  this  act  are  hereby  repealed  except  so  far 
as  the  same  may  apply  to  certificates  of  regis- 
tration issued  under  the  act  of  Congress  ap- 
proved March  third,  eighteen  hundred  and 
eighty-one,  entitled  "An  act  to  authorize  the 
registration  of  trade-marks  and  protect  the 
same,"  or  under  the  act  approved  August  fifth, 
eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-two,  entitled  "An 
act  relating  to  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks." 

Approved  February  20,   1905. 


ACT   OF   MAY   4,    1906. 
AN    ACT    To    amend    the    laws    of    the    United 
States   relating   to    the   registration    of   trade- 
marks. 

******* 

Sec.  2.  That  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
shall  establish  classes  of  merchandise  for  the 
purpose  of  trade-mark  registration,  and  shall 
determine  the  particular  descriptions  of  goods 
comprised  in  each  class.  On  a  single  applica- 
tion for  registration  of  a  trade-mark  the  trade- 
mark may  be  registered  at  the  option  of  the 
applicant  for  any  or  all  goods  upon  which  the 
mark  has  actually  been  used  comprised  in  a 
single  class  of  merchandise,  provided  the  par- 
ticular descriptions  of  goods  be  stated. 

Sec.  3.  That  any  owner  of  a  trade-mark 
who  shall  have  a  manufacturing  establishment 
within  the  territory  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  accorded,  so  far  as  the  registration  and 
protection  of  trade-marks  used  on  the  products 
of  such  establishment  are  concerned,  the  same 
rights  and  privileges  that  are  accorded  to 
owners  of  trade-marks  domiciled  within  the 
territory  of  the  United  States  by  the  act  en- 
titled "An  act  to  authorize  the  registration  of 
trade-marks  used  in  commerce  with  foreign 
nations  or  among  the  several  States  or  with 
Indian  tribes,  and  to  protect  the  same,"  ap- 
proved February  twentieth,  nineteen  hundred 
and   five. 

Sec.  4.  That  this  act  shall  take  effect  July 
first,   nineteen  hundred   and  six. 

Act  to  incorporate  the  American  National  Red 
Cross,  approved  January  5,  1905  (as  amended 
June  23,    1910). 

Sec.  4.  That  from  and  after  the  passage  of 
this  act  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  to 
falsely  or  fraudulently  hold  himself  out  as  or 
represent  or  pretend  himself  to  be  a  member 
of  or  an  agent  for  the  American  National  Red 
Cross  for  the  purpose  of  soliciting,  collecting, 
or  receiving  money  or  material;  or  for  any 
person  to  wear  or  display  the  sign  of  the  Red 
Cross  or  any  insignia  colored  in  imitation 
thereof  for  the  fraudulent  purpose  of  inducing 
the  belief  that  he  is  a  member  of  or  an  agent 
for  the  American  National  Red  Cross.  It  shall 
be  unlawful  for  any  person,  corporation,  or 
association  other  than  the  American  National 
Red  Cross  and  its  duly  authorized  employees 
and  agents  and  the  Army  and  Navy  sanitary 
and  hospital  authorities  of  the  United  States, 
for  the  purpose  of  trade  or  as  an  advertise- 
ment, to  induce  the  sale  of  any  article  what- 
soever or  for  any  business  or  charitable  pur- 
pose to  use  within  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  of  America  and  its  exterior  possessions 
the  emblem  of  the  Greek  Red  Cross  on  a  white 
ground,  or  any  sign  or  insignia  made  or  col- 
ored in  imitation  thereof,  or  of  the  words 
"Red  Cross"  or  "Geneva  Cross"  or  any  com- 
bination of  these  words:  Provided,  however. 
That  no  person,  corporation,  or  association 
that  actually  used  or  whose  assignor  actually 
used  the  said  emblem,  sign,  insignia,  or 
words  for  any  lawful  purpose  prior  to  January 
fifth,  nineteen  hundred  and  five  shall  be 
deemed  forbidden  by  this  act  to  continue  the 
use  thereof  for  the  same  purpose  and  for  the 
same  class  of  goods.  If  any  person  violates 
the  provision  of  this  section  he  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon 
conviction  in  any  Federal  court  shall  be  liable 
to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  one  or  more  than 
five    hundred    dollars,    or    imprisonment    for    a 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


term  not  exceeding  one  year,   or  both,   for  each 
and   every   offense. 

******* 

Sec.  8.  That  the  endowment  fund  of  the 
American  National  Red  Cross  shall  be  kept  and 
invested    under    the    management    and    control 


of  a  board  of  nine  trustees,  who  shall  be 
elected  from  time  to  time  by  the  incorporators 
and  their  successors  under  such  regulations  re- 
garding terms  and  tenure  of  ofllce,  accounta- 
bility, and  expense  as  said  incorporators  and 
successors  shall  prescribe. 


THE  COPYRIGHT  LAW  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.* 


CONSTITUTION,    1787. 
Art.     1,     Sec.     8.    The    Congress    shall    have 

power:     To    promote    the    progress    of 

science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing  for  limited 
times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive 
right  to  their  respective  writings  and  dis- 
coveries. 

AN     ACT     TO     AMEND     AND     CONSOLIDATE 
THE.  ACTS   RESPECTING   COPYRIGHT. 
MARCH    4,    1909. 
Be    it    enacted    by    the    Senate    and    House    of 
Representatives   of   the   United   States   of  Amer- 
ica   in    Congress    assembled.     That    any    person 
entitled  thereto,    upon  complying  with  the  pro- 
visions   of    this   Act,    shall   have   the    exclusive 
right : 

(a)  To  print,  reprint,  publish,  copy,  and 
vend  the  copyrighted  work; 

(b)  To  translate  the  copyrighted  work  into 
other  languages  or  dialects,  or  make  any  other 
version  thereof,  if  it  be  a  literary  work;  to 
dramatize  it  if  it  be  a  nondramatic  work;  to 
convert  it  into  a  novel  or  other  nondramatic 
work  if  it  be  a  drama;  to  arrange  or  adapt 
it  if  it  be  a  musical  work;  to  complete,  ex- 
ecute, and  finish  it  if  it  be  a  model  or  design 
for  a  work  of  art; 

(c)  To  deliver  or  authorize  the  delivery  of 
the  copyrighted  work  in  public  for  profit  if  it 
be  a  lecture,  sermon,  address,  or  similar  pro- 
duction; 

(d)  To  perform  or  represent  the  copyrighted 
work  publicly  if  it  be  a  drama  or,  if  it  be  a 
dramatic  work  and  not  reproduced  in  copies 
for  sale,  to  vend  any  manuscript  or  any  rec- 
ord whatsoever  thereof;  to  make  or  to  pro- 
cure the  making  of  any  transcription  or  record 
thereof  by  or  from  which,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
it  may  in  any  manner  or  by  any  method  be 
exhibited,  performed,  represented,  produced, 
or  reproduced;  and  to  exhibit,  perform,  repre- 
sent, produce,  or  reproduce  it  in  any  manner 
or  by  any  method  whatsoever; 

(e)  To  perform  the  copyrighted  work  pub- 
licly for  profit  if  it  be  a  musical  composition 
and  for  the  purpose  of  public  performance  for 
profit;  and  for  the  purposes  set  forth  in  sub- 
section (a)  hereof,  to  make  any  arrangement 
or  setting  of  it  or  of  the  melody  of  it  in  any 
system  of  notation  or  any  form  of  record  in 
which  the  thought  of  an  author  may  be  re- 
corded and  from  which  it  may  be  read  or 
reproduced:  Provided,  That  the  provisions  of 
this  Act,  so  far  as  they  secure  copyright  con- 
trolling the  parts  of  instruments  serving  to 
reproduce  mechanically  the  musical  work,  shall 
include  only  compositions  published  and  copy- 
righted after  this  Act  goes  into  effect,  and 
shall  not  include  the  works  of  a  foreign  author 
or  composer  unless  the  foreign  state  or  na- 
tion of  which  such  author  or  composer  is 
a  citizen  or  subject  grants,  either  by  treaty, 
convention,  agreement,  or  law,  to  citizens 
of     the     United     States     similar     rights:       And 

♦Slightly  abridged  for  this  book  by  Munn  & 
Co.,   Patent  Attorneys. 


provided,  further,  and  as  a  condition  of 
extending  the  copyright  control  to  such  me- 
chanical reproductions.  That  whenever  the 
owner  of  a  musical  copyright  has  used  or  per- 
mitted or  knowingly  acquiesced  in  the  use  of 
the  copyrighted  work  upon  the  parts  of  in- 
struments serving  to  reproduce  mechanically 
the  musical  work,  any  other  person  may  make 
similar  use  of  the  copyrighted  work  upon 
the  payment  to  the  copyright  proprietor  of  a 
royalty  of  two  cents  on  each  such  part  manu- 
factured, to  be  paid  by  the  manufacturer 
thereof,  and  the  copyright  proprietor  may  re- 
quire, and  if  so  the  manufacturer  shall  fur- 
nish, a  report  under  oath  on  the  twentieth 
day  of  each  month  on  the  number  of  parts  of 
instruments  manufactured  during  the  .  previous 
month  serving  to  reproduce  mechanically  said 
musical  work,  and  royalties  shall  be  due  on 
the  parts  manufactured  during  any  month  upon 
the  twentieth  of  the  next  succeeding  month. 
The  payment  of  the  royalty  provided  for  by 
this  section  shall  free  the  articles  or  devices 
for  which  such  royalty  has  been  paid  from 
further  contribution  to  the  copyright  except 
in  case  of  public  performance  for  profit:  And 
provided  further.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  copyright  owner,  if  he  uses  the  musical 
composition  himself  for  the  manufacture  of 
parts  of  instruments  serving  to  reproduce  me- 
chanically the  musical  work,  or  licenses  others 
to  do  so,  to  file  notice  thereof,  accompanied 
by  a  recording  fee,  in  the  copyright  office,  and 
any  failure  to  file  such  notice  shall  be  a  com- 
plete defense  to  any  suit,  action,  or  proceed- 
ing for  any  infringement  of  such  copyright. 

In  case  of  the  failure  of  such  manufacturer 
to  pay  to  the  copyright  proprietor  within  thirty 
days  after  demand  in  writing  the  full  sum 
of  royalties  due  at  said  rate  at  the  date  of 
such  demand  the  court  may  award  taxable 
costs  to  the  plaintiff  and  a  reasonable  counsel 
fee,  and  the  court  may,  in  its  discretion, 
enter  judgment  therein  for  any  sum  in  addi- 
tion over  the  amount  found  to  be  due  as  roy- 
alty in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  this  Act, 
not    exceeding  three  times   such    amount. 

The  reproduction  or  rendition  of  a  musical 
composition  by  or  upon  coin-operated  machines 
shall  not  be  deemed  a  public  performance  for 
profit  unless  a  fee  is  charged  for  admission 
to  the  place  where  such  reproductions  or  ren- 
dition occurs. 

Sec.  2.  That  nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be 
construed  to  annul  or  limit  the  right  of  the 
author  or  proprietor  of  an  unpublished  work, 
at  common  law  or  in  equity,  to  prevent  the 
copying,  publication,  or  use  of  such  unpub- 
lished work  without  his  consent,  and  to  ob- 
tain damages  therefor. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  copyright  provided  by  the 
Act  shall  protect  all  the  copyrightable  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  work  copyrighted,  and  all 
matter  therein  in  which  copyright  is  already 
subsisting,  but  without  extending  the  duration 
or  scope  of  such  dopyright.  The  copyright 
upon  composite  works  or  periodicals  shall  give 
to  the  proprietor  thereof  all  the  rights  in 
respect   thereto    which    he   would   'lave   If   each 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


38i 


part  were  individually  copyrighted  under  this 
Act. 

Sec.  4.  That  the  works  for  which  copyright 
may  be  secured  under  this  Act  shall  include 
all    the   writings   of   an   author. 

Sec.  5.  That  the  application  for  registration 
shall  specify  to  which  of  the  following  classes 
the  work  in  which  copyright  is  claimed  be- 
longs : 

(a)  Books,  including  composite  and  cyclo- 
paedic works,  directories,  gazetteers,  and  other 
compilations; 

(b)  Periodicals,    including   newspapers; 

(c)  Lectures,  sermons,  addresses,  prepared 
for    oral    delivery; 

(d)  Dramatic  or  dramatico-musical  composi- 
tions; 

(e)  Musical    compositions; 

(f)  Maps ; 

(g)  Works  of  art;  models  or  designs  for 
works    of    art; 

(h)     Reproductions  of  a  work   of  art; 

(i)  Drawings  or  plastic  works  of  a  scientific 
or   technical    character; 

(j)     Photographs; 

(k)     Prints    and   pictorial    illustrations: 

Provided,  nevertheless.  That  the  above  speci- 
fications shall  not  be  held  to  limit  the  subject- 
matter  of  copyright  as  defined  in  section  four 
of  this  Act,  nor  shall  any  error  in  classifica- 
tion invalidate  or  impair  the  copyright  protec- 
tion   secured    under   this   Act. 

Sec.  6.  That  compilations  or  abridgments, 
adaptations,  arrangements,  dramatizations, 
translations,  or  other  versions  of  works  in  the 
public  domain,  or  of  copyrighted  works  when 
produced  with  the  consent  of  the  proprietor  of 
the  copyright  in  such  works,  or  works  repub- 
lished with  new  matter,  shall  be  regarded  as 
new  works  subject  to  copyright  under  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act;  but  the  publication  of 
any  such  new  works  shall  not  affect  the  force 
or  validity  of  any  subsisting  copyright  upon 
the  matter  employed  or  any  part  thereof,  or 
be  construed  to  imply  an  exclusive  right  to 
such  use  of  the  original  works,  or  to  secure 
or  extend   copyright   in  such   original  works. 

Sec.  7.  That  no  copyright  shall  subsist  in 
the  original  text  of  any  work  which  is  in  the 
public  domain,  or  in  any  work  which  was  pub- 
lished in  this  country  or  any  foreign  country 
prior  to  the  going  into  effect  of  this  Act  and 
has  not  been  already  copyrighted  in  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  publication  of  the 
United  States  Government,  or  any  reprint,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  thereof:  Provided,  however. 
That  the  publication  or  republication  by  the 
Government,  either  separately  or  in  a  public 
document,  of  any  material  in  which  copyright 
is  subsisting,  shall  not  be  taken  to  cause  any 
abridgment  or  annulment  of  the  copyright  or 
to  authorize  any  use  or  appropriation  of  such 
copyright  material  without  the  consent  of  the 
copyright  proprietor. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  author  or  proprietor  of  any 
work  made  the  subject  of  copyright  by  this 
Act,  or  his  executors,  administrators,  or  as- 
signs, shall  have  copyright  for  such  work 
under  the  conditions  and  for  the  terms  speci- 
fied in  this  Act:  Provided,  however.  That  the 
copyright  secured  by  this  Act  shall  extend  to 
the  work  of  an  author  or  proprietor  who  is  a 
citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  state  or  nation, 
only: 

(a)  When  an  alien  author  or  proprietor  shall 
be  domiciled  within  the  United  States  at  the 
time  of  the  first  publication  of  his  work;  or 

(b)  When  the  foreign  state  or  nation  of 
which  such  author  or  proprietor  is  a  citizen 
or  subject  grants,   either  by  treaty,   convention, 


agreement,  or  law,  to  citizens  of  the  United 
States  the  benefit  of  copyright  on  substantially 
the  same  basis  as  to  its  own  citizens,  or  copy- 
right protection  substantially  equal  to  the 
protection  secured  to  such  foreign  author  under 
this  Act  or  by  treaty;  or  when  such  foreign 
state  or  nation  is  a  party  to  an  international 
agreement  which  provides  for  reciprocity  in 
the  granting  of  copyright,  by  the  terms  of 
which  agreement  the  United  States  may,  at 
its   pleasure,    become   a  party   thereto. 

The  existence  of  the  reciprocal  conditions 
aforesaid  shall  be  determined  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  by  proclamation  made 
from  time  to  time,  as  the  purposes  of  this 
Act   may  require. 

Sec.  9.  That  any  person  entitled  thereto  by 
this  Act  may  secure  copyright  for  his  work 
by  publication  thereof  with  the  notice  of 
copyright  required  by  this  Act ;  and  such  no- 
tice shall  be  aflixed  to  each  copy  thereof  pub- 
lished or  offered  for  sale  in  the  United  States 
by  authority  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  except 
in  the  case  of  books  seeking  ad  interim  pro- 
tection under  section   twenty-one  of   this  Act. 

Sec.  10.  That  such  person  may  obtain  regis- 
tration of  his  claim  to  copyright  by  complying 
with  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  including  the 
deposit  of  copies,  and  upon  such  compliance 
the  register  of  copyrights  shall  issue  to  him 
the  certificate  provided  for  in  section  fifty- 
five   of  this  Act. 

Sec.  11.  That  copyright  may  also  be  had 
of  the  works  of  an  author  of  which  copies  are 
not  reproduced  for  sale,  by  the  deposit,  with 
claim  of  copyright,  of  one  complete  copy  of 
such  work  if  it  be  a  lecture  or  similar  pro- 
duction or  a  dramatic  or  musical  composition; 
of  a  photographic  print  if  the  work  be  a 
photograph;  or  of  a  photograph  or  other  identi- 
fying reproduction  thereof  if  it  be  a  work  of 
art  or  a  plastic  work  or  drawing.  But  the 
privilege  of  registration  of  copyright  secured 
hereunder  shall  not  exempt  the  copyright  pro- 
prietor from  the  deposit  of  copies  under  sec- 
tions twelve  and  thirteen  of  this  Act  where 
the  work  is  later  reproduced  in  copies  for 
sale. 

*  *•    * 

Sec.  13.  That  should  the  copies  called  for  by 
this  Act  not  be  promptly  deposited  as  herein 
provided,  the  register  of  copyrights  may  at  any 
time  after  the  publication  of  the  work,  upon 
actual  notice,  require  the  proprietor  of  the 
copyright  to  deposit  them,  and  after  the  said 
demand  shall  have  been  made,  in  default  of 
the  deposit  of  copies  of  the  work  within  three 
months  from  any  part  of  the  United  States, 
except  an  outlying  territorial  possession  of  the 
United  States,  or  within  six  months  from  any 
outlying  territorial  possession  of  the  United 
States,  or  from  any  foreign  country,  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  copyright  shall  be  liable  to  a 
fine  of  one  hundred  dollars  and  to  pay  to  the 
Library  of  Congress  twice  the  amount  of  the 
retail  price  of  the  best  edition  of  the  work, 
and   the  copyright  shall   become  void. 

*  «     « 

Sec.  15.  That  of  the  printed  book  or  periodi- 
cal specified  in  section  five,  subsections  (a) 
and  (b)  of  this  Act,  except  the  original  text 
of  a  book  of  foreign  origin  in  a  language 
or  languages  other  than  English,  the  text  of 
all  copies  accorded  protection  under  this  Act, 
except  as  below  provided,  shall  be  printed 
from  type  set  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  either  by  hand  or  by  the  aid  of  any 
kind  of  typesetting  machine,  or  from  plates 
made  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States 
from    type    set    therein,     or,     if    the    text     be 


386 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


produced  by  lithographic  process,  or  photo- 
engraving process,  then  by  a  process  wholly 
performed  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  printing  of  the  text  and  bind- 
ing of  the  said  book  shall  be  performed  within 
the  limits  of  the  United  States;  which  re- 
quirements shall  extend  also  to  the  illustra- 
tions within  a  book  consisting  of  printed  text 
and  illustrations  produced  by  lithographic 
process,  or  photo-engraving  process,  and  also 
to  separate  lithographs  or  photo-engravings, 
except  where  in  either  case  the  subjects  repre- 
sented are  located  in  a  foreign  country  and 
illustrate  a  scientific  work  or  reproduce  a 
work  of  art;  but  they  shall  not  apply  to  works 
in  raised  characters  for  the  use  of  the  blind, 
or  to  books  of  foreign  origin  in  a  language  or 
languages  other  than  English,  or  to  books 
published  abroad  in  the  English  language  seek- 
ing ad  interim  protection  under  this  Act. 
*  *  >* 
Sec.  18.  That  the  notice  of  copyright  re- 
quired by  section  nine  of  this  Act  shall  con- 
sist either  of  the  word  "Copyright"  or  the 
abbreviation  "Copr.",  accompanied  by  the 
name  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  and  if  the 
work  be  a  printed  literary,  musical,  or  dra- 
matic work,  the  notice  shall  include  also  the 
year  in  which  the  copyright  was  secured  by 
publication.  In  the  case,  however,  of  copies 
of  works  specified  in  subsections  (f)  to  (k), 
inclusive,  of  section  five  of  this  Act,  the  notice 
may  consist  of  the  letter  C  inclosed  within  a 
circle,  accompanied  by  the  initials,  mono- 
gram, mark,  or  symbol  of  the  copyright 
proprietor:  Provided,  That  on  some  ac- 
cessible portion  of  such  copies  or  of  the 
margin,  back,  permanent  base,  or  pedestal,  or 
of  the  substance  on  which  such  copies  shall 
be  mounted,  his  name  shall  appear.  But  in 
the  case  of  works  in  which  copyright  is  sub- 
sisting when  this  Act  shall  go  into  effect,  the 
notice  of  copyright  may  be  either  in  one  of 
the  forms  prescribed  herein  or  in  one  of  those 
prescribed  oy  the  Act  of  June  eighteenth, 
eighteen    hundred    and    seventy-four. 

Sec.  19.  That  the  notice  of  copyright  shall 
be  applied,  in  the  case  of  a  book  or  other 
printed  publication  upon  its  title-page  or  the 
page  immediately  following,  or  if  a  periodi- 
cal either  upon  the  title-page  or  upon 
the  first  page  of  text  of  each  separate  number 
or  under  the  title  heading,  or  if  a  musical 
work  either  upon  its  title-page  or  the  first 
page  of  music:  Provided,  That  one  notice  of 
copyright  in  each  volume  or  in  each  number 
of  a  newspaper  or  periodical  published  shall 
suffice. 

Sec.  20.  That  where  the  copyright  proprie- 
tor has  sought  to  comply  with  the  provisions 
of  this  Act  with  respect  to  notice,  the  omis- 
sion by  accident  or  mistake  of  the  prescribed 
notice  from  a  particular  copy  or  copies  shall 
not  invalidate  the  copyright  or  prevent  re- 
covery for  infringement  against  any  per.son 
who,  after  actual  notice  of  the  copyright,  be- 
gins an  undertaking  to  infringe  it,  but  shall 
prevent  the  recovery  of  damages  against  an 
innocent  infringer  who  has  been  misled  by  the 
omission  of  the  notice;  and  in  a  suit  for  in- 
fringement no  permanent  injunction  shall  be 
had  unless  the  copyright  proprietor  shall  re- 
imburse to  the  innocent  infringer  his  reason- 
able outlay  innocently  incurred  if  the  court, 
in  its  discretion,   shall  so  direct. 

Sec.  21.  That  in  the  case  of  a  book  pub- 
lished abroad  in  the  English  language  before 
publication  in  this  country,  the  deposit  in  the 
copyright  office,   not  later  than  thirty  days  after    I 


its  publication  abroad,  of  one  complete  copy 
of  the  foreign  edition,  with  a  request  for  the 
reservation  of  the  copyright  and  a  statement 
of  the  name  and  nationality  of  the  author  and 
of  the  copyright  proprietor  and  of  the  date 
of  publication  of  the  said  book,  shall  secure 
to  the  author  or  proprietor  an  ad  interim 
copyright,  which  shall  have  all  the  force  and 
effect  given  to  copyright  by  this  Act,  and  shall 
endure  until  the  expiration  of  thirty  days 
after  such  deposit   in  the  copyright  office. 

Sec.  22.  That  whenever  within  the  period  of 
such  ad  interim  protection  an  authorized  edi- 
tion of  such  book  shall  be  published  within 
the  United  States,  in  accordance  with  the 
manufacturing  provisions  specified  in  section 
fifteen  of  this  Act,  and  whenever  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act  as  to  deposit  of  copies, 
registration,  filing  of  affidavit,  and  the  print- 
ing of  the  copyright  notice  shall  have  been 
duly  complied  with,  the  copyright  shall  be 
extended  to  endure  in  such  book  for  the  full 
term  elsewhere  provided  in  this  Act. 

Sec.  23.  That  the  copyright  secured  by  this 
Act  shall  endure  for-  twenty-eight  years  from 
the  date  of  first  publication,  whether  the  copy- 
righted work  bears  the  author's  true  name  or 
is  published  anonymously  or  under  an  as- 
sumed name:  Provided,  That  in  the  case  of 
any  posthumous  work  or  of  any  periodical, 
cyclopaedic,  or  other  composite  work  upon 
which  the  copyright  was  originally  secured 
by  the  proprietor  thereof,  or  of  any  work 
copyrighted  by  a  corporate  body  (other- 
wise than  as  assignee  or  licensee  of  the 
individual  author)  or  by  an  employer  for  whom 
such  work  is  made  for  hire,  the  proprietor  of 
such  copyright  shall  be  entitled  to  a  renewal 
and  extension  of  the  copyright  in  such  work 
for  the  further  term  of  twenty-eight  years  when 
application  for  such  renewal  and  extension 
shall  have  been  made  to  the  copyright  office 
and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  original  term 
of  copyright:  And  provided  further.  That  in 
the  case  of  any  other  copyrighted  work,  in- 
cluding a  contribution  by  an  individual  author 
to  a  periodical  or  to  a  cyclopaedic  or  other 
composite  work  when  such  contribution  has 
been  separately  registered,  the  author  of  such 
work,  if  still  living,  or  the  widow,  widower, 
or  children  of  the  author,  if  the  author  be  not 
living,  or  if  such  author,  widow,  widower,  or 
children  be  not  living,  then  the  author's  execu- 
tors, or  in  the  absence  of  a  will,  his  next  of  kin 
shall  be  entitled  to  a  renewal  and  extension  of 
the  copyright  in  such  work  for  a  further  term 
of  twenty-eight  years  when  application  for 
such  renewal  and  extension  shall  have  been 
made  to  the  copyright  office  and  duly  regis- 
tered therein  within  one  year  prior  to  the  ex- 
piration of  the  original  term  of  copyright: 
And  provided  further.  That  in  default  of  the 
registration  of  such  application  for  renewal 
and  extension,  the  copyright  in  any  work  shall 
determine  at  the  expiration  of  twenty-eight 
years   from  first  publication. 

Sec.  24.  That  the  copyright  subsisting  in  any 
work  at  the  time  when  this  Act  goes  Into 
effect  may,  at  the  expiration  of  the  term  pro- 
vided for  under  existing  law,  be  renewed  and 
extended  by  the  author  of  such  work  If  still 
living,  or  the  widow,  widower,  or  children  of 
the  author,  if  the  author  be  not  living,  or 
if  such  author,  widow,  widower,  or  children 
be  not  living,  then  by  the  author's  executors, 
or  in  the  absence  of  a  will,  his  next  of  kin, 
for  a  further  period  such  that  the  entire  term 
shall    be    equal    to    that    secured    by    this    Act, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


387 


including  tlie  renewal  period:  Provided;  how- 
ever, That  if  the  work  be  a  composite  worlc 
upon  which  copyright  was  originally  secured 
by  the  proprietor  thereof,  then  such  proprietor 
shall  be  entitled  to  the  privilege  of  renewal 
and  extension  granted  under  this  section:  Pro- 
vided, That  application  for  such  renewal  and 
extension  shall  be  made  to  the  copyright  office 
and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  existing  term. 

Sec.  25.  That  if  any  person  shall  infringe 
the  copyright  in  any  work  protected  under  the 
copyright  laws  of  the  United  States  such  per- 
son  shall    be    liable: 

(a)  To  an  injunction  restraining  such  in- 
fringement; 

(b)  To  pay  to  the  copyright  proprietor  such 
damages  as  the  copyright  proprietor  may  have 
suffered  due  to  the  infringement,  as  well  as 
all  the  profits  which  the  infringer  shall  have 
made  from  such  infringement,  and  in  proving 
profits  the  plaintiff  shall  be  required  to  prove 
sales  only  and  the  defendant  shall  be  required 
to  prove  every  element  of  cost  which  he  claims, 
or  in  lieu  of  actual  damages  and  profits  such 
damages  as  to  the  court  shall  appear  to  be 
just,  and  in  assessing  such  damages  the  court 
may,  in  its  discretion,  allow  the  amounts  as 
hereinafter  stated,  but  in  the  case  of  a  news- 
paper reproduction  of  a  copyrighted  photo- 
graph such  damages  shall  not  exceed  the  sum 
of  two  hundred  dollars  nor  be  less  than  the 
sum  of  fifty  dollars,  and  such  damages  shall 
in  no  other  case  exceed  the  sum  of  five  thou- 
sand dollars  nor  be  less  than  the  sum  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  shall  not  be 
regarded   as   a   penalty: 

First.  In  the  case  of  a  painting,  statue,  or 
sculpture,  ten  dollars  for  every  infringing  copy 
made  or  sold  by  or  found  in  the  possession 
of  the   infringer   or  his   agents   or   employees; 

Second.  In  the  case  of  any  work  enumerated 
in  section  five  of  this  Act,  except  a  painting, 
statue,  or  sculpture,  one  dollar  for  every  In- 
fringing copy  made  or  sold  by  or  found  in 
the  possession  of  the  infringer  or  his  agents 
or  employees; 

Third.  In  the  case  of  a  lecture,  sermon,  or 
address,  fifty  dollars  for  every  infringing  de- 
livery; 

Fourth.  In  the  case  of  a  dramatic  or  dra- 
matico-musical  or  a  choral  or  orchestral  com- 
position, one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first  and 
fifty  dollars  for  every  subsequent  infringing 
performance;  in  the  case  of  other  musical 
compositions,  ten  dollars  for  every  infringing 
performance; 

(c)  To  deliver  up  on  oath,  to  be  impounded 
during  the  pendency  of  the  action,  upon  such 
terms  and  conditions  as  the  court  may  pre- 
scribe, all  articles  alleged  to  infringe  a  copy- 
right ; 

(d)  To  deliver  up  on  oath  for  destruction  all 
the  infringing  copies  or  devices,  as  well  as 
all  plates,  molds,  matrices,  or  other  means 
for  making  such  infringing  copies  as  the  court 
may   order ; 

(e)  Whenever  the  owner  of  a  musical  copy- 
right has  used  or  permitted  the  use  of  the 
copyrighted  work  upon  the  parts  of  musical 
instruments  serving  to  reproduce  mechanically 
the  musical  work,  then  in  case  of  infringe- 
ment of  such  copyright  by  the  unauthorized 
manufacture,  use,  or  sale  of  interchangeable 
parts,  such  as  disks,  rolls,  bands,  or  cylinders 
for  use  in  mechanical  music-producing  ma- 
chines adapted  to  reproduce  the  copyrighted 
music,  no  criminal  action  shall  be  brought, 
but    in    a    civil    action    an    injunction    may    be 


granted  upon  such  terms  as  the  court  may 
impose,  and  the  plaintiff  shall  be  entitled  to 
recover  in  lieu  of  profits  and  damages  a  roy- 
alty as  provided  in  section  one,  subsection  (e), 
of  this  Act:  Provided  also.  That  whenever 
any  person,  in  the  absence  of  a  license  agree- 
ment, intends  to  use  a  copyrighted  musical 
composition  upon  the  parts  of  instruments 
serving  to  reproduce  mechanically  the  musi- 
cal work,  relying  upon  the  compulsory  license 
provision  of  this  Act,  he  shall  serve  notice  of 
such  intention,  by  registered  mail,  upon  the 
copyright  proprietor  at  his  last  address  dis- 
closed by  the  records  of  the  copyright  office, 
sending  to  the  copyright  office  a  duplicate  of 
such  notice;  and  in  case  of  his  failure  so  to 
do  the  court  may,  in  its  discretion,  in  addi- 
tion to  sums  hereinabove  mentioned,  award 
the  complainant  a  further  sum,  not  to  exceed 
three  times  the  amount  provided  by  section 
one,  subsection  (e),  by  way  of  damages,  and 
not  as  a  penalty,  and  also  a  temporary  in- 
junction until   the  full  award  is  paid. 

Rules    and    regulations    for   practice    and    pro- 
cedure   under    this    section    shall    be    prescribed 
by  the   Supreme  Court  of  the  United   States. 
*     *     * 

Sec.  28.  That  any  person  who  willfully  and 
for  profit  shall  infringe  any  copyright  secured 
by  this  Act,  or  who  shall  knowingly  and  will- 
fully aid  or  abet  such  infringement,  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon 
conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  im- 
prisonment for  not  exceeding  one  year  or  by 
a  fine  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars 
nor  more  than  one  thousand  dollars,  or  both, 
in  the  discretion  of  the  court:  Provided,  how- 
ever. That  nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  prevent  the  performance  of  re- 
ligious or  secular  works,  such  as  oratorios, 
cantatas,  masses,  or  octavo  choruses  by  public 
schools,  church  choirs,  or  vocal  societies, 
rented,  borrowed,  or  obtained  from  some  pub- 
lic library,  public  school,  church  choir,  school 
choir,  or  vocal  society,  provided  the  perform- 
ance is  given  for  charitable  or  educational 
purposes  and   not   for  profit. 

Sec.  29.  That  any  person  who,  with  fraudu- 
lent intent,  shall  insert'  or  impress  any  notice 
of  copyright  required  by  this  Act,  or  words 
of  the  same  purport,  in  or  upon  any  uncopy- 
righted  article,  or  with  fraudulent  intent  shall 
remove  or  alter  the  copyright  notice  upon  any 
article  duly  copyrighted  shall  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor,  punishable  by  a  fine  of  not  less 
than  one  hundred  dollars  and  not  more  than 
one  thousand  dollars.  Any  person  who  shall 
knowingly  issue  or  sell  any  article  bearing  a 
notice  of  United  States  copyright  which  has 
not  been  copyrighted  in  this  country,  or  who 
shall  knowingly  import  any  article  bearing 
such  notice  or  words  of  the  same  purport, 
which  has  not  been  copyrighted  in  this  coun- 
try, shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  of  one  hundred 
dollars. 

Sec.  30.  That  the  importation  into  the 
United  States  of  any  article  bearing  a  false 
notice  of  copyright  when  there  is  no  existing 
copyright  thereon  in  the  United  States,  or  of 
any  piratical  copies  of  any  work  copyrighted 
in    the   United    States,    is   prohibited. 

Sec.  31.  That  during  the  existence  of  the 
American  copyright  in  any  book  the  importa- 
tion into  the  United  States  of  any  piratical 
copies  thereof  or  of  any  copies  thereof  (al- 
though authorized  by  the  author  or  proprietor) 
which  have  not  been  produced  in  accordance 
with  the  manufacturing  provisions  specified 
in    section    fifteen    of    this   Act,    or   any    plates 


388 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


of  the  same  not  made  from  type  set  within 
the  limits  of  the  United  States,  or  any  copies 
thereof  produced  by  lithographic  or  photo- 
engraving process  not  performed  within  the 
limits  of  the  United  States,  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  section  fifteen  of  this 
Act,  shall  be,  and  is  hereby,  prohibited:  Pro- 
vided, however.  That,  except  as  regards  pirati- 
cal  copies,    such   prohibition   shall   not   apply: 

(a)  To  works  in  raised  characters  for  the 
use  of  the   blind; 

(b)  To  a  foreign  newspaper  or  magazine,  al- 
though containing  matter  copyrighted  in  the 
United  States  printed  or  reprinted  by  author- 
ity of  the  copyright  proprietor,  unless  such 
newspaper  or  magazine  contains  also  copyright 
matter  printed  or  reprinted  without  such  au- 
thorization; 

(c)  To  the  authorized  edition  of  a  book  in 
a  foreign  language  or  languages  of  which  only 
a  translation  into  English  has  been  copy- 
righted in  this  country. 

(d)  To  any  book  published  abroad  with  the 
authorization  of  the  author  or  copyright  pro- 
prietor when  imported  under  the  circumstances 
stated  in  one  of  the  four  subdivisions  fol- 
lowing,   that    is    to    say: 

First.  When  imported,  not  more  than  one 
copy  at  one  time,  for  individual  use  and  not 
for  sale;  but  such  privilege  of  importation 
shall  not  extend  to  a  foreign  reprint  of  a 
book  by  an  American  author  copyrighted  in  the 
United    States; 

Second:  When  imported  by  the  authority  or 
for   the    use   of    the    United    States; 

Third.  When  imported,  for  use  and  not  for 
sale,  not  more  than  one  copy  of  any  such 
book  in  any  one  invoice,  in  good  faith,  by  or 
for  any  society  or  institution  incorporated  for 
educational,  literary,  philosophical,  scientific, 
or  religious  purposes,  or  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  fine  arts,  or  for  any  college, 
academy,  school,  or  seminary  of  learning,  or 
for  any  State,  school,  college,  university,  or 
free  public   library  in  the  United   States; 

Fourth.  When  such  books  form  parts  of  li- 
braries or  collections  purchased  en  bloc  for 
the  use  of  societies,  institutions,  or  libraries 
designated  in  the  foregoing  paragraph,  or  form 
parts  of  the  libraries  or  personal  baggage  be- 
longing to  persons  or  families  arriving  from 
foreign  countries  and  are  not  Intended  for 
sale: 

Provided,  That  copies  Imported  as  above 
may  not  lawfully  be  used  in  any  way  to  vio- 
late the  rights  of  the  proprietor  of  the 
American  copyright  or  annul  or  limit  the  copy- 
right protection  secured  by  this  Act,  and  such 
unlawful  use  shall  be  deemed  an  infringement 
of   copyright, 

********* 

Sec.  41.  That  the  copyright  is  distinct  from 
the  property  in  the  material  object  copy- 
righted,   and    the    sale    or    conveyance,    by    gift 


or  otherwise,  of  the  material  object  shall 
not  of  itself  constitute  a  transfer  of  the 
copyright,  nor  shall  the  assignment  of  the 
copyright  constitute  a  transfer  of  the  title  to 
the  material  object;  but  nothing  in  this  Act 
shall  be  deemed  to  forbid,  prevent,  or  re- 
strict the  transfer  of  any  copy  of  a  copy- 
righted work  the  possession  of  which  has  been 
lawfully  obtained. 

Sec.  42.  That  copyright  secured  under  this 
or  previous  Acts  of  the  United  States  may  be 
assigned,  granted,  or  mortgaged  by  an  in- 
strument in  writing  signed  by  the  proprietor 
of  the  copyright,  or  may  be  bequeathed  by 
will. 

Sec.  43.  That  every  assignment  of  copyright 
executed  in  a  foreign  country  shall  be  acknowl- 
edged by  the  assignor  before  a  consular  oflScer 
or  secretary  of  legation  of  the  United  States 
authorized  by  law  to  administer  oaths  or  per- 
form notarial  acts.  The  certificate  of  such 
acknowledgment  under  the  hand  and  ofiQcial 
seal  of  such  consular  officer  or  secretary  of 
legation  shall  be  prima  facie  evidence  of  the 
execution   of  the   instrument. 

Sec.  44.  That  every  assignment  of  copyright 
shall  be  recorded  in  the  copyright  office  with- 
in three  calendar  months  after  its  execution 
in  the  United  States  or  within  six  calendar 
months  after  its  execution  without  the  limits 
of  the  United  States,  in  default  of  which  it 
shall  be  void  as  against  any  subsequent  pur- 
chaser or  mortgagee  for  a  valuable  considera- 
tion, without  notice,  whose  assignment  has 
been   duly  recorded. 

*     *     * 

Sec.  46.  That  when  an  assignment  of  the 
copyright  in  a  specified  book  or  other  work 
has  been  recorded  the  assignee  may  substitute 
his  name  for  that  of  the  assignor  in  the  statu- 
tory notice  of  copyright  prescribed  by  this  Act. 

Sec.  62.  That  in  the  interpretation  and  con- 
struction of  this  Act  "the  date  of  publication" 
shall  in  the  case  of  a  work  of  which  copies 
are  reproduced  for  sale  or  distribution  be 
held  to  be  the  earliest  date  when  copies 
of  the  first  authorized  edition  were  placed 
on  sale,  sold,  or  publicly  distributed  by  the 
proprietor  of  the  copyright  or  under  his  au- 
thority, and  the  word  "author"  shall  include 
an  employer  in  the  case  of  works  made  for 
hire. 

Sec.  63.  That  all  laws  or  parts  of  laws  in 
confiict  with  the  provisions  of  this  Act  are 
hereby  repealed,  but  nothing  in  this  Act  shall 
affect  causes  of  action  for  infringement  of 
copyright  heretofore  committed  now  pending 
in  courts  of  the  United  States,  or  which 
may  hereafter  be  instituted;  but  such  causes 
shall  be  prosecuted  to  a  conclusion  in  the 
manner    heretofore   provided   by    law. 

Sec.  64.  That  this  Act  shall  go  into  effect 
on  the  first  day  of  July,  nineteen  hundred  and 
nine. 


EARLY  TYPES  OF  SEWING  MACHINES. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


ARMIES   OF   THE  WORLD. 


r,  INFANTRY. 

^  The  real  basis  of  the  infantry  or- 
ganization of  all  foreign  armies  is  the 
battalion.  Except  for  England,  the 
typical  battalion  is  composed  of  4 
companies  and  has  a  strength  on  the 
war  footing  of  some  20  to  25  officers 
and  900  to  1,100  men,  counting  from 
about  900  to  1,000  rifles.  In  England 
the  battalion  numbers  8  companies  and 
counts  about  860  rifles  on  the  war 
footing. 

In  speaking  of  a  foreign  battalion 
it  must,  therefore,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  its  fighting  strength  is  roughly 
equal  to  that  of  two  of  our  battalions. 

CAVALRY. 

The  basis  of  all  foreign  cavalry  or- 
ganization is  the  squadron.  The  foreign 
squadron  numbers  on  a  war  footing 
from  120  to  150  sabers.  Regiments 
contain  from  3  to  6  squadrons. 

It  will  therefore  be  noted  that  in 
speaking  of  a  foreign  squadron  we 
mean  a  force  of  about  one-half  the 
strength  of  the  United  States  squad- 
ron. Similarly,  the  cavalry  regiment 
of  foreign  services  is  about  one-half, 
or  less,  the  strength  of  our  regiments. 

FIELD  ARTILLERY. 

The  battery  is  usually  taken  as  the 
unit  of  field  artillery  organization. 
For  the  purposes  of  comparison  a 
more  correct  unit  is  the  battalion. 

Leaving  Russia  aside,  it  may  be 
said  that  there  are  two  great  systems 
of  field  artillery  organization.  These 
may  be  called,  naming  them  after  their 
great  exponents,  the  French  and  the 
German.  The  essential  differences  be- 
tween these  two  systems  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows : 

The  French  system  takes  4  guns  as 
the  firing  unit,  the  battery,  and  as- 
signs all  of  the  ammunition  which 
should  be  available  upon  entry  into 
action  to  the  battery ;  batteries  count 


5  officers,  sometimes  4,  and  170  men. 

Under  the  German  system  the  firing 
unit,  battery,  counts  6  guns,  and  only 
so  much  ammunition  as  is  needed  for 
the  immediate  service  of  the  pieces  is 
assigned  to  the  batteries ;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  ammunition  which 
should  be  available  upon  entry  into 
action  being  assembled  in  an  am- 
munition battery  (light  ammunition 
column),  which  forms  an  integral  part 
of  the  battalion. 

In  both  systems  the  number  of  firing 
batteries  in  the  battalion  is  three ;  the 
German  system  having  an  additional 
battery  for  ammunition  gives  that 
system  4  battery  organizations  to  the 
battalion. 

Under  the  German  system  the 
strength  of  firing  batteries  is  about  5 
officers  and  150  men  and  that  of  am- 
munition batteries  is  4  officers  and 
188  men.  The  strength  of  battalion 
staffs  is  not  dependent  upon  the  par- 
ticular system. 

FORTRESS  ARTILLERY. 

In  most  foreign  services  all  artil- 
lery is  on  one  list.  That  branch  of 
artillery  known  as  fortress  artillery 
has  no  counterpart  in  our  service. 
Fortress  artillery  garrisons  the  land 
fortresses  of  the  country  and  fur- 
nishes artillery  of  various  types  to  the 
mobile  troops.  The  amount  of  mobile 
artillery  which  would  be  provided  by 
the  foot  artillery  in  war  is  naturally 
dependent  upon  the  character  of  the 
war,  whether  offensive  or.  defensive, 
etc.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to 
say  by  how  much  the  artillery  with 
the  mobile  troops,  as  shown  in  the 
tables,  would  be  augmented  in  war. 

COAST  ARTILLERY. 

The  coast  artillery  shown  for  Ger- 
many does  not  give  a  correct  idea,  for 
many  of  the  coast  fortifications  of  that 
country  are  garrisoned  by  marines. 


389 


390 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SANITARY  TROOPS. 

While  the  number  of  sanitary  troops 
shown  by  the  tables  is  small  for  for- 
eign armies  as  compared  with  the 
number  maintained  by  the  United 
States,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
in  war  much  of  the  "bearer  and  first- 
aid  duty"  is  performed  in  foreign  serv- 
ices by  men  drawn  from  and  forming 
part  of  the  line.  Furthermore,  drivers 
for  ambulances  and  for  other  non- 
technical purposes  are  drawn  from  the 
train.  The  necessity  for  maintaining 
a  nucleus  in  peace  for  expansion  in 
war  does  not  therefore  exist  in  the 
same  degree  in  foreign  countries  as  in 
the  United  States.  Similar  remarks 
are,  however,  true  for  services  other 
than  sanitary. 

EXPANSION  ON  MOBILIZATION. 

In  all  foreign  countries  of  any  con- 
sequence large  numbers  of  fully  trained 
reserves    exist.       These    men   are   as- 


signed to  organizations,  and  in  those 
organizations  complete  equipment  of 
every  kind  and  description  is  so  stored 
as  to  facilitate  immediate  issue.  Every 
horse  in  civil  life  has  its  place  as- 
signed and  its  owner  is  warned  as  to 
where  it  is  to  be  turned  in  on  mobili- 
zation ;  the  same  is  true  of  vehicles. 
In  the  formation  of  certain  classes  of 
trains  the  Government  simply  directs 
teamsters  with  their  teams,  harness, 
and  wagons  to  report  at  previously 
specified  places.  It  is  thus  simply  a 
matter  of  hours  for  the  great  powers 
to  mobilize. 

Inasmuch  as  the  frontiers  of  possible 
enemies  adjoin  their  own,  and  the 
functioning  of  the  mobilization  of 
those  enemies  is  equally  complete,  all 
nations  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
maintain  their  cavalry  and  horse  ar- 
tillery at  practically  war  strength  and 
station  those  arms  on  the  frontiers  to 
secure  the  few  hours  which  are  neces- 
sary for  mobilization. 


Table  Showing  Peace  Strength,  by  Arms  of  the  Service. 

ONLY  OFFICERS  AND  MEN  WITH  THE  COLORS  ARE  CONSIDERED. 


Country. 


France  2 

Germany 

Austria  3 

Russia 

England* 

Italy 

Mexico 

Japan 

UNITED  STATES. 

Regulars  5 

Organized  militia 


Total 124,405 


Infan- 
try. 


379,640 
404, 7G5 
194, 123 
580,000 
151,261 
167,000 

20,326 

149, 402 


27,370 
97,035 


Cav- 
alry. 


75,510 
73,368 
47,541 
115,000 
20,716 
24,000 
7,318 
14,585 


13,540 
4,167 


17, 707 


Field 
artil- 
lery. 


70,419 
69, 735 
33,012 
94,110 
34,649 
27,000 

1,912 

18,918 


5,456 
4,565 


10,021 


Foot 
artil- 
lery. 


4,446 
24,673 

6,040 

18,056 

628 

7,000 

(?) 


Coast 
artil- 
lery. 


7,246 
2,000 
2,100 
14,152 
14,965 
5,000 

(?) 


19,993 
7,256 


27,249 


Tech- 
nical 
troops. 


18,020 
26, 708 
10,507 
37,448 
9,096 
11,000 

657 

16,727 


3,449" 
2,539 


5,988 


Train. 


10, 520 
8,038 
5,070 
(?) 
6,772 
2,500 

215 
11,427 


Sani- 
tary 
troops. 


Total 

peace 

strength. 


6,123 
6,615 
4,307 
(?) 
5,069 
3,729 

(?) 
3,484 


4,117 
2,146 


6,263 


634,631 
634, 32( 
327, 58( 

1,200,00( 
255,43! 
288,401 

f    31,00(K 

[    32,  oa 

230, 00( 


81,36] 
119, 


201,021 


'  Includes  miscellaneous  organizations,  staffs,  school  detachments,  etc. 

2  Includes  troops  stationed  in  Algiers  and  Tunis  and  such  colonial  troops  as  are  stationed  in  France. 

3  Common  army  only .    For  Landwehr,  see  study  on  Austria. 

*  Regular  army  only.  Indian  army,  colonial  forces,  and  territorial  forces  are  mentioned  in  study  on  Eng 
land.  Territorial  force  (British  Isles)  numbers  315,408.  Canadian  permanent  force  and  organized  militij 
numbers  67,037. 

*  Based  on  Army  List,  20  November,  1910.  The  Porto  Rican  Regiment  is  counted  as  infantry.  Technica 
troops  include  Engineers  and  Signal  Corps.  8,000  recruits  included  in  total.  5,000  Philippine  Scouts  an 
not  counted. 


ARMIES  OF  THE 

The  number  of  men,  peace  and  war  footing, 
of  the  minor  powers,  is  estimated  as  follows: 
Belgium,  a  peace  footing  of  47,000  men;  war 
footing,  188,000;  Bulgaria,  peace  footing, 
57,800;  war  footing,  375,000;  China,  peace 
footing,  240,000  trained  men;  Denmark, 
peace  footing,  12,000;  war  footing,  66,000; 
India  (British),  peace  footing,  162.000;  war 
footing,  220,000  (native  troops  only);  Greece; 


MINOR  POWERS, 
peace  footing,  20,000;  war  footing,  100,000; 
Holland,  peace  footing,  34,000;  war  footing, 
175,000;  Roumania,  peace  footing,  93,000; 
war  footing,  350,000;  Spain,  peace  footing, 
115,000;  war  footing,  500,000;  Sweden, 
peace  footing,  69,000;  war  footing,  420,000; 
Switzerland,  peace  footing,  21,000;  war 
footing,  270,000;  Turkey,  peace  footing, 
375,000;  war  footing,  1,000,000. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


391 


Table  Showing  Higher  Organizations  Existing  in  Time  op  Peace. 
NO  militia,  reserve,  or  territorial  troops  are  included. 


Country. 


Army 
corps. 


Divisions. 


Cavalry 
divisions. 


Infantry 


Cavalry 
brigades. 

Field- 
artillery 
brigades. 

38 

21 

49 

46 

19 

16 

M6 

61 

4 

6 

8 

12 

0 

0 

2 

3 

0 

0 

France 

Qermany 

Austria  i 

Russia 

England  3 

Italy. 

Mexico 

Japan 

United  States 


92 
106 
58 
143 
18 
51 
0 
39 
0 


» Common  army  only. 

2  Possibly  more. 

3  Figures  are  for  regulars  in  the  British  Isles  only.  In  addition  there  are  14  divisions,  42  infantry  brigades, 
14  field-artillery  brigades,  and  14  mounted  brigades  of  territorial  troops  in  the  British  Isles.  In  India  there 
are  9  divisions,  9  field-artillery  brigades,  and  8  cavalry  brigades.  -  


ITAU  AUSTRIA  FRANCE  GERMANY 

INFANTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS. 


I 


ARMIES  OF  THE  LEADING  POWERS. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

The  dual  monarchy  of  Austria-Hungary 
maintains  three  separate  armies  supported  by 
the  Empire,  by  Austria,  and  by  Hungary, 
respectively.  These  armies  are  known  as  the 
common  army,  the  Austrian  (Cisleithane) 
Landwehr,  and  the  Hungarian  Landwehr, 
respectively.  The  two  Landwehr  armies 
differ,  however,  from  the  Landwehr  of  other 
countries  in  that  they  are  maintained  with  the 
colors  in  time  of  peace.  The  common  arniy 
is  known  as  the  first  line,  and  the  two  Land- 
wehr armies  as  the  second  line. 

In  the  common  army  there  are  16  army 
corps  with  33  divisions.  There  are  15 
divisions    in    the    Landwehr.     There    are    5 


cavalry  divisions  organized  in  peace;  they  are 
attached  to  the  army  corps  and  all  belong  to 
the  common  army.  The  common  army  has 
58  brigades  of  infantry  and  19  brigades  of 
cavalry.  In  the  Landwehr  there  are  30 
brigades  of  infantry  and  probably  6  of  cavalry. 
There  are  16  brigades  of  field  artillery  in  the 
common  army,  organized  in  peace. 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  common 
army  and  the  Landwehr  comprises  31,328 
officers,  including  a  certain  number  of  officials 
classed  as  officers,  and  363,919  men.  It  is 
impossible  to  give  any  definite  accurate 
statements  as  to  Austria's  maximurn  mobili- 
zation or  even  as  to  her  initial  mobilization. 
A  conservative  estimate,  however,  places  the 


392 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


number  of  fully  trained  men  subject  to  call 
at  about  2,000,000.  Assuming  that  the 
initial  mobilization  would  be  confined  to  rais- 
ing existing  organizations  to  a  war  footing 
we  would  have  the  following  fighting  strength 
of  the  three  armies:  Common  army:  420,300 
infantry  rifles;  1,854  field  guns;  37,800 
cavalry  sabres.  Landwehr:  192,850  infantry 
rifles;  96  field  guns;  15,150  cavalry  sabres. 
Service  is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of 
19  and  42,  and  is  divided  into  numerous 
categories.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  as  follows:  Common  army,  3  years  with 
the  colors  and  7  years  with  the  first  reserve; 
during  the  latter  period  the  men  are  subject 
to  call  for  three  periods  of  training  of  4  weeks 
each.  Landwehr,  2  years  with  the  colors  and 
10  years  with  the  first  reserve;  during  the 
latter  period  the  men  may  be  called  for  in- 
struction under  varying  and  complex  rules. 

ENGLAND. 
The  military  forces  of  England  fall  under 
several  categories.  The  principal  of  these  are : 
The  regular  forces,  and  the  territorial  forces. 
The  regular  forces  are  again  divided  into 
British  forces — Indian  forces  and  colonial 
forces.  In  addition,  certain  of  the  colonies, 
Canada,  for  example,  maintain  considerable 
forces  of  militia. 


The  British  forces  (regular)  within  the 
British  Islands  are  organized  into  6  divisions 
and  4  cavalry  brigades.  The  territorial  force 
has  14  divisions  (similar  to  those  of  the 
regulars)  and  14  mounted  brigades.  The 
forces  in  India,  including  regular  and  native, 
are  divided  into  two  armies,  containing  a 
total  of  9  divisions  and  8  cavalry  brigades. 
The  division  in  India  is  smaller  than  is 
usually  the  rule  (about  13,000). 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  regular 
army  comprises  255,438  officers  and  men, 
distributed  as  follows:  British  Isles,  134,339 
officers  and  men;  Colonies  (other  than  India), 
45,215  officers  and  men;  India,  75,884  officers 
and  men.  In  addition  there  are  190  officers 
and  1,198  men  employed  with  the  special 
reserves,  of  whom  ^here  are  86,539.  There  are 
also  138,000  men  in  the  army  reserve,  in 
addition  to  the  special  reserve.  Combining 
the  strength  of  the  forces  with  the  colors  and 
the  trained  reserves,  we  have  as  the  trained 
force  which  England  is  able  to  mobilize  as  her 
Rcfjular  Establishment  a  total  of  481,365 
officers  and  men.  Service  in  the  regular 
establishment  is  voluntary  and  the  period  of 
enlistment  is  usually  for  12  years,  of  which 
a  certain  portion  is  passed  with  the  colors  and 
the  remainder  in  the  reserve.  Service  with 
the  colors  is  usually  3,  7  or  8  years,  depending 


Table  Showing  Percentages  of  Several  Arms  of  Total  Peace  Strength. 


Country. 


France 

Germany 

Austria , 

Russia 

England , 

Italy 

Mexico 

Japan 

UNITED  STATES. 

Regulars 

Organized  Militia 

Total 


Infan- 
try. 


Per  ct. 
59.77 
63.81 
59.34 
48.33 
59.21 
57.90 
63. 50 
64.95 


33.64 
81.09 


Caval- 
ry. 


Perct. 
11.89 
11.56 
14.51 
9.58 
8.10 
8.32 
22.86 
6.34 


61.  70        8.  80 


Field 
artil- 
lery. 


Per 
12. 
10. 
10. 
7. 
13. 


6.66 
3.81 


5.07 


Foot 
artil- 
lery. 


Perct. 
0.70 
3.88 
1.84 
1.50 


2.42 

(?) 

2.99 


Coast 
artil- 
lery. 


Perct. 
1.14 
.33 
.64 
1.17 
5.85 
1.73 
(?) 


24.57 


13.55 


Tech- 
nical 
troops. 


Per  ct. 
2.83 
4.21 
3.  20 
3.12 
3.56 
3.81 
2.05 
7.27 


4.23 
2.12 


Train. 


Perct. 
1.65 
1.26 
1.54 
(?) 
2.65 
-86 
.37 
4.96 


Sani- 
tary 
troops. 


Perct. 
0.96 
1.04 
1.31 

(?) 

1.98 

1.29 

(?) 
1.51 


5.06 
1.79 


Miscel- 
laneous. 


Perct. 
9.01 
2.02 
7.55 

28.46 
4.85 

14.31 
5.25 
3.76 


9.20 
1.65 


4.80 


JAPAN  ITALY  AUSTRIA  FRANCE  GERMANY 

CAVALRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS. 


i 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


393 


on  the  arm  of  the  service  and  other  condi- 
tions. 

There  is  also  the  territorial  force,  vyhich 
however,  does  not  serve  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  British  Isles,  except  by  its  own  consent. 
The  total  of  this  territorial  force  is  about 
315,408. 

All  the  colonies  maintain  bodies  of  native 
troops.  India  has  a  native  force  of  some 
162,000  men.  The  Canadian  forces  are 
divided  into  the  permanent  and  active  militia; 
the  combined  peace  strength  of  these  two 
forces  as  authorized  by  law  being  62,037  for 
the  active  miUtia  and  5,000  for  the  permanent 
force.  Actually,  the  numbers  are  somewhat 
below  these  figures  as  follows:  Infantry, 
43,162  officers  and  men;  field  artillery,  3,719; 
garrison  artillery,  2,993;  cavalry,  8,567,  a 
total  of  58,441  officers  and  men.  In  addition 
there  are  in  Canada  reserves,  under  various 
names,  to  the  number  of  39,346.  The 
Canadian  forces  are  probably  about  as  well 
trained  as  the  Organized  Militia  of  the 
United  States. 


FRANCE. 

The  French  Army  proper  is  known  as  the 
Metropolitan  Army  and  is  divided  between 
i^rance  and  Algiers.  There  are  20  army 
corps  organized  in  peace.  In  addition  there 
is  one  colonial  army  corps.  There  are  47 
divisions  and  92  infantry  brigades;  21  field 
artillery  brigades  are  distributed  among  the 
21  corps.  There  are  also  8  cavalry  divisions 
organized  in  peace,  or  a  total  of  38  cavalry 
brigades. 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  French 
Army,  exclusive  of  colonial  troops  but  in- 
cluding gendarmes  and  "republican  guards," 
comprises  29,209  officers  and  577,303  men. 
Of  these  26,368  officers  and  507,764  men  are 
stationed  in  France.  There  are  in  addition, 
2,083  officers,  and  26,043  men  of  the  colonial 
army  stationed  in  France.  This  brings  the 
total  force  stationed  in  France  up  to  28,451 
officers  and  533,807  men.  The  grand  total 
of  the  Metropolitan  Army  and  the  colonial 
(Continued  on  page  396.) 


Table  Showing  Fighting  Strength  of  Three  Arms  on  Mobilization. 


EXISTING  ORGANIZATIONS  ONLY  CONSIDERED. 


Country. 

Infantry 
rifles. 

Cavalry 
sabers. 

Field  guns. 

Sabers  per 
thousand 
infantry 
bayonets. 

Field  guns 
per  thou- 
sand in- 
fantry bay- 
onets.' 

Fully 
trained 
reserves 
available 
for  passing 
from  peace 
to  war  foot- 
ing. 

France  2 

018,450 
033,000 
420, 300 
973, 152 
135,020 
300,000 
53,700 
228,000 

00, 750 
70,500 
37,800 
111,825 
15,000 
20,880 
14,010 
14,550 

2,930 
3,800 
1,854 
4,432 
1,1-70 
1,470 
170 
954 

107. 93 
120. 85 

89.93 
114.91 
111.09 

09.99 
200.  71 

03.81 

4.74 
0.10 
4.41 
4.55 
8.00 
4.90 
3.27 
4.18 

2,300,000 
4,000,000 
1,000,000 
3,800,000 
215,000 
1,250,000 
None. 

Austria » 

Russia* 

ita^„ !..:::::::::::::::::;::: 

Mexicos 

Japan' 

1,000,000 

UNITED  STATES. 

Regulars  ^ 

39,  GOO 
107,000 

15,225 
5,800 

144 
200 

384.  40 
34.73 

3.03 
1.19 

None. 

Organized  Militia » 

None. 

Totalio 

200,000 

21,025 

344 

101.70 

LOG 

None. 

1  No  deductions  made  for  horse  guns. 

2  For  all  existing  units,  for  mobilization  in  France,  see  separate  study. 
8  Common  army  only.    Figures  are  approximate.    (See  study.) 

^  The  peculiar  situation  of  Russia  makes  it  impossible  for  her  to  assemble  her  total  force  upon  any  one 
theater  of  war. 

»  Regulars  only.    For  territorial  forces,  extra  reserves,  etc.,  see  study. 

«  Total  strength  in  ranks  considered.  The  deductions  which  should  be  made  for  noncombatants  are  not 
accurately  known.    Laws  for  compulsory  service  exist  and  might  be  put  into  effect  in  war. 

'  Japan  forms  a  very  large  number  of  new  organizations  which  are  not  considered  here.  Neither  are  the 
special  troops  in  Formosa  and  elsewhere  considered.  The-foot  artillery  mobilizes  an  additional  number 
of  heavy  field  guns,  possibly  1  gun  per  thousand  rifles. 

8  Porto  Rican  Regiment  and  Philippine  Scouts  are  excluded  from  this  table. 

8  The  infantry  in  the  Organized  Militia  is  obtained  by  reducing  all  incomplete  regiments  to  the  standard 
organizations.    Separate  companies  and  cadet  corps,  etc. ,  have  not  been  considered. 

The  Organized  Militia  has  no  complete  regiments  of  Cavalry.  The  figures  are  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  number  of  troops  by  the  troop  fighting  strength. 

All  batteries  of  the  Organized  Militia  are  included,  although  0  batteries  (24  guns)  have  not  yet  reached 
the  stage  where  it  is  deemed  expedient  to  issue  modem  material.  Only  a  few  batteries  are  organized  into 
complete  battalions  and  there  are  no  regiments. 

10  This  assumes  that  organizations  can  be  raised  to  the  war  strength.  As  a  matter  of  fact  trained  men 
are  not  available  for  this  purpose,  and  if  they  were  clothing  and  equipments  are  not  available  for  passing 
to  the  war  strength. 


394 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PEACE 


Men                                                                          1 

FRANCE 

GERMANY 

AUSTRIA 

RUSSIA 

ENGLAND 

ITALY 

MEXICO 

JAPAN 

UNITED  STATES 

UNITED  STATES 

(Regulars) 

UNITED  STATES 

(Militia) 

3  7  9,64  0 
7  5.5  1  0 
7  6.4  1  9 

404.765 
73,368 
6  9.7  3  5 

194.123 
47,54  r 

33.0  12 

580.000 
1  1  5,0  0  0 

94.1  1  0 

151,261 
20,7  16 
34,649 

167,0  00 
24.0  0  0 
2  7.000 

20,326 

7.3  18 
1.912 

149,402 
14,5  85 
1  8,9  1  8 

Total 

124.405 

17.7  07 

1  0.0  2  1 

27.3  70 
13,540 

5.4  56 

97.035 
A.I  67 

K 

^ — ^  -1 

[. 

-^ 

W 

t- 

1- 

h 

Regulars 

27,370 

13.540 

5.456 

Militia 
97.035 
4,167 
4.565 

s-        \- 

Zh 

k- 

IZh 

k 
F 

I> 

b 

> 

r|    m 

1- 

-7 

The  relative  rank  between  the  officers  of 
the  United  States  army  and  navy  is  as  follows: 
General  with  Admiral;  Lieutenant-General 
with  Vice-Admiral;  Major-General  with  Rear- 
Admiral;  Brigadier-General  with  Commodore; 
Colonel  with  Captain;  Lieutenant-Colonel 
with  Commander;  Major  with  Lieutenant- 
Commander;  Captain  with  Lieutenant;  First 
Lieutenant  with  Lieutenant  (junior  grade); 
Second  Lieutenant  with  Ensign. 


At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1911,  the  number  of  sea  coast  guns  in  the 
United  States  mounted,  ready  for  armament 
and  under  construction,  were  as  follows.  Guns 
mounted:  376  12-inch  mortars;  105  12-inch 
guns,  including  2  guns  on  hydraulic  lifts;  133 
10-inch  guns;  65  8-inch  guns;  503  rapid  fire 
guns,  one  mounted  temporarily.  Ready  for 
Armament:  2  12-inch  guns  and  13  rapid  fire 
guns. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


395 


I 


WAR 


Fully  Trained  Reserves   available    for  Passing  from    Peace  to  War  Footing 


2.300,000 


4.000,000 


1.600.000 


3,800,000 


D 


215.000 


1,250,000 


NONE 


1.000.000 


NONE 


NONE 


NONE 


1            1- 

Infantry 

LEGEND    » 

1— -— ^ — 1 — 

Cavalry 

1    ^    1- 

Field  Artiller^y 

GUN  SALUTES. 


President  of  the  United  States,  President  of 
a  Foreign  Republic,  Member  of  Royal  Family 
and  Ex-President  of  the  United  States,  21 
guns;  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  and 
Ambassador  of  United  States  (in  waters  of 
country  to  which  he  is  accredited),  19  guns; 
Socretary  of  the  Navy,  Cabinet  Officer,  Chief 
Jostice,  Governor-General  of  U.  S.  Islands, 
Governor  of  State,  Territory,  or  U.  S.  Islands, 
President  vro  tempore  of  Senate,  Speaker  of 


House  of  Representatives,  Committee  of 
Congress,  Admiral  of  the  Navy  and  General, 
17  guns;  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Envoy  Extraordinary,  Vice-Admiral  and 
Lieutenant-General,  15  guns;  Minister 
Resident,  or  Diplomatic  Representative, 
Rear-Admiral  and  Maior-General,  United 
States  Army,  13  guns;  Charge  d'Affaires  and 
Commodore,  11  guns;  Consul-General,  9  guns; 
Consul,  7  guns;   Vice-Consul,  5  guns. 


396 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


(Continued  from  page  393.) 
troops  stationed  in  France  is  31,292  officers 
and  603,364  men. 

The  organization  of  the  maximum  mobiliza- 
tion of  France  cannot  be  given  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy  but  it  is  estimated  that  the  sum 
total  of  all  trained  men  which  she  is  able  to 
mobilize  amounts  to  about  3,000,000  men. 
The  fighting  strength  of  the  three  arms  on 
initial  mobihzation  would  be  about  518,000 
infantry  rifles,  59,250  cavalry  sabres  and 
2,944  field  guns.     This  estimate  is  a  minimum. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  about  49,500 
colonial  troops.  About  14,500  of  these  are 
Europeans  and  the  remainder  natives.  There 
are  also  about  3,723  Europeans  and  8,254 
natives  in  the  forces  at  Madagascar. 

Service  with  the  Metropolitan  Army  is 
compulsory  between  the  ages  of  20  and  45. 
After  serving  with  the  colors  for  two  years 
(all  arms)  the  men  pass  into  the  reserve  of 
the  active  army,  in  which  they  serve  for  11 
years,  during  which  they  are  subject  to  two 
periods  of  instruction,  one  for  23  days,  the 
other  for  17  days.  From  the  reserve  of  the 
active  army  the  men  pass  to  the  "territorial 
army,"  in  which  they  serve  for  6  years, 
subject  to  one  period  of  7  days'  instruction. 
The  final  service  is  with  the  "reserve  of  the 
territorial  army";  this  service  is  for  6  years; 
the  men  receive  no  training  but  are  subject 
to  muster. 

GERMANY. 

The  German  Army  as  now  organized  in 
peace  consists  of  23  army  corps  and  1  cavalry 
division,  besides  certain  special  troops, 
schools,  recruiting  stations,  etc.  While  the 
cavalry  divisions  which  would  mobilize  in 
war  are  not  all  formed  in  peace,  there  exist 
certain  staffs  for  such  divisions  and  they  are 
assembled  for  instruction  from  time  to  time. 

The 'total  peace  strength  amounts  to  622,- 
320  officers  and  men.  To  these  should  be 
added  from  10  to  12  thousand  "Etnjahrig- 
freiwilligers."  These  men  serve  for  one  year 
defraying  their  own  expenses.  The  sum 
total  of  trained  men  which  Germany  is  able 
to  mobilize  amounts  to  about  4,610,000.  The 
estimated  fighting  strength  of  her  initial 
mobilization  is  as  follows:  962,000  infantry 
rifles;  79,200  cavalry  sabres;  5,220  field  guns. 
No  German  troops  of  the  army  proper  serve 
outside  the  home  country  in  time  of  peace. 
An  estimate  of  the  nximber  of  colonial  troops 
places  the  number  at  10,000  officers  and  men. 

Service  in  the  German  army  is  compulsory 
between  the  ages  of  17  and  45  and  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  categories.  Service  with  the 
colors  is  three  years  with  the  cavalry  and 
horse  artillery  and  two  years  for  other  arms. 
After  serving  with  the  colors,  the  men  pass 
into  the  reserve,  in  which  they  serve  4  years 
and  6  months  or  5  years  and  6  months  ac- 
cording to  the  arm  of  the  service.  During 
this  service  the  men  of  the  reserve  may  be 
called  out  for  two  periods  of  traiaing  of  8 
weeks  each.  In  practice  the  majority  of  the 
reserve  is  seldom  held  longer  than  28  days 
for  each  period.  From  the  reserve  the  men 
pass  into  various  other  categories.  Germany 
has  more  men  annually  arriving  at  the  age 
of  miUtary  service  than  she  needs  for  duty 
with  the  colors.  Somewhat  over  one  million 
men  annually  present  themselves,  of  whom 
a  little  more  than  250,000  are  actually  drafted 
for  duty  with  the  colors. 


ITALY. 

The  Italian  military  system  is  complicated 
and  is  composed  of  the  regular  army,  the 
mobile  militia,  and  the  territorial  mihtia. 
The  regular  army  as  reorganized  in  1910 
comprises  12  army  corps,  25  divisions,  and  3 
cavalry  divisions  in  time  of  peace.  Com- 
manders and  staffs  for  four  armies  exist  in 
time  of  peace. 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  regular 
army  in  1909-1910  was  13,942  officers  and 
274,467  men,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  more  than 
250,000  men  were  actually  with  the  colors  at 
any  one  time.  On  paper  the  number  of  men 
Italy  would  be  able  to  mobilize  amounts  to 


ENGLAND 


U.S. 
ARTILLERY  OF  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


397 


about  3,500,000  men.  A  conservative 
estimate  would  seem  to  be  about  1,500,000 
fully  trained  men.  The  complex  system  and 
the  custom  of  giving  indefinite  leave  to  un- 
trained men  render  it  difficult  to  estimate 
Italy's  strength  accurately  with  respect  to 
the  number  of  fully  trained  men.  The 
fighting  strength  of  the  three  arms  on  initial 
mobilization  would  be:  Infantry  rifles, 
300,000;  cavalry  sabres,  20,880;  field  guns 
(with  probably  an  additional  162  heavy  field 
guns  manned  by  fortress  artillery)  1,470. 
In  addition,  Italy  maintains  in  her  African 
possessions  132  officers  and  4,530  trained  men; 
of  the  latter  660  are  Italians  and  the  remainder 
natives. 

Service  is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of 
20  and  39.  Service  with  the  colors  is  nomi- 
nally for  3  years,  but  as  the  budget  is  seldom 
sufficient  many  men  are  released  with  one  or 
two  years'  training.  These  pass  from  the 
colors  to  a  form  of  leave  status  in  which  they 
serve  to  complete  a  total  period  in  the  regular 
army  of  8  or  9  years.  They  then  pass  into  the 
mobile  militia,  from  whence  they  go  into  the 
territorial  militia.  The  men  are  subject  to  the 
call  for  instruction  as  follows:  30  days  per 
year  for  the  leave  status  and  mobile  militia; 
30  days  in  4  years  for  the  territorial  militia. 

MEXICO. 
There  is  no  organization  higher  than  the 
regiment  in  time  of  peace.  The  total  peace 
strength  is  between  31,000  and  32,000. 
Mexico's  war  strength,  aside  from  new  or- 
ganizations, may  be  reckoned  at  about  100,- 
000  officers  and  men.  In  theory,  service  is 
compulsory.  Actually,  it  is  not,  except, 
perhaps,  for  some  of  the  lower  and  criminal 


JAPAN. 
The  rapid  progress  of  Japan  as  a  military 
nation,  the  secrecy  maintained  by  her  con- 
cerning reserves,  territorial  organizations, 
etc.,  as  well  as  the  system  of  training  Japanese 
school  children  in  the  rudiments  of  drill  and 
military  discipline,  makes  it  extremely 
difficult  to  make  an  accurate  inventory  of  the 
Japanese  military  resources. 


The  division  is  the  highest  permanent 
organization  in  time  of  peace.  There  are, 
however,  11  generals  and  22  lieutenant- 
generals,  besides  other  officers,  available  for 
the  command  and  stafif  of  such  armies  as  may 
be  formed  in  war.  There  are  19  divisions 
organized  in  peace.  There  are  39  brigades, 
4'  cavalry  brigades  and  3  field  artillery 
brigades.  In  addition  there  is  one  infantry 
brigade  in  Korea. 

i'he  peace  strength  of  Japan  is  variously 
estimated  and  it  is  certain  that  it  is  at  least 
230,000  men.  The  fighting  strength  of  the 
three  arms  follows:  Infantry  rifles,  228,000; 
cavalry  sabres,  14,550;  field  guns  (with 
possibly  228  heavy  field  guns  in  addition) 
954.  There  are  at  least  1,000,000  fully 
trained  reserves  subject  to  call  on  mobiliza- 
tion. 

RUSSIA. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  an  entirely  satis- 
factory resume  of  the  Russian  Army  due  to 
the  vast  extent  of  Russia's  territory,  the 
internal  condition  of  the  nation,  and  the 
character  of  the  countries  adjoining  her  which 
make  it  necessary  for  her  to  maintain  what 
amounts  to  three  separate  armies,  namely, 
the  Army  of  Europe  and  the  Caucasus;  the 
Army  of  Central  Asia;  the  Army  of  Siberia 
and  Eastern  Asia.  Then  the  troops  are 
divided  up  into  numerous  categories,  some  of 
which  are  most  unusual  and  about  which 
there  is  little  information  that  can  be  de- 
pended upon.  For  example,  we  find  "active 
troops,"  "reserve  troops,"  "2d  reserve 
troops,"  and  "fortress  troops." 

There  are  31  army  corps,  with  56  divisions 
organized  in  peace,  and  23  cavalry  divisions. 
The  total  peace  strength  amounts  to  about 
1,200,000  officers  and  men.  The  total 
number  of  trained  men  subject  to  call 
amounts  to  about  5,000,000.  It  is  estimated 
that  Russia  could  mobilize  2,000,000  fully 
trained  men  upon  her  European  frontiers. 

Military  service  in  Russia  is  obligatory. 
Passing  from  service  with  the  colors  the  men 
pass  into  various  reserves  but  on  account  of 
their  great  variety  no  further  statements  can 
be  given  in  a  brief  form. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY. 


The  United  States  Army  consists,  ordinarily, 
of  the  Regular  Army  but  whenever  the  United 
States  is  invaded  or  is  in  danger  of  invasion 
from  any  foreign  nation,  or  of  rebellion 
against  the  authority  of  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  or  the  President  is  unable 
with  the  regular  forces  at  his  command  to 
execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  he  may  call 
into  the  military  service  of  the  United  States, 
all  or  any  part  of  the  Organized  Militia  of 
the  various  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia. 
In  war,  or  when  war  is  imminent,  the  Army 
of  the  United  States,  after  the  Organized 
Militia  has  been  called  into  service,  may  be 
further  augmented  by  the  employment  of 
volunteers. 

Under  the  Act  of  Congress  approved 
Feb.  14,  1908,  the  system  of  mifitary  control 
in  the  Army  was  reorganized.  This  act 
abolished  the  separate  office  of  commanding 
general  of  the  army  and  created  the  General 
Staff  Corps,  which  under  the  direction  of  the 
Chief  of  Staff,  is  charged  with  the  following 


duties:  To  investigate  and  report  on  all 
questions  affecting  the  efficiency  of  the 
Army  and  its  state  of  preparation  for  miUtary 
operations;  to  prepare  projects  for  maneuvers; 
revises  estimates  for  appropriations  for  the 
support  of  the  Army  and  advises  as  to  the 
disbursement  of  such  appropriations;  exer- 
cises supervision  over  inspections,  miUtary 
education  and  instruction,  etc.  and  to  per- 
form such  other  military  duties  not  otherwise 
assigned  by  law,  as  may  from  time  to  time  be 
prescribed  by  the  President. 

On  May  26,  1911,  a  general  order  of  the 
War  Department  was  issued  by  which  the 
office  of  Chief  of  Staff  was  divided  into  four 
sections.  1.  The  Mobile  Army.  2.  The  Coast 
Artillery  Division.  3.  The  Division  of 
Militia  Affairs.     4.  The  Army  War  College. 

The  command  of  the  Army  rests  with 
the  constitutional  commander-in-chief,  the 
President,  who  may  place  all  or  part  of  the 
Army  under  commands  subordinate  to  his 
general  command.     We  have  had  but  four 


398 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


generals — Washington,  Grant,  Sherman  and 
Sheridan.  A  General  is  supposed  to  com- 
mand an  army.  An  army  is  a  large  and 
organized  body  of  soldiers,  generally  com- 
posed of  infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery, 
completely  armed  and  provided  with  necessary 
stores,  etc.,  and  the  entire  force  is  under  the 
direction  of  one  general.  The  subdivision 
of  the  United  States  Army  follows.  An 
"army"  is  divided  into  two  or  more  field 
armies,  or  corps,  commanded  by  a  Lieutenant- 
General.  A  "corps"  is  the  largest  tactical 
unit  of  a  large  army  and  is  really  a  small 
army  complete  in  itself  in  that  it  is  usually 
organized  with  separate  staff,  infantry, 
cavalry  and  artillery  regiments  as  well  as 
auxiliary  services.  A  "corps"  is  also  any 
body  or  department  of  an  army  which  is  not 
detached  but  has  its  own  organization  and 
head,  as  the  "Corps  of  Engineers,"  the 
"Signal  Corps,"  etc.  A  corps  is  composed  of 
two  or  more  divisions,  each  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  Major-General.  Each  "division" 
is  composed  of  three  brigades  of  infantry,  a 
regiment  of  cavalry  and  a  brigade  (two 
regiments)  of  field  artillery.  The  division 
is  the  great  administrative  and  tactical  unit 
and  forms  the  basis  of  army  organization. 
A  "brigade"  consists  of  three  regiments  of 
infantry  and  is  commanded  by  a  Brigadier- 
General.  A  cavalry  brigade  consists  of  two 
or  more  cavalry  regiments.  When  acting 
independently,  a  regiment  of  horse  artillery 
is  attached  to  a  cavalry  brigade.  A  "regi- 
ment" which  is  both  administrative  and 
tactical  is  commanded  by  a  Colonel  and  is 
divided  into  12  companies.  (The  regiment 
at  Porto  Rico  is  composed  of  but  8  companies.) 
A  regiment  of  cavalry  is  composed  of  12  troops 
and  a  regiment  of  field  artillery  of  6  batteries. 
Two  or  more  companies  form  a  "battalion" 
commanded  by  a  Major.  The  battalion  is 
a  tactical  unit  only.  A  "company,"  which 
is  commanded  by  a  Captain,  is  both  ad- 
ministrative and  tactical.  Under  the  present 
law  the  number  of  enlisted  men  in  a  company, 
troop,  etc.,  varies  with  the  station,  as  follows: 
Philippine  Islands,  infantry  150  men,  cavalry 
100  men;  Hawaii  and  Panama  Canal  Zone, 
infantry  72  men,  cavalry  70  men;  all  com- 
panies not  stationed  as  above,   infantry  65 


men,  cavalry  65  men.  There  are  133  men  in 
a  battery  of  light  and  mountain  artillery  and 
150  men  in  a  battery  of  horse  artillery.  Each 
company  of  Coast  Artillery  consists  of  104 
enlisted  men  and  each  company  of  engineers 
of  159  men. 

The  Regular  Army  is  officered:  1.  By 
Graduates  of  the  United  States  Military 
Academy.  2.  By  promotion  of  meritorious 
enlisted  men  of  the  armj^  whose  fitness  for 
advancement  is  determined  by  a  com- 
petitive examination.  3.  By  the  appoint- 
ment of  civilians  selected  from  the  best  cadet 
schools  of  the  country 

The  pay  of  officers  in  active  service  of  the 
United  States  Army  is  as  follows:  Lieutenant- 
General,  $11,000;  Major-General,  $8,000 
Brigadier-General,  $6,000;  Colonel,  $4,000 
Lieutenant-Colonel,  $3,500;  Major,  $3,000 
Captain,  $2,400;  First  Lieutenant,  $2,000 
Second  Lieutenant,  $1,700.  Officers  below 
the  rank  of  Brigadier-General  receive  ten  per 
cent,  on  the  yearly  pay  of  the  grade  for  each 
term  of  five  years'  service,  not  to  exceed  40 
per  cent,  in  all.  Thus  the  maximum  pay  of 
the  Colonel  is  $5,000;  Lieutenant-Colonel, 
$4,500,  etc.  Further,  any  officer  below  the 
rank  of  major  required  to  be  mounted  receives 
$150  per  annum  additional  if  he  provides  one 
suitable  mount  at  his  own  expense,  and  $200 
if  he  provides  two  mounts.  Furthermore, 
all  officers  serving  outside  of  the  United  States 
except  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii,  receive  ten 
per  cent,  increase  in  pay  while  so  serving. 
The, monthly  pay  of  a  private  in  artillery, 
cavalry,  infantry  and  signal  corps  is  $15  for 
the  first  enlistment,  $18  for  the  second  en- 
listment, etc.,  up  to  $25  for  the  seventh  en- 
listment.    ■ 

The  active  strength  of  the  army  on  June 
30,  1912,  including  the  Philippine  Scouts,  was 
4,650  officers  and  86,811  enlisted  men,  a  total 
of  91,461  men.  This  total  of  91,461  was  made 
up  as  follows:  Infantry  (31  regiments),  1,540 
officers  and  29,138  enlisted  men;  cavalry  (15 
regiments),  747  officers  and  13,645  enlisted 
men;  field  artillery  (6  regiments),  243  officers 
and  5,328  enlisted  men;  coast  artillery  corps 
(170  companies),  702  officers  and  17,957  en- 
listed men;  corps  of  engineers  (3  battalions), 
188   officers  and  1,822  enlisted  men;  signal 


h    ■ '   1 

iitfci  '^^^ 

LOADING      A      DISAPPEARING      GUN, 

WHEN  IT  IS  IN  THE  DEPRESSED 

POSITION. 


FIRING     A     12 -INCH     DISAPPEARING 

GUN  AT  ONE  OF  OUR  COAST 

BATTERIES. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


399 


corps,  46  officers  and  1,212  enlisted  men; 
7,084  enlisted  men  ^casuals  and  recruits)  at 
depots  and  en  route  to  detachments;  18  gen- 
eral officers;  Adjutant  General's,  Inspector 
General's;  Judge  advocate  General's,  Quarter- 
master's, Subsistence,  Pay  and  Ordnance 
Departments,  Medical  Corps,  Instructors  at 
Military  Academy,  etc.,  986  officers  and  4,608 
enlisted  men;  cadets  at  Military  Academy, 
481  (see  Military  Academy);  56  Indian 
Scouts;  Phillippine  Scouts,  180  officers  and 
5,480  enlisted  men.  The  413  officers  and 
3,496  enlisted  men  in  the  Medical  Corps  is 
not  counted  as  part  of  the  enlisted  strength 
of  the  Regular  Army,  although  they  are  in- 
cluded in  the  above  rating.  There  were  on 
the  retired  list  1,017  officers  and  3,424  en- 
listed men. 

The  term  of  enlistment  in  the  regular 
service  is  three  years.  Any  male  citizen  of 
the  United  States  between  the  ages  of  21  and 
35  may  be  enlisted.  Minors  between  the  ages 
of  18  and  21  may  be  enlisted  only  with  the 
consent  of  parents  or  guardians.  All  ap- 
plicants must  be  able  to  read  and  write 
English,  must  be  able-bodied,  free  from 
disease  and  of  good  character  and  temperate 
habits. 

Under  the  Act  of  Congress  of  January  31, 
1903,  amended  May  27,  1908,  the  militia  con- 
sists of  every  able-bodied  male  citizen  of  the 
United  States  who  is  more  than  eighteen  and 
less  than  forty-five  years  of  age,  and  is  divided 
into  two  classes — the  organized  militia  or 
National  Guard,  and  the  remainder  to  be 
known  as  the  reserve  militia.  It  is  entirely 
optional  whether  eligible  citizens  join  the 
National  Guard,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  this 
body  of  reserves  is  recruited  from  the  best 
and  most  patriotic  element  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States.  Congress  makes  an 
appropriation  each  year  for  the  support  of 
the  militia  in  the  various  States,  and  the 
States  also  contribute,  hold  and  build 
armories,  as  the  regiments  are  really  intended 
to  defend  their  own  State  primarily,  although 
in  time  of  war  they  furnish  an  excellently 
drilled  body  of  volunteers.  In  nearly  every 
city  of  any  great  size  there  is  one  or  more 
armories,  and  in  the  smaller  cities  and  towns 


there  are  separate  companies  which  have 
armories  or  drill  halls.  The  militia  in  each 
state  is  divided  into  brigades,  regiments, 
battalions  and  companies.  Under  the  act 
of  Congress  above  named  the  President  of 
the  United  States  has  the  power  to  call  upon 
any  of  the  military  organizations  of  the  States 
for  national  defense  and  when  so  called  each 
man  must  yield  prompt  obedience  to  the 
order  to  escape  trial  by  court-martial.  The 
Organized  Militia  is,  in  short,  subject  to  be 
ordered  at  any  time  into  the  service  of  the 
United  States  as  a  re-enforcement  of  the 
regular  army  and  when  so  ordered  are  subject 
to  the  same  rules  and  regulations  as  the 
regulars  and  receive  the  same  pay,  during 
service,  as  the  regular  army  troops. 

The  strength  of  the  organized  militia, 
according  to  the  latest  report  is  9,172  officers 
and  108,816  enlisted  men,  as  follows:  General 
officers  and  General  Staff  2,051;  engineers, 
1,141  officers  and  men;  cavalry,  4.226  officers 
and  men;  field  artillery,  4,456;  coast  artillery, 
7,100  officers  and  men;  infantry,  95,356 
officers  and  men;  hospital  corps,  2,281 
officers  and  men;  signal  corps,  1,380  officers 
and  men;  grand  aggregate,  117,988  officers 
and  men. 

The  officers  of  higher  grades  are  appointed 
by  the  Governor  but  the  other  officers,  from 
Colonel  down,  are  generally  selected  by 
ballot  by  the  troops  themselves. 

The  term  of  enlistment  varies  in  different 
States  from  one  to  five  years  but  in  most 
States  it  is  three  years.  In  addition  the  term 
of  re-enUstment  also  varies;  some  States 
provide  for  a  certain  term  for  the  first  enlist- 
ment and  a  smaller  term  of  enlistment  in 
subsequent  enlistments. 

The  total  number  of  males  of  militia  age  in 
the  United  States  in  1910  was  20,473,684. 
The  officers  of  all  the  volunteer  forces  which 
may  be  organized  under  the  authority  of 
Congress  are  selected  from  the  following 
classes  of  persons:  1.  Those  who  have 
served  in  the  Regular  Army.  2.  Those  who 
have  served  in  any  volunteer  forces  of  the 
Organized  Militia.  3.  Those  who  have  at- 
tended a  military  school  or  college. 


CIVIL  WAR  STATISTICS. 


The  total  number  of  enlistments  in  the 
army,  navy  and  marine  corps,  during  the 
Qvil  War,  totaled  2,778,304  as  follows: 
White  troops  of  army,  2,493,366;  sailors  and 
marines,  105,963;  negro  troops,  178,975. 
Many  men  enlisted  two  or  three  times  and  are 
counted  that  number  of  times  in  the  above 
rating.  New  York  had  404,805  white  troops, 
4,125  negro  troops  and  39,920  sailors  and 
marines;  Pennsylvania  had  315,017  whites, 
8,612  negroes  and  14,307  sailors  and  marines; 
Ohio  had  304,814  whites,  5,092  negroes  and 
3,274  sailors  and  marines;  Illinois  had 
255,057  whites,  1,811  negroes  and  2,224  sailors 
and   marines;     Massachusetts     had    122,781 


At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1912,  there  were  165  garrisoned  posts  in 
continental  United  States,  Alaska,  Hawaii 
Islands  and  Porto  Rico.  United  States:  103 
forts,  28  sub-posts  of  forts,  10  barracks,  5 
arsenals,   2    military   prisons    (Alcatraz,    Cal. 


whites,  3,966  negroes  and  19,983  sailors  and 
marines.  Kentucky  had  the  greatest  number 
of  negro  troops,  23,703. 

During  the  Civil  War  there  were  4,142 
officers  and  62,916  enlisted  men  killed  in 
action;  12,223  officers  and  40,789  enlisted 
men  who  died  of  wounds  received  in  action; 
2,795  officers  and  221,791  enlisted  men 
died  of  disease;  106  officers  and  4,838  en- 
listed men  drowned ;  other  known  causes 
290  officers  and  7,472 .  enlisted  men;  causes 
not  stated,  28  officers  and  12,093  enlisted 
men,  making  a  grand  total  of  9,584  officers 
and  349,944  enjisted  men  killed  during  the 
Civil  War. 


and  Ft.  Leavenworth,  Kans.) ,  3  general  hospi- 
tals and  the  Springfield  Armory.  There  were 
also  4  forts  in  Alaska:  the  Henry  Barracks 
and  the  post  at  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico;  and  the 
post  at  Panama  Canal  Zone;  Hawaiian  Islands; 
3  fort  barracks  and  2  sub-posts  of  forts. 


400 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,   1912,   by  Munn  &  Co.,   Inc. 

THE  SINEWS  OF  WAR. 

Ten  days'  rations  of  the  American  Army  compared  with  a  locomotive  and  one  of  the  70,000 
units  that  consume  this  enormous  quantity  of  food.  Only  one  of  the  meats  or  fish  shown  enter 
into  the  calculation,   the  rest  represent  the  variety  from  which  the  soldier   can  make   his   choice. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


401 


THE  UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY. 


Appointments:  Each  congressional  district 
and  Territory — the  District  of  Columbia  and 
also  Porto  Rico — is  entitled  to  have  one  cadet 
at  the  academy.  Each  State  is  also  entitled 
to  have  two  cadets  from  the  State  at  large, 
and  40  are  allowed  from  the  United  States  at 
large.  The  law,  however,  provides  that  for 
six  years,  from  July  1,  1910,  whenever  any 
cadet  shall  have  finished  three  years  of  his 
course  at  the  academy  his  successor  may  be 
admitted.  The  appointment  from  a  con- 
gressional district  is  made  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Representative  in  Congress 
from  that  district,  and  those  from  a  state  at 
large  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
Senators  of  the  State.  Similarly  the  ap- 
pointment from  a  Territory  is  made  upon 
recommendation  of  the  Delegate  in  Congress 
and  that  from  the  District  of  Columbia  upon 
the  recommendation  of  the  Commissioners  of 
the  District.  Each  person  appointed  must 
be  an  actual  resident  of  the  State,  District, 
or  Territory  from  which  the  appointment  is 
made.  The  appointments  from  the  United 
States  at  large  are  made  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States.  Appointments  are  re- 
quired by  law  to  be  made  one  year  in  advance 
of  the  date  of  admission,  except  in  cases 
where  by  reason  of  death  or  other  cause,  a 
vacancy  occurs  which  cannot  be  provided  for 
by  such  appointment  in  advance.  These 
vacancies  are  filled  in  time  for  the  next  ex- 


amination. Two  alternates  are  usually 
named  for  each  candidate  nominated  and 
the  alternate  making  the  highest  average  is 
entitled  to  admission  in  case  of  the  failure  of 
the  candidate. 

Examinations:  Examinations  are  held  on 
the  last  Tuesday  in  April  of  each  year  before 
a  board  of  army  officers  to  be  convened  at 
such  places  as  the  War  Department  may 
designate.  Candidates  must  appear  for  the 
physical  and  mental  examination  before 
such  board. 

No  candidate  is  admitted  who  is  under  17 
or  over  22  years  of  age  or  less  than  5'  4"  in 
height  at  the  age  of  17,  5'  5"  at  the  age  of 
18  and  upward,  or  who  is  deformed,  or 
afflicted  with  any  disease  or  infirmity  which 
would  render  him  unfit  for  military  service. 

Pay:  The  pay  of  a  cadet  is  $600  per  year 
and  one  ration  per  day,  the  total  being 
$709.50.  No  cadet  is  permitted  to  receive 
money  or  any  other  supplies  from  home  with- 
out the  sanction  of  the  superintendent. 

After  graduation  a  cadet  may  be  promoted 
and  commissioned  to  the  grade  of  second 
lieutenant  in  any  arm  or  corps  of  the  Army 
in  which  there  may  be  a  vacancy  and  if  there 
is  no  vacancy  he  may  be  commissioned  as  an 
additional  second  lieutenant,  with  the  nominal 
pay  of  a  second  lieutenant,  until  a  vacancy 
occurs. 


THE  NEW  ARMY  GUN  FOR 
AIR-CRAFT. 


RANGE  FINDING 
TOWER. 


402 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


i 


II 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


403 


THE  MONROE 

The  Monroe  Doctrine  was  formulated  by- 
President  Monroe  in  1823,  in  agreement  with 
Great  Britain  and  in  opposition  to  the  designs 
of  the  Holy  AlUance,  which  contemplated  the 
partition  of  South  America  among  the 
European   Powers.     President  Monroe   said: 

"In  the  discussions  to  which  this  interest 
has  given  rise,  and  in  the  arrangements  by 
which  they  may  terminate,  the  occasion  has 
been  judged  proper  for  asserting  as  a  principle 
in  which  the  rights  and  interests  of  the  United 
States  are  involved,  that  the  American  con- 
tinents, by  the  free  and  independent  condi- 
tion which  they  have  assumed  and  maintain, 
are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  sub- 
jects for  future  colonization  by  European 
Powers.   *  *  *  We     owe     it,     therefore,     to 


DOCTRINE. 

candor  and  to  the  amicable  relations  existing 
between  the  United  States  and  those  powers 
to  declare  that  we  should  consider  any  at- 
tempt on  their  part  to  extend  their  system 
to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  danger- 
ous to  our  peace  and  safety.  With  the 
existing  colonies  or  dependencies  of  any 
European  Power  we  have  not  interfered  and 
shall  not  interfere.  But  with  the  govern- 
ments who  have  declared  their  independence 
and  maintain  it,  and  whose  independence  we 
have  on  great  consideration  and  on  just 
principles  acknowledged,  we  could  not  view 
any  interposition  for  the  purpose  of  oppress- 
ing them  or  controlling  in  any  other  rnanner 
their  destiny,  by  any  European  power,  in  any 
other  light  than  as  the  manifestation  of  an  un- 
friendly disposition  towarJthe  United  States. 


THE  M(niTAR  ON  ITS  CARRIAGE  HAULED  BY  AN   AUTOMOBILE. 
THE  LATTER  CARRIES  THE  AMMUNITION. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR. 


The  Secretary  of  War  is  the  head  of  the 
War  Department  and  exercises  personal  super- 
vision of  all  business  relating  to  the  military 
service.  He  performs  such  duties  as  are  re- 
quired of  him  by  law  or  may  be  enjoined  upon 
him  by  the  President,  and  directs  the  manage- 
ment of  all  the  bureaus,  divisions  and  officers 
embraced  in  the  department.  Has  super- 
vision of  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
at  West  Point  and  of  military  education  in  the 
Army. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  General  Staff 
Corps  are  given  under  the  United  States 
Army,  page  397. 

DIVISION  OF  MILITIA  AFFAIRS. 

The  Division  of  Militia  Affairs  is  vested  with 
the  transaction  of  business  pertaining  to  the 
organized  and  unorganized  militia  of  the 
United  States,  its  jurisdiction  embracing  all 
administrative  duties  involving  the  arma- 
ment, equipment,  discipline,  training,  educa- 
tion and  organization  of  the  militia. 

MILITARY  BUREAUS. 

The  Adjutant  General  is  charged  with  the 
duty  of  recording,  authenticating,  and  com- 
municating to  troops  and  individuals  in  the 


military  service  all  orders,  instructions,  and 
regulations  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War; 
of  managing  the  recruiting  service;  pension 
and  other  business  connected  with  the 
Volunteer  Armies. 

The  Inspector-General  inspects  all  military 
commands  and  stations,  schools,  fortifications, 
arsenals,  armories,  etc.,  imder  charge  of  or 
carried  on  by  officers  of  the  Army. 

The  Quartermaster-General  provides  trans- 
portation for  the  Army;  also  clothing  and 
equipage,  horses,  mules,  etc.,  for  the  Army 
and  militia;  pays  guides,  spies  and  inter- 
preters;   is  in  charge  of  national  cemeteries. 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  is  charged  with 
duties  relating  to  the  construction  and  repair 
of  fortifications,  works  of  defense,  military 
roads  and  bridges,  etc. 

The  Ordnance  Department  provides, 
preserves,  distributes,  and  accounts  for  every 
description  of  artillery,  small  arms  and  all  the 
munitions  of  war  which'  may  be  required  for 
the  fortresses  of  the  country,  the  armies  in  the 
field,  and  the  whole  body  of  militia. 

The  Chief  Signal  Corps  Officer  is  charged 
with  the  supervision  of  all  military  signal 
duties,  including  telegraph  and  telephone 
apparatus  and  the  necessary  meteorological 
instruments  for  use  on  target  ranges  and  other 
military  uses,  and  all  other  duties  pertaining 
to  military  signaling,  including  aeroplanes. 


404 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


405 


406 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  MEDALS  OF  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY. 


MEDALS  OF  HONOR. 

The  Medal  of  Honor  for  the  Navy  (No.  2), 
which  was  made  available  by  the  Act  of 
Congress,  approved  December  21,  1861,  is 
bestowed  upon  such  petty  officers,  seamen, 
landsmen  and  marines  as  should  distinguish 
themselves  by  their  gallantry  in  action  or 
other  seamanlike  qualities,  during  war.  It 
consists  of  a  bronze  five-pointed  star,  the 
points  terminating  in  trefoil  with  a  wreath  of 
oak  and  laurel  contained  in  each  ray.  In  the 
center,  within  a  circle  of  thirty-four  stars, 
America  is  represented  as  Minerva  vanquish- 
ing Discord.  The  star  is  mounted  on  an 
anchor  and  suspended  from  a  silk  ribbon  of 
red  and  white  stripes,  arranged  vertically 
below  a  field  of  blue. 

The  Medal  of  Honor  for  the  Army  (No.  9) 
is  made  in  silver,  heavily  electro-plated  in 
gold.  It  consists  of  a  five-pointed  star  and  in 
the  center  appears  the  head  of  Minerva.  Sur- 
rounding this  central  feature,  arranged  in  cir- 
cular form,  are  the  words  "United  States  of 
America,"  representing  nationality.  The 
■  rnedal  is  suspended  by  a  light  blue  watered- 
silk  ribbon  spangleci  with  thirteen  white 
stars  representing  the  original  States,  and  is 
attached  to  an  eagle  clasp  supported  on  a 
horizontal  bar,  upon  which  appears  the 
word  "Valor." 

GOOD  CONDUCT  MEDALS. 

There  are  many  men  in  the  Naval  Service, 
although  they  may  never  have  attracted  suf- 
ficient attention  to  warrant  the  Medal  of 
Honor,  who  are  well  worthy  of  recognition  by 
virtue  of  their  long  and  faithful  service;  for 
these  thoroughly  efficient  sailors  there  is  also 
a  reward  known  as  the  Good  Conduct  Medal. 
The  first  issue  of  this  Medal  was  in  1870  (No. 
23).  This  was  recalled  in  1888,  and  the 
present  style  adopted  (No.  18).  In  the  center 
of  the  new  Medal  is  an  old  warship  with  the 
word  "Constitution"  beneath.  This  is  sus- 
pended by  a  red  ribbon. 

In  1910  a  Medal  similar  to  that  of  the  Navy 
was  adopted  by  the  Marine  Corps  for  the  re- 
ward of  Good  Conduct  in  the  service  (No.  17), 
except  that  there  was  a  slight  change  made  in 
the  central  figure  and  a  change  in  the  wording 
to  suit  this  corps. 

BADGES  FOR  PROFICIENCY  IN  SMALL 
ARMS  PRACTICE. 

For  proficiency  in  the  annual  practice  with 
rifles  and  revolvers  the  Army  and  Marine 
Corps  award  a  similar  set  of  distinguishing 
badges.  In  rifle  practice  the  first  badge  is 
that  of  Marksman  (No.  15),  which  requires  the 
qualifying  of  the  participant  with  60  per  cent., 
for  slow,  rapid  and  skirmish  fire  at  200,  300, 
500  and  600  yards.  The  Sharpshooter's 
Badge  (No.  13)  is  presented  to  those  who 
qualify  with  a  similar  percentage  at  800  and 
1,000  yards  (slow  fire)  and  rapid  fire  at  500 
yards.  For  the  Expert  Rifleman's  Badge 
(No.  14)  the  candidate  must  secure  68  per 
cent,  at  slow,  timed  and  skirmish  fire  at  200, 
300,  600  and  1,000  yards. 

In  the  Navy  the  grades  are  corresponding, 
although  shorter,  and  include  revolver  prac- 
tice as  well.  The  Navy  issues  but  one  Medal 
(No.  16),  the  Sharpshooter's  Medal,  to  which 
bars  are  attached  for  further  distinction. 


SPECIAL  LEGENDS. 

The  Certificate  of  Merit  Badge  (No.  11); 
issued  to  officers  and  men  of  the  Army  for 
meritorious  service.  The  ribbon  is  composed 
of  two  bands  of  red,  white  and  blue,  separated 
by  a  narrow  white  stripe. 

The  Philippine  Congressional  Medal  (No.  5) ; 
issued  to  volunteer  officers  and  men  who 
served  beyond  their  enlistment  with  the 
Army  in  the  Philippines.  The  ribbon  is  com- 
posed of  a  broad  band  of  blue  with  a  narrow 
white  stripe  separating  it  from  narrow  stripes 
of  red,  white  and  blue  on  either  edge. 

The  Civil  War  Campaign  Badge  (No.  3); 
issued  to  officers  and  men  for  service  in  the 
United  States  Army  in  the  Civil  War.  The 
ribbon  is  composed  of  two  bands  of  red,  white 
and  blue;  the  red  on  the  outside  and  the  blue 
stripes  separated  by  a  narrow  stripe  of  red. 
(No.  10),  issued  to  those  of  the  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps  who  served  during  the  Civil 
War.    The  ribbon  is  blue  and  gray. 

The  Indian  Wars  Campaign  Badge  (No.  7) ; 
issued  to  those  who  served  in  the  Army  in 
the  campaigns  against  the  Indians.  The  rib- 
bon is  bright  red  with  a  darker  stripe  of  red 
on  either  edge. 

The  Spanish-American  War  Campaign 
Badge  (No.  6);  issued  to  those  who  served  in 
the  Army  in  the  Spanish  War,  in  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico  or  the  Philippines.  The  ribbon  is  com- 
posed of  .a  broad  band  of  yellow,  between  two 
bands  of  red,  with  a  narrow  border  of  blue  on 
either  edge.  (No.  12),  issued  to  officers  and 
men  of  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  who  served 
in  Cuban,  Porto  Rican  or  Philippine  Waters 
during  the  Spanish  War.  The  ribbon  is  yel- 
low with  two  stripes  of  red. 

The  Philippine  Insurrection  Campaign 
Badge  (No.  19);  issued  for  duty  with  the 
Army  in  the  Philippines  and  for  service  with 
the  several  expeditions  against  the  natives. 
The  ribbon  is  composed  of  a  broad  blue  band 
between  two  bands  of  red  with  a  narrow  stripe 
of  blue  on  either  edge. 

The  China  Relief  Expedition  Badge  (No. 
25) ;  issued  for  service  ashore  in  China  with  tiie 
Peking  Relief  Expedition.  The  ribbon  is  a 
broad  band  of  yellow  edged  with  blue.  (No. 21), 
issued  to  those  who  served  in  the  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps  in  Chinese  Waters  or  ashore  dur- 
ing the  Boxer  Uprising.  The  ribbon  is  yellow 
with  a  narrow  black  band  near  each  edge. 

The  Dewey  Congressional  Medal  (No.  1); 
issued  to  members  of  the  Navy  or  Marine 
Corps  who  served  with  the  Asiatic  Squadron 
at  Manila.  The  ribbon  is  composed  of  a  yel- 
low band  with  a  blue  band  on  either  side. 

The  West  Indies  Campaign  Medal  (No.  4); 
issued  for  service  during  the  West  Indies 
Campaign  in  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps. 
The  ribbon  is  composed  of  three  bands,  the 
central  one  blue  and  the  outside  ones  red. 
(No.  8),  issued  for  specially  meritorious  serv- 
ice during  the  West  Indies  Campaign  other 
than  in  battle,  to  officers  and  men  of  the  Navy 
and  Marine  Corps.     The  ribbon  is  red. 

The  Philippine  Campaign  Badge  (No.  24); 
issued  to  members  of  the  Navy  and  Marine 
Corps  who  served  in  that  campaign.  The  rib- 
bon is  red  with  a  yellow  band  in  the  center. 

The  Cuban  Pacification  Badge  (No.  22);  is- 
sued to  officers  of  the  Navy  and  Marine 
Hospital  Corps  who  served  in  Cuba.  The  rib- 
bon is  similar  to  that  of  the  Army  for  this 
campaign  (No.  20);  olive  drab,  with  red 
white  and  blue  borders. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


407 


PASSPORTS. 


Passports  are  required  for  entrance  into 
Russia,  Turkey  and  the  Balkan  countries, 
and  must  be  visaed  by  diplomatic  or  consular 
representatives  of  those  countries.  There  are 
no  such  representatives  of  the  Balkan  States 
in  the  United  States  and  passports  for  those 
countries  should  be  visaed  by  their  diplomatic 
or  consular  representatives  elsewhere.  Pass- 
ports may  be  required  in  other  countries  of 
persons  making  a  prolonged  stay,  especially 
if  they  reside  in  boarding  houses  or  rented 
apartments,  but  they  are  often  valuable  in 
the  securing  of  registered  mail,  admissions  to 
certain  galleries,  etc.,  which  are  normally 
closed  to  the  public.  Passports  are  issued  by 
the  Secretary  of  State.  An  American  abroad 
may  make  his  application  before  an  American 
diplomatic  or  consular  officer,  who  will  for- 
ward it  to  the  department.  The  fee  for  a  pass- 
port is  $1.00.  This  amount  in  currency  or 
postal  order  should  accompany  each  applica- 
tion made  by  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 
The  orders  should  be  made  payable  to  the 
Disbursing  Clerk  of  the  Department  of  State. 
Drafts  or  checks  are  not  accepted.  A  person 
who  is  entitled  to  receive  a  passport,  if  in 
the  United  States  at  the  time,  must  make  a 
written  application  in  affidavit  form  to  the 
Secretary  of  State.  Application  must  be  made 
by  the  person  to  whom  the  passport  is  to  be 
issued,  and  signed  by  him,  as  one  person  can- 
not apply  for  a  passport  for  another.  The 
affidavit  must  be  attested  by  an  officer  author- 
ized to  administer  oaths,  and  an  official  seal 
must  be  affixed,  or  his  official  character  must 
be  authenticated  by  a  certificate  of  the  proper 
legal  officer.  The  applicant  must  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  Government  of  the  United 
States.  The  oath  is  on  the  application  blank. 
The  appUcation  mast  be  accompanied  by  a 
description  of  the  apphcant.  Full  data  for 
these  questions  are  provided  on  the  blank. 
There  are  a  number  of  different  forms.  There 
is  one  for  a  native  citizen,  one  for  the  natural- 
ized citizen,  and  one  for  a  person  claiming 
citizenship  through  the  naturalization  of  hus- 
band or  parent.  In  asking  for  a  blank  it  should 
be  specified  which  form  is  desired.  A  woman's 
application  must  state  whether  she  is  married 
or  not,  and  a  married  woman  must  state 
whether  her  husband  is  a  native  or  a  natural- 
ized citizen.  A  passport  expires  two  years 
from  the  date  of  issue,  but  it  may  be  extended 
for  two  years  by  a  diplomatic  or  consular  offi- 
cer of  the  United  States,  if  presented  when  it 
is  about  to  expire.  Applications  for  passports 
from  naturalized  citizens  must  be  accompanied 
by  a  certificate  of  naturalization. 

When  the  applicant  is  accompanied  by  his 
wife,  minor  children  and  a  servant,  to  be  en- 
titled to  receive  the  passport  it  is  sufficient  to 
state  the  fact,  giving  the  respective  ages  of 
the  children  and  the  allegiance  of  the  servant, 
then  one  passport  will  suffice  for  all.  For  any 
other  person  in  the  party  a  separate  passport 
will  be  required.  The  woman's  passport  may 
include  her  minor  children  and  servant  under 
the  above-named  conditions.  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  term  "servant"  does 
not  include  a  governess,  tutor,  pupil,  com- 
panion or  person  holding  like  relations  to  the 
applicant  for  passport.  Professional  or  other 
titles  will  not  be  inserted  in  the  passports. 
This  information  is  obtained  from  the  circular 


entitled,  "Rules  Governing  the  Granting  and 
Issuing  of  Passports  in  the  United  States." 
which  will  be  sent  with  the  blank  on  applica- 
tion. It  takes  only  a  few  days  to  obtain  a 
passport.  The  intervention  of  those  who  make 
a  business  of  securing  passports  is  entirely 
unnecessary.  The  blank  is  very  simple  and 
only  requires  the  filling  out  of  the  important 
details,  such  as  the  description  of  the  applicant, 
the  taking  of  the  oath  of  allegiance  before  a 


WORDING  OF  PASSPORT. 

Good  only  for  two  years  from  date. 

(Coat  of  Arms). 

United  States  of  America. 

Department  of  State. 

To  all  to  whom  these  presents  shall  cdme, 
Greeting:  I,  the  undersigned,  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States  of  America,  hereby 
request  all  whom  it  may  concern  to  permit 


a  Citizen  of  the  United  States  

Safely.  . 

and  freely  to  pass  and  in  case  of  need  to  give 
all  lawful  Aid  and  Protection. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  the 

Seal    of    the    Department   of 

(SEAL     of         State,  at  the  City  of  Washing- 

the  Depart-         ton,  the   day  of 

ment        of         in  the  year  1910, 

State.)  and  of  the  Independence  of 

the    United    States    the    one 
hundred  and  thirty -fourth, 

(Signature  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  State.) 

Description, 

Age Years 

Stature Feet Inches  Eng. 

Forehead .' 

Eyes 

Nose 

Mouth 

Chin 

Hair 

Complexion 

Face 

Signature  of  the  Bearer. 


No. 


Note. — The  Department  of  State  has  re- 
fused to  grant  permission  to  reproduce  a  real 
Passport,  hence  this  rather  insufficient  sub- 
stitute. 


notary  public  or  other  officer  who  is  entitled 
to  take  similar  oaths,  and  the  application 
must  be  signed  by  a  credible  witness.  Some 
concerns  make  a  business  of  obtaining  pass- 
ports at  a  fee  of  from  $2.00  t9  $5.00,  but  with 
the  instructions  given  in  this  book  and  the 
rules  given  in  the  circular  sent,  their  services 
are  entirely  unnecessary.  Information  revised 
by  officials  of  the  Department  of  State  on 
[ay  13,  1912. 


Ma: 


408 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  NOBEL  PRIZES. 


The  Nobel  Foundation  is  based  upon  the  last 
will  and  testament  of  Dr.  Alfred  Bernhard 
Nobel,  engineer  and  inventor  of  dynamite, 
dated  December  27,  1895,  the  stipulations  of 
which,  respecting  this  fund,  are  as  follows: 

"  The  rest  of  my  fortune,  that  is,  the  capital 
realized  by  my  executors,  is  to  constitute  a 
fund,  the  interest  of  which  is  to  be  dis- 
tributed annually  as  a  prize  to  those  who  have 
in  the  course  of  the  previous  year  rendered  the 
greatest  services  to  humanity.  The  amount 
is  to  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  one  of 
which  is  to  be  awarded  to  the  person  who  has 
made  the  most  important  discovery  in  the 
domain  of  physical  science;  another  to  the 
one  who  has  made  the  most  valuable  dis- 
covery in  chemistry  or  brought  about  the 
greatest  improvement;  the  third  to  the  author 
of  the  most  important  discovery  in  the  field 
of  physiology  or  medicine;  the  fourth  to  the 
one  who  has  produced  the  most  remarkable 
literary  work  of  an  idealistic  tendency,  and 
finally  the  fifth  to  the  person  who  has  done  the 
best  or  the  most  in  the  cause  of  the  fraternity 
of  nations,  for  the  suppression  or  the  reduction 
of  standing  armies  as  well  as  for  the  forma- 
tion and  propagation  of  peace  congresses. 
The  prizes  will  be  awarded  for  physics  and 
chemistry  by  the  Swedish  Academy  of 
Sciences;  for  works  in  physiology  and 
medicine  by  the  Caroline  Institute  of  Stock- 
holm; for  Hterature  by  the  Stockhohn 
Academy,  and  finally  for  the  service  in  the 


cause  of  peace  by  a  committee  of  five  mem- 
bers of  the  Norwegian  Storthing.  It  is  my 
express  desire  that  the  benefits  of  the  founda- 
tion are  to  be  open  to  all  nationalities  and 
sexes  and  that  the  prize  be  awarded  to  the 
one  most  worthy,  whether  Scandinavian  or 
not." 

Each  prize  amounts  to  about  $40,000,  and 
the  corporation  designates  a  "Comite  Nobel" 
composed  of  three  or  five  members  for  each 
section,  with  headquarters  at  Christiana, 
Norway. 

As  expressed  in  the  will  no  consideration  is 
paid  to  the  nationality  of  the  candidate,  but 
it  is  essential  that  every  candidate  shall  be 
proposed  in  writing  by  some  qualified  repre- 
sentative of  science,  literature,  etc.,  in  the  chief 
countries  of  the  civilized  world,  such  pro- 
posals to  reach  the  Committee  before  the 
first  of  February  in  each  year,  the  awards  being 
made  on  the  following  10th  of  December,  the 
anniversary  of  Mr.   Nobel's  death. 

The  first  distribution  of  prizes  took  place  in 
1901  and  including  the  awards  of  1912  only 
three  prizes  have  been  awarded  to  Americans: 
1906,  Prof.  A.  A.  Michelson,  Physics;  1906, 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  Peace;  1912,  Dr.  Alexis 
Carrel,  Medicine.  The  following  awards 
were  made  in  1912:  Physics,  Gustav  Dalen, 
Swede;  Medicine,  Dr.  Alexis  Carrel,  Ameri- 
can; Chemistry,  Prof.  Grignard  and  Prof. 
Sabatier,  French;  Literature,  Gerhart  Haupt- 
mann,  German;  Peace,  No  award. 


THE  HALL  OF  FAME. 

"The  Hall  of  Fame  for  Great  Americans"  is  the  name  of  an  open  colonnade  attached  to 
the  Library  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  on  University  Heights  in  New 
York  city.  Borough  of  the  Bronx,  in  which  are  inscribed  on  bronze  tablets  the  names  of 
famous  American  men  and  women.  Nominations  for  the  honor  are  made  by  the  public  and 
are  submitted  to  a  committee  of  100  eminent  citizens.  In  the  case  of  men  fifty-one  votes 
are  required  and  in  the  case  of  women  forty-seven.  The  first  balloting  took  place  in 
October,   1900,  when  the  following  were  chosen: 

George  Washington,  Joseph    Story.  William    E.    Channing.      Emma  Willard. 

Abraham   Lincoln.  John   Adams.  Gilbert    Stuart.  Maria   Mitchell. 

Daniel   Webster.  Washington    Irving.  Asa  Gray.  Chosen    in    1910. 

Benjamin  Franklin.  Jonathan    Edwards.  Chosen   in   1905.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe. 

Ulysses    S.    Grant.  Samuel   F.    B.    Morse.         John   Quincy   Adams.         Oliver  Wendell   Holmes. 

John    Marshall.  David  G.    Farragut.  James  Russell  Lowell.       Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

Thomas   Jefferson.  Henry   Clay.  William  T.    Sherman.        Roger    Williams. 

Ralph    W.    Emerson.  Nathaniel    Hawthorne.       James    Madison.  James  Fenimore  Cooper. 

H.    W.    Longfellow.  George    Peabody.  John    G.    Whittier.  Phillips  Brooks. 

Robert  Fulton.  Robert    E.    Lee.  Alexander    Hamilton.         William   Cullen   Bryant. 

Horace    Mann.  Peter  Cooper.  Louis  Agassiz.  Frances    E..    Willard. 

Henry  W.    Beecher.  Eli    Whitney.  John    Paul   Jones.  Andrew  Jackson. 

James  Kent.  John  J.    Audubon.  Mary    Lyon.  George  Bancroft. 

John   Lothrop   Motley. 

SALARIES  OF  OFFICIALS  OF  THE  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  Executive:  President,  $75,000;  Vice-President,  $12,000;  Cabinet  Officers,  $12,000; 
Assistant  Secretaries,  $^,000,  including  Assistant  Secretary  of  Navy,.  Treasury  Depart- 
ment: Treasurer  of  United  States,  $8,000;  Comptroller  of  Treasury,  $6,000;  Commissioner  of 
Internal  Revenue,  $3,000;  War  Department:  Chief  of  Staff,  $8,000;  Adjutant  General,  $6,000; 
Inspector,  Judge  Advocate,  Quartermaster,  Commissary,  Surgeon  and  Paymaster-(Jenerals, 
$6,000;  Navy  Department:  President  General  Navy  Board,  $13,500;  President  Naval  Examina- 
tion Board,  $8,000;  Post-Office  Department:  Assistant  Postmaster  Generals,  $5,000;  Interior 
Department:  Commissioner  of  Education,  Land  Office,  Pensions,  Indian  Affairs  and  Patents, 
.$5,000;  Department  of  Justice:  Assistant  Attorney  Generals,  .$5,000.  Department  Agricul- 
ture: Chief,  Weather  Bureau,  $3,000;  Chief  Forest  Service,  $5,000;  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Labor:  Commissioner  Corporations,  Labor,  Light-House  Bureau  and  General  Immigra- 
tion, $5,000;  Director  of  Census,  $6,000;  Commissioner  Fisheries,  $6,000.  The  members  of 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  receive  $10,000. 

The  Legislative:  Senators  and  Representatives  in  Congress  receive  $7,500,  and  20  cents 
per  mile  to  and  from  seat  of  Government. 

The  Judiciary;  The  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States  receives  $15,000;  Associate  Jus- 
tices, .$14,500. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


NAVIES  OF   THE  WORLD 


/--«c 


^^^Z_l9l/_ 


LETTER  FROM  PRESIDENT  TAFT,  COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 


THE  NEW  "EYES"  OF  THE  MAN  BEHIND  THE  MAN  BEHIND  THE  GUN. 

Aeronautics  has  developed  in  such  a  remarkable  manner  in  the  last  few  years  that  it  is 
impossible  to  surmise  when  or  where  progress  will  be  arrested.  At  the  present  time  the  aero- 
plane can  be  used  to  extend  the  range  of  vision  of  the  fleet,  but  when  operating  beyond  the 
sight  of  its  base,  parent  ship,  or  landmarks,  it  is  hampered  for  scouting  purposes  by  lack  of 
navigational  facilities  for  the  determination  of  course  and  position.  It  is  very  probable  that 
these  will  come,  and  with  them  also  come  a  vast  increase  in  the  value  of  the  aeroplane  as  a  naval 
scout.  As  a  station  from  which  to  observe  and  correct  the  fall  of  shot  the  aeroplane  will  be 
of  service,  particularly  where  long  range,  indirect,  high-angle  firing  is  used  as  in  case  of  a  bom- 
bardment. Here,  however,  the  question  of  communication  is  seriously  involved,  as  much 
depends  on  the  prompt  and  accurate  transmission  of  information.  Steady  progress  is  being 
made  in  the  development  of  wireless  which  gives  promise  of  meeting  all  the  requirements  of 
the  situation,  and  which  will  insure  the  efficiency  of  the  aeroplane  for  the  purposes  of  spotting, 
as  above  outlined.  The  hydrseroplane,  which  is  an  American  development,  and  which  may  be 
launched  from  a  vessel,  and  alight  in  the  water  alongside  on  the  return  from  a  trip  aloft,  further 
increases  the  possibility  of  the  aeroplane  as  a  naval  adjunct. — Thomas  T.  Craven,  Lieutenant 
Commander,  U.  S.  N.  Director  of  Target  Practice  and  Engineering  Competitions.     (Page  414.) 

409 


410 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SEA  STRENGTH. 

SHIPS. 
TABLE  I.— VESSELS  BUILT. 


England 

Germany 

United  States. . 

France 

Japan 

Russia 

Italy........... 

Austria 


Dread- 
nought 
type.1 


Battle- 
ships.* 


De- 
stroy- 
ers. 


Tor- 
pedo 
boats. 


Coast 
defense 
vessels.' 


«  Battleships  having  a  main  battery  of  all  big  guns  (11  inches  or  more  in  caliber). 
,  1  Battleships  of  (about)  10,000  tons  or  more  displacement,  and  having  more  than  one  caliber  in  the  main 
battery. 

»  Armored  cruisers  having  guns  of  largest  caliber  in  main  battery  and  capable  of  taking  their  place  in  line 
of  battle  with  the  battleships.  They  have  an  Increase  of  speed  at  the  expense  of  carrying  fewer  guns  in 
main  battery,  and  a  decrease  In  armor  protection. 

*  Includes  all  unarmored  cruising  vessels  above  1,500  tons  displacement. 

•  Includes  smaller  battleships  and  monitors.  No  more  vessels  of  this  class  are  being  proposed  or  built  by 
the  great  power;. 

'Includes  vessels  of  colonies. 

TABLE  II.— VESSELS  BUILDING  OR  AUTHORIZED. 


Battle- 

nought 
type. 

Battle 
cruisers. 

Cruisers. 

Destroy- 
ers. 

Torpedo 
boats. 

Subma- 
rines. 

England.' 

Germany* 

United  States.... 
France 

11 
2 

3  2 

3 
0 
0 

4 

0 
0 

»14 
4 
0 
0 
0 
2 
2 
3 

»40 
12 
14 
8 
2 
9 
11 
6 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
21 

12, 

»16 

23 
20 

Japan*... 

2 

Rxissia' ; 

g 

Italy. 

2 

Austria 

7 

'■England  has  no  continuing  shipbuilding  policy,  but  .usually  lays  down  each  year  4  or  S  armored  ships 
■with  a  proportional  nu  mber  of  smaller  vessels. 

» Includes  vessels  of  colonies. . 
■  *  Germany  has  a  continuing  shipbuilding  program,  governed  by  a  fleet  law  authorized  by  the  Reichstag. 
For  1913  there  are  authorized  2  battleships,  1  battle  cruiser,  2  cruisers,  12  destroyers.    Eventual  strength  t« 
.consist  of  41  battleships,  20  armored  cruisers,  40  cruisers,  144  destroyers,  72  submarines, 

*  14,760,000  authorized  for  experiments  and  further  construction. 

» $78,837,569  authorized  to  be  expended  from  1911  to  1917  for  the  construction  of  war  vessels. 

•  Russian  shipbuilding  program  provides  for  the  completion  by  1918  of  4  battle  cruisers,  8  small  cruisefS, 
36  destroyers,  and  18  submarines.  Four  battle  cruisers  and  two  cruisers  have  been  contracted  for  and  are 
included  in  the  above  table. . 

UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ENLISTMENT 

The  term  of  enlistment  of  all  enlisted  men  in  the  Navy  is  four  years,  except  for  minors  under 
eighteen,  who  enlist  with  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardian.  Minors  over  the  age  of  eighteen 
may  be  enlisted  without  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardian,  but  must  furnish  written  statement 
as  to  their  age.  Every  person  must  pass  the  physical  examination  prescribed  in  the  medical 
instructions.  Only  American  citizens  of  good  character  who  may  reasonably  be  expected  to 
remain  in  the  service  are  enlisted,  and  every  applicant  must  be  able  to  read  and  write  English 
and  must  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.     No  person  under  the  age  of  seventeen  can  be  enlisted. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


411 


PERSONNEL. 
TABLE  III. 


Bank. 

England. 

France. 

Germany. 

Japan. 

United 
States. 

3 

12 

22 

55 

644 

2,473 

558 

872 

593 

685 

139 

2,675 

115,079 

457 

•  20, 943 

2 

5 

12 

2.1 

.  351 

1, 811 

398 

529 

322 

259 

28 

2,615 

60, 920 

170 

'  5, 826 

1 

7 

17 

45 

292 

i,  818 

154 

683 

«368 

341 

•1 

Admirals 

15 
30 
360 
1,467 
60 
505 
'390 
211 

'26 

Captains  and  commanders. . . 
Other  line  officers         

211 

1,553 

0 

Medical  officers         ..      . 

347 

Pay  officers 

:i3l 

24 

Warrant  officers 

»2,445 
55, 760 

.  1, 520 
42, 043 

856 

48,816 

316 

Enlisted  men  (marines) 

9,866 

Total.. 

145, 210 

61,243 

73, 269 

47,289 

C2,24T 

>  The  Admiral  of  the  Navy.  \ 

« The  United  States  now  has,  temporarily,  as  extl-a  numbers,  flue  to  promotion  for  war  S 
officers  restricted  by  law  to  engineering  duty  only  on  ^hore  only  8  Bag  ofDcers,  20T»ptains,  6{ 
e.licutenant commanders,  .wd  1  lieutenant.  « includes 3,130  men  of  tlie  Coast  Guartf. 

•  Includes  pharmacists  and  apothecaries.  i  Marine  intanlfj  and  seaman  artUlery. 

<  Includes  pharmaceutical  olliccrs. 

» Includes  adiutants.  premier  raaltrcs.  and  maltrcs  of  all  brandies. 


ttee,aiiattt 
tmin&iidsrt. 


BELATIVE  OBDES  OF  WAESRIP  TONNAGE. 


Present  order  (tonnage  completed). 


Nation. 


Great  Britain. 

Germany 

United  States 

France.. 

Japan 

Russia 

Italy. 

Austria.. 


Tonnage. 


2, 007, 247 
865, 984 
763, 132 
627,  787 
471, 962 
286,  930 
224, 837 
198, 159 


As  would  be  the  case  if  vessels  now 
building  were  completed. 


Nation, 


Great  Britain. 
Germany. . .. 
United  States 

France 

Japan 

Russia 

Italy 

Austria 


>  Estimated. 


Tonnage.' 


2, 483, 545 
1, 133, 878 
929, 351 
807, 717 
616, 528 
595, 807 
413, 882 
260,  751 


^K^'^^^Shi''  ^ 

1   '^:^i'      '"^ 

^^^|^^^.«f  /  f?iK 

^Jsm^imf^/gl 

■Hi! 

■ 

A  PRESENT  DAY  MODIFIED  WHITEHEAD  TORPEDO.     (Pago  424.) 


412 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  COMMAND  OF  THE  SEA. 
By  Alfred  T.  Mahan 

Rear  Admiral,  U.  S.  N.  (Retired). 


' 


The  existing  contest  between  Italy 
and  Turkey,  confined  as  it  is  to  the  sea 
and  to  the  possession  of  Tripoli,  has  a 
double  interest.  It  illustrates  on  the 
one  hand  the  gradual,  yet  perpetual, 
process  by  which  a  higher  civilization 
impinges  upon  a  lower ;  that  is,  upon 
one  that  is  lower  in  virile  efficiency, 
however  in  some  instances  it  may  have 
been  higher  in  acquired  material  com- 
fort, or  even  in  literary  and  artistic 
achievement.  This  tendency  can  neither 
be  regulated  by  law,  nor  brought  to 
the  bar  of  law,  without  injury  to  the 
progress  of  the  world  toward  better 
universal  conditions,  to  which  end  it 
is  essential  that  the  efficient  supplant 
the  inefficient.  On  the  other  hand  this 
collision  illustrates  the  importance  of 
the  command  of  the  sea.  This  also, 
it  should  be  noted,  has  been  incidental 
and  determinative  in  the  progress  of 
the  world.  Through  having  this  com- 
mand, Italy  thus  far  has  been  able  to 
localize  the  land  fighting  in  Tripoli, 
and  .probably  can  continue  to  do  so ; 
to  the  great  relief  of  her  own  re- 
sources, and  that  of  a  watching  and 
anxious  Europe. 

It  is  to  this  second  consideration 
that  I  am  here  limited  by  my  sub- 
ject— "The  Importance  of  the  Com- 
mand of  the  Sea" — with  a  somewhat 
special  reference  to  that  importance  as 
touching  the  United  States.  The 
United  States  in  her  turn,  after  hav- 
ing achieved  national  efficiency,  by  the 
quenching  of  internal  discord  in  a  bit- 
ter and  bloody  contest,  has  found  her- 
self compelled  inevitably  into  the  same 
path  of  seeming  aggression  upon  less 
efficient  social  and  political  communi- 
ties ;  to  bear  her  part  of  "the  white 
man's  burden,"  as  it  has  been  styled. 
For  in  essence  this  process  is  not  one 
of  aggrandizement,  but  of  responsibil- 
ity ;  responsibility  not  to  law,  which 
always  lags  behind  conditions,  but  to 
moral  obligation  entailed  by  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  of  the  moment  of 
action. 

This  moral  side  of  the  question  is 
not  irrelevant  to  the  military  one  of 
the    importance    of    commanding    the 


sea  ;  for  granting  the  end — the  moral 
obligation — the  means,  if  not  them- 
selves immoral,  follow  as  a  matter  of 
course.  Of  such  means,  command  of 
the  sea  is  one.  Napoleon  said  that 
morale  dominates  war ;  and  it  is  cor- 
respondingly true  that  a  sense  of  right 
powerfully  reinforces  the  stability  of 
national  attitude  and  the  steadfast- 
ness of  national  purpose.  If  we  have 
been  right,  morally,  step  by  step,  in 
the  forward  march  of  the  past  few 
years,  we  are  morally  bound  to  sus- 
tain the  position  attained,  by  meas- 
ures which  will-  provide  the  necessary 
means.  Of  these  an  adequate  navy  is 
among  the  first ;  probably,  in  our  case, 
the  chief  of  all. 

Here,  as  always,  it  is  necessary  to 
recur  to  experience — to  the  past — in 
order  to  comprehend  the  present  and 
to  project  the  future.  Why  do  Eng- 
lish innate  political  conceptions  of 
popular  representative  government,  of 
the  balance  of  law  and  liberty,  prevail 
in  North  America  from  the  Arctic 
Circle  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific?  Because 
the  command  of  the  sea  at  the  decisive 
era  belonged  to  Great  Britain.  In 
India  and  Egypt,  administrative  effi- 
ciency has  taken  the  place  of  a  welter 
of  tyranny,  feudal  struggle,  and  blood- 
shed, achieving  thereby  the  compara- 
tive welfare  of  the  once  harried  popu- 
lations. What  underlies  this  adminis- 
trative efficiency?  The  British  navy, 
assuring  in  the  first  instance  British 
control  instead  of  French  and  there- 
after communication  with  the  home 
country,  whence  the  local  power  with- 
out which  administration  everywhere 
is  futile.  What,  at  the  moment  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  was  proclaimed,  in- 
sured beyond  peradventure  the  immu- 
nity from  foreign  oppression  of  the 
Spanish-American  colonies  in  their 
struggle  for  independence?  The  com- 
mand of  the  sea  by  Great  Britain. 
backed  by  the  feeble  navy  but  impos- 
ing strategic  situation  of  the  United 
States,  with  her  swarm  of  potential 
commerce-destroyers,    which   a   decade 


Copyright  1911.  Munn   &   Co..   Inc. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


411 


before  had  harassed  the  trade  of  even 
the  mistress  of  the  seas. 

Less  conspicuously,  but  no  less 
truly,  to  what  do  Algiers  and  Tunis, 
and  to  what  eventually  will  Morocco, 
owe  redemption  from  conditions  bare- 
ly, if  at  all,  above  the  barbarous? 
To  the  command  of  the  sea  by  the 
nation  which  already  has  restored  the 
former  two,  to  be  fruitful  members 
of  the  world  community.  That  South 
Africa  is  now  a  united  commonwealth, 
instead  of  two  opposing  communities, 
such  as  the  North  and  South  of  our 
own  country  might  have  been,  is  due 
to  the  same  cause ;  a  local  preponder- 
ance of  force  insured  by  sea  power. 
It  ■  may  safely  be  claimed  that  to  the 
navy  of  the  United^  States  chiefly 
is  owing  the  present  Union,  instead  of 
the  existence  of  two  rival  nations 
vying,  or  trying  to  vie,  with  each 
other  in  military  preparations,  like 
the  nations  of  Europe.  The  four 
years'  struggle  of  the  Confederate 
States  might  not  have  ended  in  ex- 
haustion, had  it  not  been  for  the  block- 
ade, wiiich  shut  in  their  cotton  and 
shut   out    their    supplies. 

Contrast  this  impressive  exhibit, 
where  the  command  of  the  sea  has 
been  operative,  with  the  history  and 
achievement  of  those  great  States 
which  have  not  possessed  it.  Con- 
trast Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  for 
Austria,  Alsace  and  Lorraine  for  Ger- 
many, with  the  expansion  of  France, 
Great  Britain,  Holland,  and  with  that 
which  Spain  once  possessed  ;  now  lost 
through  an  inefficiency,  one  of  the  first 
symptoms  of  which  was  the  decay  of 
her  navy.  The  magnificent  efiiciency 
of  the  present  German  Empire  strives 
now,  against  almost  hopeless  disad- 
vantage, for  the  opportunity  to  exer- 
cise that  efiiciency  outside  its  Euro- 
pean limits.  Opportunity  was  lost 
through  the  absence  of  naval  force  in 
the  past  centuries,  when  the  maritime 
countries  were  occupying,  and,  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  respective  political 
aptitudes,  were  determining  the  future 
of  immense  tracts  of  the  world.  Much 
time  must  elapse  before  we  shall  know 
the  inside  history  of  the  still  unar- 
ranged  dispute  with  France  about 
Morocco ;  but  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  consciousness  of  the 
British  navy  at  the  back  of  France 
has  been  one  of  the  large  factors  in 
the   negotiations.     At    least    it    is    ap- 


parent that  bitterness  against  Great 
Britain  has  been  even  more  marked 
than  against  France. 

The  lesson  for  the  United  States  is 
plain.  In  the  strategic  position  be- 
fore mentioned,  in  remoteness  from 
Europe,  in  the  rivalries  of  European 
nations,  we  still  have  a  local  and  in- 
ternational advantage  for  preponder- 
ance in  American  waters;  but  it  is 
not  so  great  as  to  confer  certainty 
without  reasonable  provision  for  in- 
suring command  of  the  sea.  In  the 
Pacific,  which  is  equally  our  coast 
line,  and  to  which  the  future  mostly 
looks,  we  have  no  similar  advantage. 
Much  as  I  dislike  and  reject  the 
phrase  "supremacy  in  the  Pacific,"  it 
is  true  that  we  there  have  duties 
which  in  case  of  disputes  will  require 
the  presence  of  naval  force  adequate 
to  command.  Duty  to  the  mutual 
support  of  our  two  chief  coasts  dic- 
tates full  control  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  which  from  the  military  stand- 
point is  the  key  to  any  broadly 
planned  system  of  preparation  for  na- 
tional defense. 

But  obligation  is  no  less  on  ac- 
count of  the  Philippine  Islands.  Hav- 
ing assumed  control  of  these  under 
imperative  circumstances,  we  are 
bound  in  honor  to  support  an  under- 
taking, our  fitness  for  which  is  at- 
tested by  results.  To  them  we  are 
responsible  for  the  maintenance  of 
conditions  under  which  material  pros- 
perity can  advance,  and  their  dissimi- 
lar and  discordant  inhabitants  reach  a 
homogeneous  civilization  and  political 
development  which  will  enable  them  to 
govern  themselves.  To  Cuba,  though 
independent,  we  owe  by  specific  guar- 
antees of  maintenance  of  a  like  in- 
ternal security.  These  national  and 
international  functions  can  be  dis- 
charged, certainly  only  by  command 
of  the  sea.  The  Pacific,  the  Atlantic, 
and  the  Caribbean,  with  the  great 
controlling  stations,  Porto  Rico,  Guan- 
tanamo,  the  Canal  Zone,  and  Hawaii, 
depend  upon  this  command,  the  expo- 
nent of  which  is  the  navy,  and  in  which 
ships  and  stations  are  interdependent 
factors.  To  place  the  conclusion  con- 
cretely and  succinctly,  the  question  of 
command  of  the  sea  is  one  of  annual 
increase  of  the  navy.  This  question 
is  not  "naval,"  in  the  restricted  sense 
of  the  word.  It  is  one  of  national 
policy,  national  security,  and  national 
obligation. 


414 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


■^^^W 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


415 


SHIPS     DATA,  tJ.   S.   NAVAL  VESSELS. 
(Including  those  authorized  by  act  of  Congress  approved  Aug.  22,  1912.) 


Type. 


Fit  ior  service, 

including  those 

under  repair. 


Num- 
ber. 


Displace- 
ment. 


Under  con- 
struction. 


Num- 
ber. 


Dis- 
place- 
ment. 


Authorized. 


Num- 
ber 


Displace- 
ment. 


Num- 
ber. 


"'otal. 


Displace- 
ment. 


Battleships,  first  line 

Battleships,  second  Une 

Armored  cruisers ,  — . 

Cruisers,  first  class 

Cruisers,  second  class 

Cruisers,  third  cjass :. . . 

Monitors 

Destroyers 

Torpedo  boats 

Submarines 

Tenders  to  torpedo  vessels 

Gunboats — 

Transports 

Supply  ships 

Hospital  ships 

Fuel  ships 

Converted  yachts 

Tugs 

Special  type 

Unserviceable  for  war  purposes 

T.otal 


Tons. 
205,650 

244, 146 

140,080 

46,465 

33,561 

48,748 

39,004 

23,551 

4,821 

5,229 
20,661 
25,078 
^26,595 
25,400 

9,000 
155,663 

9,634 
15,884 
26,335 
59,4i21 


Tons. 
161,000 


10.496 


1,408 


95,624 


2,240 


2  31.400 


6,321 


2  4, 160 

2  9,900 

1,805 


29,000 


T071S. 

398,050 

244,146 

140,080 

46,465 

33,561 

48.748 

39,004 

40,368 

4,821 

17,657 

31,969 

26,883 

26,595 

25,400 

9,000 

3  280,287 

9,634 

18, 124 

26,335 

59,421 


323    1,164,926        42   279,036        22  82,586       387     1,526,548 


Approximately. 


2  Design  being  prepared. 


Excepting  the  Justin. 


PAY  IN  THE  UNITEIJ  STATES  NAVY. 

The  yearly  pay  of  commissioned  officers  of  the  United  States  Navy  is  as  follows:  Admiral. 
$13,500;  Rear-Admirals,  first  nine,  $8,000;  Rear-Admirals,  second  nine,  or  Commodores,  $6,000; 
Captains,  $4,000;  Commanders,  $3,500;  Lieutenant  Commanders,  $3,000;  Lieutenants, 
$2,400;  Lieutenants  (junior  grade)  $2,000;  Ensigns,  $1,700;  Midshipmen  (at  Naval  Academy) 
$600;  Midshipmen  (after  Grad.),  $1,400.  All  officers  below  the  rank  of  Rear-Admiral  are 
entitled  to  10  per  cent,  increase  upon  the  full  yearly  pay  of  their  grades  for  each  and  every 
period  of  five  years'  service  as  "longevity  pay"  provided  that  the  total  amount  of  such  increase 
shall  not  exceed  40  per  cent,  upon  the  full  yearly  pay  of  their  grade.  All  officers  receive  10 
per  cent,  additional  for  sea  duty,  or  shore  duty  beyond  continental  limits  of  the  United  States, 
except  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii. 


416 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SHIPS     DATA,  U.  S.  NAVAL  VESSELS. 


Fit  for  service,  including  those  under 

repair. 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Type. 

1 

■1 

a 

3 

1 

^*^ 

f 

1 

1^ 

1 

ll 

ft 

1 

1^ 

First-class  battleships . . 

16 

Tons. 
198, 250 

22 

Tons. 
292, 146 

25 

Tom. 
334, 146 

25 

Tons. 
334, 146 

29 

Tov^. 
406,146 

29 

Tons. 
406,146 

Second-class  battleship. 

1 

6,315 

1 

6,315 

1 

6,315 

1 

6,315 

1 

6,315 
140,080 

Armored  cruisers 

4 

54,720 

6 

83,720 

9 

125,580 

10 

140,080 

10 

10 

140,080 

First-class  cruisers 

3 

27,065 

5 

46,465 

5 

46,465 

5 

46,465 

5 

46,465 

5 

46,466 

1 

2,183 
12,900 

1 

2,183 

1 

2,183 

1 

2,183 
12,900 

Single-turret  monitors.. 

4 

4 

12,900 

4 

12,900 

4 

4 

12.900 

4 

12,900 

Double-turret  monitors . 

6 

26, 104 

6 

26, 104 

6 

26, 104 

6 

26, 104 

6 

26, 104 

6 

26,104 

Protected  cruisers 

19 

76,070 

19 

76,070 

19 

76,070 

18 

71,987 

18 

71,987 

17 

67,574 

Unprotected  cruisers . . . 

3 

6,216 

3 

6,216 

3 

6,216 

3 

6,216 

3 

6,216 

2 

4,144 

Scout  cruisers 

? 

7,500 

s 

11,250 
11,564 
4,155 

^ 

11,250 
10,387 
4,155 

^ 

11,250 
8,677 
4,155 

O^mbo*vt-s 

q 

11,564 
4,155 

0 

11,564 
4,155 

q 

11,564 
4,155 

0 

9 

7 

Light-draft  gunboats. . . 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Composite  gunboats 

8 

8,190 

8 

8,190 

8 

8,190 

8 

8,190 

8 

8,190 

8 

8,190 

Training  ship,  sheathed . 
Training  ships,  steel.... 

1 

1  175 

1 

1,175 

1 

1,175 

1 

1,175 
3,600 

0 

3,600 

? 

3,600 

? 

? 

3,600 

? 

3,600 
346 

Training  brigantine . . . . 

•*i 

346 

1 

346 

1 

346 

1 

346 

1 

346 

1 

Special  class  . 

o 

2,416 
3  603 

2 

2,416 

3,265 
6,695 

0 

2,416 

0 

2,416 

3,095 
6,695 

9 

2,416 

3,095 
10, 195 

2 

2,416 

2,439 
19,099 

Gunboats    under    500 
tons 

T) 

1? 

P 

3,095 

T> 

l*' 

q 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 

16 

6,695 

16 

16 

6,095 

16 

21 

33 

Steel  torpedo  boats 

35 

5,737 

35 

5,737 

35 

5,737 

33 

5,299 

33 

5,299 

31 

5,111 

Wooden  torpedo  boats. 

Submarine    torpedo 
boats 

1 

31 

1 

31 

1 

31 

1 

31 

1 

31 

S 

935 

8 

935 

1? 

1,719 

n 

1,719 
3,056 

18 

3,485 
3,056 

18 

3,748 

Iron  steam  vessels 

5 

5,861 

4 

3,606 

3 

3,056 

3 

3 

3 

3,056 

Wooden  steam  vessels.. 

5 

8,840 

5 

8,840 

5 

8,840 

5 

8,840 

3 

5,565 

3 

5,565 

Wooden  sailing  vessels. 

8 

10,045 

8 

10,045 

5 

5,895 

5 

5,895 

5 

5,895 

4 

5,620 

Tugs. 

41 

13,060 
28,339 

40 

12,703 
28,339 

41 

13,606 

4' 

14,361 

43 

»  15,013 
24,959 

44 

»  15,713 

Auxiliary  cruisers 

5 

5 

4 

24,959 

24,959 

4 

4 

24,959 

Converted  yachts 

23 

11,881 

23 

11,872 

22 

11,750 

21 

11,453 

19 

10,421 

18 

.10,106 

CJolUers 

15 

«  74, 854 

15 

«  74, 854 

15 

2  74,854 

15 

2  74,854 

20 

«  135, 417 

20 

«  150, 462 

Submarine  tenders 

1 

357 

2 

807 

2 

807 

4 

4,702 

5 

6,771 

Mine-laying  ship. . 

1 

4,083 
3,380 

1 

4,083 
3.380 

1 

4,083 

Repair  ship ,     .. 

1 

3,380 

1 

1 

1 

3,38a 

Excepting  Locust. 


3  Excepting  Justin. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


417 


ships'  data,  u.  s.  navad  vessels. 


Type. 


Transports  and  supply 
ships 


Hospital  ships.., 
Receiving  ships. 
Prison  ships 


Total. 


Fit  for  service,  Including  those  imder  repair. 


1906 


I  Tons. 
11  I  53,247 


3,300 
18,995 
»4,850 


1907 


11 


Tons. 
50, 571 

3,300 

21,250 

14,850 


1908 


Tons. 
50,084 

3,300 

21,250 

14,850 


.2  fl 


276  1687,942  1285  1830,815   292  918,833 


Tons.. 
44,384 

9,000 

18, 995 

1  7, 105 


1910 


292   937,103  j308 


ft 


Tons. 
44,384 

9,000 

18, 995 

2  4,005 


1,067,537 


1911 


ft" 


Tons. 
44,384 

9,000 

23,408 

2  4,005 


312  ;  1,082,956 


Under  construction. 

Type. 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Number. 

Displace- 
ment. 

1 
1 

l| 

ft 

1 

ga 

1 

S2; 

Displace- 
ment. 

1 

ll 

..a 

1 

Displace- 
ment. 

First-class  battleships . . 
Armored  cruisers 

9 
2 

Tons. 
135,896 

85,360 
10  don 

5 
4 

Tons. 
74,000 

56,360 

4 
1 

Tons. 
72,000 

ij  r.nf> 

0 

Tons. 
115,650 

4 

Tons. 
95,650 

6 

Tons. 
149,650 

....!        .  .1.... 

Scout  cruisers 

3'    11,250 
2  1    3,600 

3 

11,250 

.... 
1 

3, 750 

■            i  .. 

Training  ships,  steel 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 

Submarine    torpedo 
boats :...... 

1 1 

{ 



5 

7 
2 
2 

3,  500 

2,103 

1,510 

25, 170 

20 

16 

1 
6 

14, 630 

5,890 

755 

78,220 

15 
10 

11,130 
4, 124 

9 

6,678 

4  j        784 

1 

4 
2 
2 

784 

1,510 

25, 170 

7,732 

Tugs 

Colliers^. 

2 

38,735 

2 

38,735 

26 

Total 

256,290 

20 

169,074 

22 

122,533 

49 

215,145 

31 

149,639 

34 

202, 795 

Includes  Southery. 


;2  Excepting  Southery., 


418 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


419 


Courtesy  of  "  The  Illustraied  London  News." 

THE   CONNING   TOWER  SECTION   OF  A    "SUPER-DREADNOUGHT.' 


420 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


•ItratnaidinoQ 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.  421 


Courtesy  of  "  The  Illustrated  London  News." 

THE  BOILER-ROOM  SECTION  OF  A  "SUPER- DREADNOUGHT.' 

Nofe  the  Water-Tube  Boilers. 


422 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


423 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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CO 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


42b 


^l^.J 


L  NGLAND 
1,934,502    TONS 


UNITED   STATES 
759,050     TONS 


GERMANY 
744,719  TONS 


FRANCE 
642,810  TONS 


I 


I 


IMi 


JAPAN 
4  2I.S34   TONS 


GERMANY 
133,9/0  LBS 


RELATIVE  TOTAL   DISPLACEM  ENT  Of  ALL  SHIPS   IN  EACH  NAVY 
SHOWN  BY  RELATIVE  WATEIff  LINE  LENGTHS 


UNITED  STATES 
208,153  LBS. 


n  TOTAL  BROAOSIUEOFPSIMARVSUNS 
IfS  AMD  ARMOURED  CRUISERS  OF  GEK 
TLO  STATES         SHOWN  BY  IfELATIVE 


\Ht>   PROJECTILES 


Copyright  1911,   Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

GRAPHIC   COMPARISON    OF    THE    RELATIVE    STRENGTH    OF    THE 

WORLD'S  NAVIES. 

The  greater  gun  power  of  the  U.  S.  Navy  as  compared  with  that  of  Germany  is  due  to  our 
pre-Dreadnought  ships  carrying  heavier  guns  in  the  main  batteries.  Future  sea-fights  will  be 
fought  with  Dreadnoughts.  At  the  present  rate  of  construction,  Germany,  in  1917,  will  possess 
twice  as  many  Dreadnoughts  as  the  United  States. 


NAVY  DEPARTMENT. 


The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  performs  such 
duties  as  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
who  is  Commander  in  Chief,  may  assign  him, 
and  has  the  general  superintendence  of  con- 
struction, manning,  armament,  equipment, 
and  employment  of  vessels  of  war.  He  is 
assisted  by  the  Assistant  Secretary  and  the 
Chief  Clerk.  There  are  also  various  bureaus 
under  his  supervision,  the  principal  duties  of 
which  are  as  follows: 

Bureau  of  Navigation. — Has  supervision 
and  control  of  the  Naval  Academy  and  the 
education  and  training  of  line  officers  and 
enlisted  men.  It  establishes  the  comple- 
ments of  all  ships  in  commission. 

Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks. — Its  duties 
comprise  all  that  relates  to  the  design  and 
construction  of  docks  (including  dry-docks), 
ships,  wharves,  piers,  quay  walls  and  the 
maintenance  of  same.     It  has  charge  of  the 


construction,  repair,  maintenance  and  oper- 
ation of  power  plants  at  navy  yards. 

Bureau  of  Ordnance. — Its  duties  comprise 
all  that  relates  to  the  torpedo  station,  naval 
proving  ground,  and  magazines  on  shore,  to 
the  manufacture  of  offensive  and  defensive 
arms  and  apparatus,  all  ammunition  and  war 
explosives. 

Bureau  of  Construction  and  Repair. — Its 
duties  comprise  the  responsibility  for  the 
structural  strength  and  stability  of  all  ships 
built  for  the  Navy. 

Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering. — Its  duties 
comprise  all  that  relates  to  designing,  build-=' 
ing,  fitting  out,  and  repairing  machinery  used 
for  the  propulsion  of  naval  ships. 

The  duties  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  and  Bureau  of  Supplies  and  Ac- 
counts are  apparent  by  their  names. 


426 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LIST  OF  SHIPS  OF  THE  UNITED  STAl'ES  NAVY. 
CRUISERS,  FIRST  CLASS. 


Name. 


Brooklyn  a. 
Charleston  a 
Milwaukee. 

Saratoga  a.. 
St..  Louis... 


Dimensions. 

Vi 

a' 

<A 

^ 

Net 

a 

Dis- 

tonnage 

Draft 

§ 

rj< 

Date 

place- 

for 

Length 

Beam 

aft  at 

X3 
3 

11 

author- 

ment, 

Suez 

on 

on 

de- 

a 

,    o 

=«3 

ized. 

Canal. 

L.W. 

L.  W. 

signed 

rd 

o 

L. 

L. 

full 

1 

^ 

G 

7S2 

load. 

3 

3 

§« 

O 

O 

u 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  in. 

Knots. 

Tons. 

9,215 

3,368 

400    6 

64    8 

26    6 

21.91 

20 

12 

6  1,350 

July  92 

9,700 

424    0 

66    0 

24  10 

22.04 

14 

22 

M,776 

June  00 

9,700 

c3,46i 

424    0 

m.  0 

24  10 

22.22 

14 

22 

M,704 

...do.... 

8,150 

2,838 

380    6 

64  10 

26    4 

21.00 

14 

12 

b 1,075 

Sept.  88 

9.700 

424    0 

66    0 

24  10 

22.13 

14 

22 

6  1,757 

June  00 

CRUISERS,  SECOND  CLASS. 


Baltimore... 
Chicago  o..^. 

Columbia 

Minneapolis  o 

Newark  a 

Olympiao... 


4,413 
4,500 

1,706 
c  1,560 

327    6 
325    0 

48    7J 
48    4.i 

24    5 
22    0 

20.10 
dlS.OO 

12 
18 

4 
9 

1,079 
6  850 

Aug.  86 
Mar.    83 

7,350 
7,350 
4,083 
5,865 

2,536 

2,537 

cl,438 

c  1,896 

411    7 
411    7 
311    5 
340    0 

58    2  ■ 
58    2 
49    2 
53    Oi 

24    6 

24  6 
22    4 

25  0 

22.80 
23.07 
dl9.00 
21.69 

11 
11 
12 
14 

12 
12 
6 
4 

« 1,525 

« 1,400 

«S0O 

e 1,000 

June  90 
Mar.  91 
Mar.  85 
Sept.   88 

CRUISERS,  THIRD   CLASS. 


Albanj* 

Birmingham 

Boston 

Chattanooga . 

Chester 

Cincinnati... 
Cleveland . . . 

Denver 

Des  Moines.. 
Galveston. . . 
Marblehead . 
New  Orleans 

Raleigh 

Salem 

Tacoma 


3,430 
3,750 
3^0 
3,200 
3,750 
3,183 
3,200 
3,200 
3,200 
3,200 
2,072 
3,430 
3,183 
3,750 
3,200 


cl,121 
c'i'286 


C934 
'i,'566 


C626 

cl,130 

C934 


1,554 


346  0 

420  0 

277  5 

292  0 

420  0 

300  0 

292  0 

292  0 

292  0 

292  0 

257  0 

346  0 

300  0 

420'  0 

292  0 


42  0 
44  0 
44  0 
44  0 
44  0 
37  0 

43  9 
42  0 


19  1 
18    9 

20  10 

17  0 

18  9 


17    0 
16    3 


17    0 


20.52 
24.33 
15.60 
16.05 
26.52 
19.91 
10.45 
16.75 
16. 65 
16.41 
18.44 
(^20. 00 
21.12 
25.92 
16.58 


e821 
1,400 
6  428 
e733 
1,375 
e712 
C120 
«710 
«700 
e724 
6  346 
C750 
e698 
1,400 
e710 


Apr.  04 

Mar.  83 

Mar.  99 

A  pr.  04 

Sept.  88 

Mar.  99 

Mar.  99 

Mar.  99 

Mar.  99 

Sept.  88 


Sept.  88 
Apr.  04 
Mar.    99 


MONITORS. 


Amphitrite... 
Cheyenne 

Miantonomoh 
Monadnoek . . 

Monterey 

Ozark 

Puritan 

Tallahassee... 

Terror 

TonopahA... 


3,990 
3,225 

3,990 
3,990 
4,084 
3,225 


3,225 
3,990 
3,225 


C840 


2.50  3 

252  0 

260  3 

258  6 

256  0 

252  0 


290  3 

252  0 

258  8 

252  0 


55  4 

55  5 

59  Oi 

SO  0 


60  IJ 

50  0 

55  6 

50  0 


14  8 

13  3 

15  0 

14  8 
IB  4 
13  3 


10.50 
11.80 

10. 50 
11.63 
13.60 
12.03 

12.40 
12.40 
10.50 
13.04 


6  271 
6^129 

6  250 

6  386 

6  206 

344 

6  306 

6  355 

276 

6  338 


Aug.   86 
May    98 

Aug.  86 

Aug.  86 

Mar.  87 

May  98 

Aug.  86 

May  98 

Aug.  86 

May  98 


a  Fitted  as  a  flagship. 

6  To  6  inches  below  beam. 

c  Subject  to  possible  change. 


d  Estimated.  g  Also  60,816  gallons  fuel  oil. 

e  Capacity  to  bottom  of  beams.  |  h  Acting  as  submarine  tender, 
/  Two  torpedo  tubes. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


427 


Courtesy  of  "  The  Illustrated  London  News." 

THE  ENGINE  SECTION  OF  A  TURBINE  DRIVEN  "  SUPER-DREADNOUGHT. 


428 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DESTROYERS. 


Name. 


Dis- 
place- 
ment. 


Net 

tonnage 

for 

Suez 

Canal. 


Dimensions. 


Length 

on 
L.  W. 

L.  ' 


Beam 

on 
L.W. 

L. 


Draft 
aft  at 

de- 
signed 

full 
load. 


o 


Amroen 

Bainbridge. 
Barry.. — 

Beale.. 

Burrows... 
Chauncey.. 

Dale 

Decatur 

Drayton... 
Fanning... 

Flusser 

Henley 

Hopkms... 


Hull 

Jarvis 

Jenkins... 

Jouett 

Lamson... 
Lawrence. 


Macdpnough. 


Mayrant... 

McCall 

Monaghan. 
Patterson . . 
Paulding... 
Paul  Jones. 
Perkins,... 
Perry 


Preble 

Preston..... 

Reid 

Boe 

Smith 

Sterett 

Stewart 

Terry 

Trippe 

Truxtun 

Walke 

Warrington. 
Whipple.... 
Worden 


Tons. 
742 
420 
420 
742 
742 
420 
420 
420 
,742 
742 
700 
742 
'408 

408 
742 
742 
742 
700 
400 

400 

742 
742 
742 
742 
742 
420 
742 
420 

420 
700 
700 
742 
700 
742 
420 
742 
742 
433 
742 
742 
433 
433 


Tons. 


229 
229 


229 
229 
229 


Ft.  in. 

289  0 

245  0 

245  0 

2S9  0 

289  0 

245  0 

245  0 

245  0 

289  0 

289  0 

2S9  0 

289  0 

238  9 

238 


Ft. 

in. 

26 

U 

23 

1 

23 

1 

26 

U 

26 

1^ 

9 
0 
0 

289  0 
289  0 
240  7 


289 


240 

289 
289 
289 
289 
289 
245 
289 
245 


245  0 

289  0 

289  0 

289  0 

289  0 

289  0 

245  0 

289  0 

289  0 

248  0 

289  0 

289  0 

248  0 

248  0 


23  1 

23  1 

23  1 

26  1| 

26  Vi 

26  0 

26  U 

23  li 

23  li 

26  li 

26  li 

26  H 

26  0 

22  2i 

22  2i 

26  IJ 

26  .  li 

26  li 

26  li 

26  1% 

23  1 
26  li 
23  1 

23  1 

26  0 

26  iO 

26  li 

28  0 

26  li 

23  1 

26  li 

26  li 

22  3i 

.26  li 

26  li 

22  3i 

22  3i 


Ft.  in. 

9  5 

9  4 

9  4 

9  5 

9  5 

9  4 

9  2 

9  2 

9  6 

9  5 

10  0 

9  5 

10  5 


Knots. 
30.48 
28. 45 
28.13 
29.65 
30.67 
28.64 
28.00 
28.10 
30.83 
29.99 
30.41 


29.02 


28.04 


10 


9    5 

9  5 
9  5 
9  5 
9  5 
9  6 
8  11 
10  1 
8  11 

8  11 
10  11 
10  0 
10  11 
10  7 
10    1 

9  2 
10  11 

9  5 
9  10 
9  5 
9  5 
9  10 
9  10 


31.27 
32.27 
28.61 
28.41 

28.03 

30.22 
30.66 
30.45 
29.69 
32.80 
28.91 
29.76 
28.32 

28.03 
29.18 
31.82 
29.60 
28.35 
30. 37 
29.69 
30.24 
30.89 
29.58 
29.78 
30.12 
28.24 
29.86 


Tons. 
«67,855 

dim 

dim 

«65,974 

e70, 176 

dim 

dl74 

d!174 

«70,500 

e65,974 

303 

«6S,4S7 

143 

143 

«65,974 
f 65, 974 

'65,974 

284 

dl08 

d'108 

e73,583 
e70,575 
«70.074 
e71,457 
e70,580 
168 
e73.8]5 
dl68 

tfl68 

d271 

d303 

«70.074 

ci286 

e73,815 

dl72 

e70,074 

e70,580 

dl73 

e67,817 

e73,583 

dl73 

dl73 


a  Subject  to  possible  change. 

6  Twin  IS-inch  Whitehead  torpedo  tubes  (long). 

c  Eighteen-inch  Whitehead  torpedo  tubes  (long). 


<i  Capacity  to  6  inches  below  beams. 
<  Oil  fuel,  gallons. 


TENDERS  TO  TORPEDO  VESSELS. 


Alert 

Tons. 
1,110 
1,177 

6,114 
0  6,100 
1,000 
3,085 
1,175 

Tons. 
6  713 
6  398 

6  3,074 
6  1,923 

Ft.  in. 
177    4 
204    0 

391    6 
310    6 
216    0 
245    0 
175    0 

Ft.  in. 
32    0 

32  li 

48    3 
39    0 
37    0 

33  6 
37    0 

Ft.  in. 
13     0 
12      0 

19    11 
24      0 
16      6 

15  10 

16  6 

Knots. 
10.00 
16.03 

a  14. 50 
10.00 

6 

4 

Tons. 
197 
210 

1,075 

'300 

168 

200 

Castine 

Dixie 

Iris 

12 

Mohican 

4 

Pompev 

io.so 

(c). 

Sevecn 

6  865 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


429 


TORPEDO  BOATS. 


Name. 


Dis- 
place- 
ment, 


Net 
tonnage 

for 
Suez 
Canal. 


Length 


Beam 

ex- 
treme. 


■a^ 


■i>&te 
author- 
Ized. 


Bagley.. 

BaQey.. 
Barney. 
Biddle.. 
Blakely . 


Craven.... 

Dahlgren. 

Davis 

DeLong.. 


Dupont.. 
Parragut. 
Foote 


Fox 

Ooldsborough. 


Mackenzie.. 
Manly 

Morris 

Rodgere.... 

Shubrick... 

Somers 

Stockton. . . 

Stringham. 

Thornton.. 

Tingey 

Wilkes 


Tons. 

175 


Tons. 


Ft.  in. 
17    7i 


16  4J 
15  4 

17  9 

17  8i 


Ft.  in. 
i    U 


4  7 

5  10 

5  11 

4  8 

6  0 

5  0 


30.20 
29.04 
28.57 
25.58 


30.00 
23.41 
25.52 


30.13 
24.53 


24.00 
24.49 
26.07 


25.33 
24.88 


Tons. 


May  98 

Mar.  97 
May  98 

..do 

..do 


..do 

..do 

May   98 


Mar.  95 

June  96 

July  94 

June  96 
Mar.  97 

June  96 

..do.... 


June  96 
July  94 
May  98 


May  98 

Mar.  97. 
May  98 


.do. 


Subject  to  possible  change. 


abject 
stimat 


e  E  ighteen-lnch  Whitehead  torpedo  tubes. 

<*  Eighteen-inch  Whitehead  torpedo  tubes  (long), 


SUBMARINES. 


A-l.. 
A-2.. 
A-^.. . 
A-4.. 
A-5.. 
A-6.. 
A-7.. 
B-1.. 
■B-2.. 
B-3,. 
C-1.. 
C-2.. 
C-3.. 
C-4.. 
C-5.. 
D-1. 
D-2. 
D-3. 
E-1.. 
E-2., 
F-1.. 
F-2.. 
F-3.. 
G-1. 


Date  authorized. 


March,  1899. 
June,  1900... 

do 

....do 

do 

do 

do 

April,  1904.. 

do 

do 

do 

June,  1906... 
do 


May  13, 1908. 

do 

....do'. 

....do 

....do 

....do 


4Sd 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOKT. 


GUNBOATS. 


Name. 


Dis- 
place- 
ment. 


Net  ton- 
nage for 
Suez 
Canal. 


Dimensions 

_ 

-§ 

1 

s 

Length 

Draft 

aft  at 

de- 

Speed. 

1 

Coal  ca- 
pacity 
bun- 

on 
L.  W.  L. 

Beam. 

o 

3 

kers. 

load. 

3 
o 

C5 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  in. 

Knots. 

Tons.  • 

168    0 

36    0 

12    9 

13.17 

6 

230 

115    3 

17  10 

7    6 

6  10.00 

6 

33 

230    0 

36    0 

16    3 

16.80 

4 

4 

354 

240    0 

32    0 

17    0 

15.50 

2 

5 

265 

210    0 

32    0 

15    8 

12.20 

2 

clO 

204  , 

174    0 

35    0 

13    4 

12.90 

6 

6 

246 

157  11 

26    0 

12    0 

6  11.00 

4 

94 

250    9 

39    8 

10    0 

15.50 

8 

c4 

300 

192  10 

30      Ir 

12    0 

11.23 

4 

c6 

159 

204    0 

32  i;. 

13    7 

15.46 

8 

4 

261 

174    0 

34    0 

12  10 

13.02 

6 

6 

229 

220    0 

38    li 

12    7 

16.30 

8 

6 

363 

168    0 

36    0 

12    9 

12.29 

224 

174    0 

35    0 

13    4 

12.85 

6 

6 

d236 

115    3 

17  10 

7    6 

&10.00 

6 

33 

94  10 

17    3 

7    6 

68.00 

.... 

3 

20 

181    4 

31    0 

12  10 

11.40 

4 

193 

168    0 

36    0 

12    9 

10.64 

6 

226 

137    9 

22    9 

9    3 

6  11.00 

4 

78 

177    4 

32    0 

10.00 

178 

115    3 

17  10 

7    6 

6  10.50 

6 

33 

110    0 

15    6 

6  10 

6  8.00 

3 

16 

168    0 

36    0 

12    9 

12.71 

6 

243 

148    0 

23    0 

9    0 

6  11.00 

6 

65 

174    0 

34    0 

12  10 

12.88 

6 

f> 

d250 

250    9 

39    8 

10    0 

15. 08 

8 

4 

300 

230    0 

36    0 

le   3 

16. 14 

6 

8 

341 

Annapolis 

Callao 

Concord 

Dolphin 

Don  Juan  de  Aus- 
tria. 

Dubuque 

Elcano 

Helena 

Islade  Luzon 

Macliias 

Marietta 

Nashville 

Newport 

Paducah 

Fampanga 

Panay 

Petrel 

Princeton 

Quiros 

Ranger 

Saraar 

Sandoval 

Vicksburg 

Villalobos 

Wheeling 

Wilmington 

Yorktown 


Tons. 

1,010 

243 

1,710 

1,486 
1,130 

1,085 
620 
1,392 
1,030 
1,177 
990 
1,371 
1,010 


243 
170 
890 

1,010 
350 

1,261 

243 

100 

1,010 

370 

990 

1,392 

1.710 


Tons. 
a  560 


0  481 
0  447 


568 


a  921 
0  314 
0  398 
o532 
0  756 
O560 

568 


362 
O560 


518 
0  921 
0  482 


TRANSPORTS. 


Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net 
tonnage 
for  Suez 
Canal. 

Dimensions. 

Speed. 

XI 

a  c 

S3  . 

3 

Coal  ca- 
pacity 
bun- 
kers 
(maxi- 
mum). 

Carrying 
capacity. 

Name. 

Length 

on 
L.W.  L. 

Beam. 

Mean 
draft. 

S2 
S 

e 

o 

Buffalo       

Tons. 
6,000 

1,115 

6  8,500 

6,620 

4,360 

Tom. 

Ft.  in. 
«391    6 

212    6 
/450    2 
«391    6 

326    0 

Ft.  in. 
48    3 

29    9 

45    4 

48    3 

41    0 

Ft.  in. 

19  5 

11    0 
24    3 

20  9 
17    2 

Knots. 
6  14.5 

10.5 

6  14.5 
6  12.0 

6 
2 

6 
2 

15 

12 

Tons. 
1,375 

240 

2,428 

1,300 

1,139 

29 
15 

23 
25 

800 
200 
192 
750 
600 



Hancock 

Prairie 

Rainbow 

o2,254 

a  Subject  to  possible  change. 

6  Estimated. 

c  Added  temporarily,  two  3-piounders,  R.  F. 


d  Capacity  to  bottom  of  beams. 

«Fore  side  of  stem  to  center  rudder  stock. 

/  Between  perpendiculars. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


431 


GUN  TURRET 


lUNITION  FROM  MACA7'wes 
fHE  REVOLVINO  or  rME  0UN5 


Courtesy    of    "The    Illustrated   London  News." 

THE  GUN  SECTION  OF  A  "SUPER-DREADNOUGHT.' 


432 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUPPLY  SHIPS. 


Name. 


Dis- 
place- 
ment. 


Net 

tonnage 

for 

Suez 

Canal. 


Dimensions. 


Length 

on 
L.W.L. 


Beam. 


Mean 
draft. 


Speed. 


§1 


Coalca- 
jpacity 
bun- 
kers 
(maxi- 
mum). 


Cargo 
capac- 
ity. 


Celtic. 
Culgoa. 
Glacier 
Supply 


Tons. 
8,000 
6,000 
8,325 
4,325 


Tons. 
"*2,'485' 
'V2'692" 


Ft.  in. 
369  8 
334  4 
353  0 
342    7 


Ft.  in. 
44  7 
43  0 
46  1 
43    4 


Ft.  in. 

24  1 
21    9 

25  4 
19    5 


Knots. 

a  10. 5 
13.25 
12.5 


Tons. 
739 
957 
917 

1,029 


Tons. 


HOSPITAL  SHIPS. 


Namd. 


Dis- 
place- 
ment. 


Net 

tonnage 

for 

Suez 

Canal. 


Dimensions. 


Length 

on 
L.  W.  L. 


Beam. 


Mean 
draft. 


^ 

• 

^ 

Capacity 

03 

Coal  ca- 

for 

T3  ^ 

pacity 

patients. 

Speed. 

CO.S 

bun- 
kers 
(maxi- 

1 

S 

mum). 

§3 

o 

^ 

S 

Knots. 

Tons. 

a  15.0 

607 

15 

200 

a  15.0 

1,000 

9 

234 

Relief. 
Solace. 


Tons. 
3,300 


5,700 


Tons. 


Ft.  in. 
299    2 


361    2 


Ft.  in. 
46    0 


44    0 


Ft.  in. 
15  10 


22    0 


FUEL  SHIPS. 


Name. 


Abarenda. 
Ajax 


Alexander, 
Arethusa.. 

Brutus 

Caesar 

Cyclops.... 
Hannibal.. 


Hector. 


Justin 

Leonidas. 


Mars 

Na.nshan 

NeptK'ne 

Nero.. 

Orion..  

Prometiieus. 

Saturn 

Sterling.  ,... 
Vulcan 


Dis- 
place- 
ment. 


Tons. 
6,705 
9,250 

6,181 
6, 1.59 
6,600 
5,920 
19, 360 
4,000 


11,230 
4,950 
19,531 
6,360 
19. 132 
12,585 
/6,220 
/5,663 
11, 230 


Net 
ton- 
nage 
for 
Suez 
Canal. 


Tons. 
2,433 


'2,314 
2,072 
7,055 


3,902 


' 2, 204 
'4,'356' 


3,902 


Dimensions. 


Length 
over  all. 


Ft.  in. 

325  6 

387  6 

343  3 

332  0 

332  6 

322  1 

542  0 

274  1 


403     0 


287  6 

273  11 

403  0 

300  0 

542  0 

320  0 

536  0 

465  9 

297  1 

284  0 

403  0 


Beam. 


Ft.  in. 
42    0| 


43  0 

42  2 
41  6 

43  11 
c65  0 

39  3 

C53  0 

39  0 

39  2i 


draft, 
loaded 


Ft.  in. 

22  10 
24  8 

23  0 
20  11 

23  1 
19  7 
27  8 
17  7 

24  8 

19  8 

17  7 

24  8 


Speed. 


Knots. 
O9.00 
a  10. 00 

a  8. 75 
a  10. 00 
a  10. 00 
a  10. 00 
14.61 
9.00 

12.87 


8.5 

12.65 
10.5 
12.93 
0  9.00 
al4.00 
a  16.  00 
11.00 
11.00 
12.82 


Knots. 
9.5 
11.00 


11.00 


Capacity. 


Tons. 
813 
500 

800 
6S5 
547 
761 
2,233 
480 

818 

167 
200 


400 
2,000 

300 
2,000 
1,576 
P386 

469 

818 


Tons. 
3,400 
5,000 

4,200 
{") 
4,000 
3,156 
«10, 457 
2,300 


2.900 
2,200 

8,128 
2,900 

<10,500 
3,500 

A10,500 
6,410 
2,400 
2,672 
8,128 


«  EstimaiW. 

«*  Subject  .W  possible  change. 

c  Molded. 


d  1,085,000  gallons  fuel  oil. 
e  Also  375,000  gallons  fuel  oil, 
/  Approximate. 


g  Capacity  to  bottom  beams. 
A  Also  773,731  gallons  fuel  oil. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


433 


LIST  OF  SHIPS  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 
UNDER  CONSTRUCTION  AUGUST   1.  1913. 


Name. 

Displace- 
ment! 
(tons). 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.  H.  P. 

Propulsion. 

Guns 

(main 

battery). 

Place  where  building. 

NewYvk 

Texdft, 

27,000 

27.000 

o2    500 

a2(,500 

31,400 

31,400 

1.020 

1,020 

1,072 

1,014 

1,036 

1,036 

1,036 

1,036 

1,050 

1,050 

1,050 

1,020 

1,050 

1,090 

19,000 

14,500 

14,500 

Battleship 

Destroyer 

Fueiship.;:::::: 

Gunboat.. ".';;r.; 

•  S. 
S. 
8. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 

i: 

8. 

s! 

8. 
8. 
8. 
8. 
8. 
8. 
8. 
8. 
8. 

32,000 
32,000 
o24,800 
o24,800 
031,500 
o31,500 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
17,000 
17,000 
17,000 
17,000 
17,000 
17,000 

T.  8. 

T.  S. 

T.S. 

T.  S. 
4  screws 
4  screws 

T..S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

.T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

T.S. 

31 

31 

31 

31 

34 

34 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

•       4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Navy  yard.  New  York. 
Newport  News  Ship  Building  Co. 

Nevada 

Fore  River  Ship  Building  Co.,  Quincy,  Mass. 

Oklahoma 

Pennsylvania 

Battleship  No.  39. . 
Cassin 

New  York  Ship  Building  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J. 
Newport  News  Ship  Building  Co. 
Navy  Yard.  New  York, 
Bath  Iron  Works,  Bath,  Me. 

Curamings 

Downes 

Do. 
New  York  Ship  Building  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J. 
Fore  River  Ship  Building  Co.,  Quincy,  Mass. 

Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. 

Parker 

Do. 
Do. 

Batch 

Do. 

O'Brien 

Do. 

Nicholson 

WiBslow 

Do. 
Do. 

McDougal 

Bath  Iron  Works,  Bath,  Me. 
Fore  River  Ship  Building  CO. 

Ericsson 

New  York  Ship  Building  Co. 

Nereus.       .    .    . 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  Co. 

Kanawha 

Maumee 

05.200 

T.S. 
T.S. 

Navy  Yard,  Mare  Island. 

Palos 

Do. 

Sacramento 

Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. 

„ 

Navy  Yard.  Mare  Island. 

Fulton 

Submarine  tender. 

New  London  S.  &  E.  Building  Co. 

G-2 

Newport  News  Ship  Building  Co. 

G-3 

,1 

Lake  Torpedo  Boat  Co.,  Bridgeport,  Ccnn. 

G-4...:         ..,.. 

1, 

Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. 

H-1. 

,1 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco. 

H-2 

u 

Do. 

H-3 

II 

Seattle  Construction  &  Dry  Dock  Co. 

K-1 

II 

Fore  River  Ship  Building  Co.,  Quincy,  Mass. 

K-2 

II 

Do. 

II 

K-4     w 

II 

Seattle  Construction  &  Dry  Dock  Co. 

K-5  

II 

Fore  River  Ship  Building  Co.,  Quincy,  Mass. 

K-6 

II 

Do. 

K  7 

II 

Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco. 

K-8 

a, 

Do. 

L-i     

II 

Fore  River  Ship  Building  Co. 

lr-2 

11 

Do. 

L-3..., 

II 

Do. 

L-4 

II 

Do. 

L-5 

II 

Lake  Torpedo  Boat  Co.,  Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Craig  Ship  Building  Co.,  Long  Beach,  Cal. 

L-6 

II 

L-7 

II 

Do. 

11 

7,150 
3.580 

Destroyer  Tender 
Submarine  Tender 

8. 
8. 

I 
1 

8 

New  York  Ship  Building  Co. 

Bushnell 

Seattle  Construction  &  Dry  Dock  Co. 

Copyright,  1913,  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


oEstimated. 


This  tabls  is  of  August  1,  1913;  changes  are  constantly  occurring.  Thus  the  "Arkansas" 
was  turned  over  to  the  Navy  Department  on  August  29,  1912.  The  "Jouett"  made  33.7 
knots  and  is  the  fastest  boat  in  the  Navy. 


The  active  list  of  the  Navy,  January  1,  1913,  comprised  1,791  commissioned  and  452 
warrant  officers,  not  including  870  Midshipmen  of  the  Naval  Academy.  There  were  496 
commissioned  and  122  warrant  officers  on  the  retired  list.  The  enlisted  strength  allowed  by 
law  is  51.500  men  and  apprentice  seamen. 


434 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


UNITED  STATES  MARINE  CORPS. 


The  United  States  Marine  Corps,  serving 
generally  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary 
of  War,  is  an  independent  branch  of  the 
military  service  of  the  United  States. .  The 
corps  may  be  detached  by  order  of  the  Presi- 
dent for  service  with  the  army  but  its  prin- 
cipal duties  are  in  connection  with  the  navy 
as  follows:  To  garrison  the  different  navy 
yards  and  naval  stations,  both  within  and 
beyond  the  continental  limits  of  the  United 
States;  to  furnish  the  first  line  of  mobile 
defense  of  naval  bases  and  naval  stations 
beyond  the  continental  limits  of  the  United 
States;  to  man  such  naval  defenses,  and  to 
aid  in  manning,  if  necessary,  such  other 
defenses  as  may  be  erected  for  the  defense  of 
naval  bases  and  naval  stations  beyond  the 
continental  limits  of  the  United  States;  to 
garrison  the  Isthmian  Canal  Zone,  Panama; 
to  furnish  such  garrisons  and  expeditionary 
forces  for  duties  beyond  the  seas  as  may  be 
necessary  in  time  of  peace;   to  serve  on  board 


all  battleships  and  armored  cruisers  of  the 
navy,  and  such  other  vessels  as  may  be 
directed,  in  detachments  of  not  less  than  8 
per  cent,  of  the  strength  of  the  enlisted  men 
of  the  navy  on  said  vessels;  in  case  of  dis- 
turbances in  foreign  countries  marines  are 
landed  to  protect  American  interests. 

The  authorized  strength  of  the  Marine  Corps 
is  333  officers  and  9,521  enlisted  men.  On 
June  30,  1911,  there  were  330  officers  and 
9,454  enlisted  men  in  the  service.  The  term 
of  enlistment  in  the  Marine  Corps  is  four 
years  and  applicants  must  be  19  years  of  age 
and  not  over  35.  Minors  must  have  consent 
of  parents  or  guardian.  Apprentices  to 
learn  the  drum  and  trumpet  are  enlisted 
between  the  ages  of  15  and  17  with  the  con- 
sent of  parents  or  guardian  but  they  serve 
only  during  minority.  All  recruits  must  be 
able-bodied  and  of  good  character  and  after 
acceptance  are  sent  to  a  recruit  depot  for 
instruction  for  three  months. 


SUBMARINE  HELMET  FOR  THE  ESCAPE  OF  IMPRISONED  SAILORS  IN  SUB- 
MARINES WHICH  CANNOT  RISE   OR  WHICH  HAVE  BECOME  "HOLED." 
NOTE  THE  AIR  TRAP. 

SUBMARINE  DISASTERS. 


The  important  submarine  disasters  which 
have  resulted  in  the  loss  of  life  are: 

1904,  March  13 — British  submarine  "Al" 
sunk  by  collision  off  the  Isle  of  Wight,  Eng- 
land.    11  men  killed. 

1904,  June  2 — Russian  submarine  "Delfin" 
sank  at  her  moorings  in  the  Neva.  21  men 
drowned. 

1905,  February  10 — British  submarine"A5" 
blew  up  in  Queenstown  harbor.  4  men  killed 
and  7  seriously  injured. 

1905,  June  8— British  submarine  "A8" 
sank  in  Plymouth  Sound.      15  men  killed. 

1905,  July  6 — French  submarine  "Fafar- 
det"  filled  with  water  at  Bizerte,  Tunis,  and 
could  not  rise.      12  men  drowned. 

1906,  October  17 — French  submarine 
"Lutin"  sank  off  Bizerta  after  an  explosion. 
15'men  killed. 

1909,  April  26 — Explosion  aboard  the 
Italian  submersible  P'oca  in  the  Bay  of  Naples. 
8  men  killed. 

1909,  July  14— British  Submarine  "Cll" 
sunk  by  collision.     13  men  drowned. 


1909,  June  13 — Russian  submersible  "Kam- 
bala"  rammed  by  warship  off  Sebastopol.  15 
men  killed. 

1910,  May  26 — French  submarine  "Plu- 
viose"  struck  by  steamship.     28  men  killed. 

1910 — Japanese  submersible  "No.  6"  dived 
and  could  not  get  to  the  surface  again.  15 
men  killed 

1910,  August  6 — British  submarine  "Al" 
again  suffered  by  an  explosion  whch  mortally 
injured  7  men. 

1911,  January  18 — German  submersible 
"U3"  struck  on  the  bottom  of  the  harbor  of 
Kiel.  27  men  shot  to  the  surface  in  suits 
made  for  the  purpose.     Only  3  men   killed. 

1912,  February  2 — British  submersible  "A3" 
struck  by  ship  off  Isle  of  Wight.  14  men 
killed. 

1912,  June  8 — French  submarine  "\'ende- 
miare"  run  down  by  battleship  St.  Louis  and 
sunk.     23  men  killed. 

1912,  Oct.  4— British  submarine  "B2"run 
down  by  steamship  Amerika.     15  men  killed. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


435 


UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY. 


NOMINATION. 


The  students  of  the  Naval  Academy  are 
styled  midshipmen.  Two  midshipmen  are 
allowed  for  each  Senator,  Representative,  and 
Delegate  in  Congress,  two  for  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  five  each  year  from  the  United 
States  at  large.  The  appointments  from  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  five  each  year  at 
large  are  made  by  the  President.  One  mid- 
shipman is  allowed  from  Porto  Rico,  who 
must  be  a  native  of  that  island.  The  appoint- 
ment is  made  by  the  President,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  governor  of  Porto 
Rico.  After  June  30,  1913,  each  Senator, 
Representative,  and  Delegate  in  Congress  will 
be  allowed  to  appoint  but  one  midshipman 
instead  of  two. 

The  course  for  midshipmen  is  six  years — 
four  years  at  the  academy,  when  the  suc- 
ceeding appointment  is  made,  and  two  years 
at  sea,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  the 
examination  for  final  graduation  takes  place. 

Midshipmen  who  pass  the  examination  for 
final  graduation  are  appointed  to  fill  vacancies 


in  the  lower  grade  of  the  line  of  the  Navy; 
and  occasionally  to  fill  vacancies  in  the 
Marine  Corps  and  in  certain  of  the  staff  corps 
of  the  Navy. 

Candidates  allowed  for  congressional 
districts,  for  Territories,  and  for  the  District 
of  Columbia  must  be  actual  residents  of  the 
districts  or  Territories,  respectively,  from 
which  they  are  nominated.  All  candidates 
must  at  the  time  of  their  examination  for 
admission,  be  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and 
twenty  years.  A  candidate  is  eligible  for 
appointment  on  the  day  he  becomes  sixteen 
and  is  ineligible  on  the  day  he  becomes 
twenty  years  of  age. 

Candidates  are  required  to  be  of  good  moral 
character,  physically  sound,  well  formed,  and 
of  robust  constitution.  Attention  will  also 
be  paid  to  the  stature  of  the  candidate,  and 
no  one  manifestly  under  size  for  his  age  will 
be  received  at  the  academy. 

Full  information  in  pamphlet  form  can  be 
obtained  by  addressing  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  Washington,  D.  C. 


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FORWARD  TURRET  OF  THE  U.  S.  BATTLESHIP  "MINNESOTA." 

Above  -the  12-inch  guns  is  the  Morris  tube  and  mechanism  used  in  training  gun-pointers. 
NAVY  AND  NAVAL  MILITIA. 


At  present  there  are  23  States  and  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  supporting  Naval  Militia 
organizations  aggregating  a  force  of  615  of- 
ficers and  7,185  men,  a  total  of  7,800  militia- 
men, organized  under  the  laws  of  the  various 
States  bordering  upon  the  seas  and  upon  the 

COST  OF  SHIPS  OF  THE 
The  cost  of  some  of  the  ships  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  exclusive  of  the  cost  of  armor 
and  armament,  is  as  follows:  Armored  ships, 
"Arkansas,"  $4,694,680;  "Connecticut,"  $3,- 
989,990;  "Florida,"  $6,223,600;  "Kansas," 
$4,167,990;  "Louisiana,"  $3,989,990;  "Minne- 
sota,"   $4,112,715;    "Montana,"    $4,726,968; 


Great  Lakes.  The  actual  strength  of  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  Navy,  on  June  30,  1912,  was 
3,114  officers  and  46,651  enlisted  men,  a  total 
of  49,858.  In  the  Marine  Corps  on  June  30, 
1912  there  were  319  officers  and  9,567  men,  a 
total  of  9,886  men. 

UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 
"New  Hampshire,"  $7,792,000;  "Nevada" 
(building),  $10,714,000;  "North  Carolina," 
$4,726,968;  "North  Dakota,"  $4,380,565; 
"Oklahoma"  (building),  $10,714,000;  "Penn- 
sylvania" (building),  $7,402,400;  "Tennes- 
see," $4,726,968;  "Texas,"  $5,678,420;  "Ver- 
mont," $4,182,000;  "Washington,"  $4,726,- 
968;  "Wyoming,"  $4,673,700. 


436 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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Courtesy  of  "The  Illustrated  London  News. 


THE  STERN  SECTION  OF  A  "SUPER-DREADNOUGHT." 

Longitudin»l  above. — Transverse  below. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


AVIATION.* 

By  Dr.  A.  F.  Zahm. 


EVOLUTION  OF  AIR  CRAFT. 


The  science  of  aerial  locomotion 
divides  naturally  into  four  parts — two 
relating  to  aerostation,  or  the  science 
of  buoyant  air  ships ;  two  relating  to 
aviation,  or  the  science  of  flying  ma- 
chines. Each  of  these  main  branches 
may  in  turn  be  subdivided  into  two 
parts,  one  relating  to  power  craft,  the 
other  to  passive  or  motorless  craft. 
Thus  in  aerostation  we  have  power- 
driven  or  dirigible  balloons,  and  we 
have  free  balloons  which,  being  devoid 
of  motive  power,  drift  helplessly  with 
the  wind ;  while  in  aviation  we  have 
the  various  types  of  power-driven  fly- 
ing machines  and  the  various  forms  of 
passive  gliding  or  soaring  machines, 
which  travel  through  the  air  by  the 
force  of  gravity,  or  by  virtue  of  pre- 


viously acquired  momentum,  or  by  the 
aid  of  favorable  wind  currents.  These 
four  branches  all  have  their  votaries, 
all  have  their  specialized  types  of  aerial 
vehicles ;  all  save  one  form  the  basis 
of  special  and  rapidly  growing  indus- 
tries, involving,  certainly  in  the  case 
of  power  craft,  millions  of  dollars  of 
capital.  The  least  successful  of  the 
four  types  of  air  craft  is  the  soaring 
or  gliding  machine,  because  it  has  not 
yet  received  adequate  attention ;  but 
when  fully  developed  it  may  become 
of  considerable  importance  among  the 
various  kinds  of  aerial  locomotion. 
We  shall  consider  briefly  the  growth 
and  present  status  of  these  various 
popular  and  captivating  modes  of 
travel. 


GROWTH  OF  PASSIVE   BALLOONS. 


The  invention  of  the  passive  balloon 
is  usually  accredited  to  those  two 
French  brothers,  Joseph  and  Stephen 
Montgolfier,  who  in  June,  1783,  first 
launched  publicly  a  large  paper  bag 
inflated  with  hot  air.  But  in  truth 
they  have  to  share  the  honor  with 
several  others.  Prof.  Charles,  that 
same  summer,  constructed  and  pub- 
licly launched  the  first  hydrogen  bal- 
loon ;  Cavallo,  in  England,  a  year  pre- 
viously, made  hydrogen  soap  bubbles 
which  rose  beautifully  in  the  air ;  and 
Dr.  Black,  half  a  decade  earlier,  pro- 
posed to  make  a  thin  light  vessel  rise 
in  the  air  by  inflating  it  with  hydro- 
gen, a  gas  then  recently  discovered 
by  Cavendish.  The  use  of  coal  gas 
for  inflation,  constituting  an  important 
advance,  though  not  an  invention,  was 
roade  in  1821  by  George  Green,  of 
England. 

The  chief  constructional  features 
and  navigation  appliances  of  the  prac- 
tical gas  balloon  were  devised  or  in- 
troduced by  Prof.  Charles  and  Mr. 
Green.     Charles  first  covered  the  gas 

♦  Copyright  1912,  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


bag  with  a  net  from  which  the  car 
or  basket  was  hung  by  means  of  sus- 
pension ropes  attached  to  a  concentra- 
tion ring  at  the  bottom  of  the  net. 
He  invented  the  balloon  valve  and 
used  it,  together  with  sand  ballast,  to 
regulate  his  elevation.  He  also  intro- 
duced the  balloon  anchor  to  arrest  the 
balloon  on  reaching  earth,  the  barom- 
eter for  showing  the  altitude,  dissolved 
rubber  varnish  to  render  the  envelope 
impermeable.  Green  gave  the  balloon 
its  modern  net  with  small  suspension 
ring,  and  first  used  the  drag  rope, 
trailing  down  from  the  basket  along 
the  earth's  surface,  to  maintain  an 
even  altitude.  After  these  two  pio- 
neers came  John  Wise,  of  America, 
who  first  used  the  ripping  panel,  a 
ribbon  covering  a  vertical  seam  in  the 
upper  half  of  the  envelope  in  such  a 
way  that,  on  landing,  it  can  be  quickly 
jerked  off,  to  allow  the  bag  to  coUapse 
on  the  ground  instantly. 

Some  very  large  passive  balloons 
have  been  made  for  amusement  or 
scientific  exploration,  but  these  could 


437 


438 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


FLIGHT  OF  DIRIGIBLE  ACROSS  COUNTRY. 


easily  be  surpassed  in  size.  The 
largest  hot  air  balloon,  La  Flesselle, 
launched  at  Lyons  In  1784,  measured 
100  feet  in  diameter  by  130  feet  high. 
Comparable  with  this  in  size  was  the 
hydrogen  balloon,  The  Prussia,  of 
300,000  cubic  feet  volume,  with  which 
Prof.  Berson  and  Dr.  Siiring  rose  to 
the  highest  elevation  yet  attained  by 
man — 35,600  feet,  or  nearly  seven 
miles.  The  largest  hydrogen  balloon, 
cubing  450,000  feet  and  carrying  forty 
passengers  at  once,  was  used  by  Gif- 
fard  to  give  sightseers  a  view  of  Paris 
at  the  Exposition  of  1878. 

The  longest  voyage  in  a  spherical 
balloon  yet  recorded  is  that  of  Emile 
Dubonnet  and  P.  Dupont.  Sailing 
from  La  Motte-Brenil,  France,  Jan.  7, 
1912,  they  landed  next  day  at   Soko- 


lowska,  Russia,  after  a  continuous 
journey  of  1954  kilometers,  or  1216 
miles.  The  previous  world's  record 
was  held  by  Count  de  la  Vaulx. 
Starting  from  Vincennes,  France, 
in  October,  1000,  he  landed  at 
Korosticheff,  Russia,  having  traversed 
1,193  miles  in  35%  hours.  A  close 
second  to  this  record  was  made  by  A. 
R.  Hawley  in  his  spherical  balloon 
America,  aided  by  Augustus  Post,  in 
the  Gordon  Bennett  International 
Balloon  Race  of  1910.  Sailing  from 
St.  Louis,  October  17,  they  drifted 
1,173  miles  from  their  starting  point, 
and  landed  in  a  great  forest  at  Peri- 
bonka  River,  North  Lake  Chilogoma, 
Canada,  where  they  were  lost  for  sev- 
eral days. 


GROWTH  OF  POWER  BALLOONS. 


In  the  year  succeeding  the  invention 
of  the  passive  balloon  the  Robert 
brothers,    who    had   been    constructors 


for  Prof.  Charles,  and  had  first  made 
rubber  varnish,  devised  and  built  the 
first  elongated  dirigible.     This  was  a 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


439 


\ 


melon-shaped  silk  bag,  52  feet  long  by 
32  feet  in  diameter,  supporting  a 
longish  car  propelled  by  six  silken  oars 
and  guided  by  a  silk  rudder.  It  was 
a  successful  dirigible,  but  too  slow  to 
be  of  any  value,  for  it  was  driven  by 
hand  power  and  traveled  at  only  a 
walking  pace. 

Gen.  Meusnier  that  same  year  de- 
vised a  similar  shaped  balloon,  but 
having  coaxial  screw  propellers  between 
the  car  and  bag,  to  be  actuated  by 
eighty  men.  The  hull  comprised  a 
melon-shaped  hydrogen  bag'  inside  a 
slightly  larger  air  bag  always  pumped 
full  and  taut  so  as  to  resist  deforma- 
tion. Stablizing  planes  placed  on  the 
outside,  as  in  the  modern  dirigible, 
were  to  control  the  poise  of  the  vessel. 
The  buoyant  hull  and  suspended  car 
were  to  be  kept  in  alignment  by  suit- 
ably inclining  and  crossing  the  sus- 
pension cords.  The  Meusnier  design 
was  indeed  a  creation  of  fundamental 
importance  which,  for  want  of  engine 
power,  had  to  wait  upwards  of  a  cen- 
tury before  it  could  be  practically  em- 
ployed. 

The  first  torpedo-shaped  balloon  was 
.Tullien's  model  of  1850,  made  of  gold 
beaters'  skin,  measuring  23  feet  long 
and  weighing  2i/^  pounds.  It  was 
driven  by  clock-spring-actuating  twin 
propellers  at  either  side  of  its  bow,  and 
had  a  double  rudder  at  its  stern.  It 
could  navigate  steadily  against  a  mod- 
erate wind.  Aerodynamically  this  tiny 
model  excelled  in  design  all  other 
dirigibles  produced  during  the  first 
century  of  aeronautics,  and  was  the 
harbinger  of  the  swift  modern  air 
cruisers  of  the  most  effective  shape 
and  equipoise. 

During  the  remainder  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  steam,  electric  and  gas 
motors  were  in  turn  applied  to  the 
propulsion  of  airships,  but  with  meager 
success.  In  1852  Giffard,  in  a  spindle- 
shaped  balloon  143  feet  long  by  39 
feet  in  diameter,  and  driven  by  a  three- 
horse-power  steam  engine  actuating  an 
11-foot  screw,  voyaged  from  Paris  at 
a  sustained  speed  of  six  miles  an  hour 
through  the  air  and  with  good  control. 
In  1872  the  German  Haenlein,  with  a 
cucumber-shaped  coal  gas  balloon  164 
feet  long  by  30  feet  in  diameter, 
driven  by  a  gas  engine  taking  fuel 
from  the  envelope,  and  actuating  a 
single  screw,  attained  a  speed  of  ten 
miles  per  hour.  In  1884  Renard  and 
Krebs,  in  a  torpedo-shaped  dirigible 
165  feet  long  by  27.5  in  major  diam- 


eter, driven  by  an  electric  battery 
motor,  actuating  a  screw  propeller, 
made  the  first  return  voyage  against 
a  moderate  wind.  The  vessel  showed 
excellent  control,  attained  an  average 
speed  of  14.5  miles  an  hour,  and  was 
of  model  workmanship ;  but  for  lack 
of  power  it  was  practically  abandoned 
till  the  advent  of  the  automobile  en- 
gine. 

In  1898  Santos-Dumont,  emulating 
the  German  Wolfert,  who  in  1880 
first  attempted  to  drive  a  dirigible 
with  a  benzine  engine,  sailed  aloft  in 
a  spindle-shaped  balloon  82  feet  long 
by  11  feet  in  diameter,  driven  by  a 
motor-cycle  engine  of  3^  horsepower, 
carried  in  the  car  suspended  beneath 
the  envelope.  Finding  this  vessel  man- 
ageable and  swift  enough  to  make  his 
clothes  flutter,  and  amply  rigid  when 
its  balonet  or  internal  air  cell  was 
properly  inflated,  he  in  subsequent 
years  built  fifteen  more  dirigibles  of 
various  designs.  The  speed  of  the  best 
of  these  varied  from  fifteen  to  upwards 
of  twenty  miles  per  hour.  They  may 
be  considered  as  the  successful  proto- 
types of  the  great  non-rigid  air  cruisers 
which  so  quickly  followed  in  France, 
Germany  and  elsewhere. 

In  1900  Count  Zeppelin,  emulating 
the  Austrian,  Schwartz,  who  in  1897 
first  tentatively  drove  a  rigid  metal 
balloon  with  a  petrol  motor,  launched 
the  first  of  his  huge  rigid  dirigibles. 
Its  hull,  which  was  framed  of  alumi- 
num and  contained  seventeen  compart- 
ments holding  buoyant  hydrogen  bags, 
measured  416  feet  long,  38  feet  across, 
cubed  400,000  cubic  feet,  weighed  nine 
tons,  and  had  a  displacement  of  ten 
tons.  It  was  driven  by  two  petrol 
engines  actuating  four  screw  propellers 
mounted  directly  on  the  underside  of 
the  hull,  two  forward  and  two  aft. 
Subsequently  larger  vessels,  with  pas- 
senger compartments  running  along 
the  bottom  of  the  hulls,  accommodat- 
ing twenty  to  thirty  passengers,  were 
built  and  powered  with  engines  ade- 
quate to  attain  velocities  of  over  forty 
miles  per  hour.  The  large  vessels  have 
required  for  inflation  nearly  700,000 
cubic  feet  of  hydrogen,  have  weighed 
some  fifteen  tons  and  lifted  four  or 
five  tons  of  useful  load,  have  voyaged 
continuously  twenty  to  forty  hours, 
and  have  made  continuous  journeys  of 
500  to  1,000  miles  in  length.  Zeppe- 
lin X.,  called  the  ScJiivaben,  a  regular 
transportation  airship  with  accommo- 
dations   for   24    passengers,    made    in 


440 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


COUNT  VON  ZEPPELIN'S  GREAT  WORK  EXPRESSED  IN  FIGURES. 

Air. 

.--r       -• 

Gas  capacity 

Numberof 

Length            Breadth 

Numb&r 

Total 

Number 

Speech 

ship 

Year 

in  cubic 

gas-tight 

injeet              in  feet 

of 

horse' 

o/pro- 
pcUers   1 

in  wiles 

feet          compartments 

engines 

power 

ier  hour 

I. 

1900 

399,000 

17 

419-9                37.25 

2 

29.4 

4 

17  A 

II. 

1905-06 

395,000 

16 

419-9            37-25 

2 

170 

4 

27? 

1906-07 

399,000 

16 

419-9 

1: 

4 

28  ; 

III.. 

1908-09 \ 
I912          \ 

427.300 

17 

446.2  [             37-25 

170 
210-230 

29.2 
33? 

IV. 

1908 

547,400 

17 

446.2                42.65 

2 

210 

4 

27-29 

V. 

1909 

547,400 

17 

446.2                42.6s 

2 

210 

4 

28.6 

VI. 

1 1909-10 

547,400 

17 

446.2                42.65 

2 
3 

220 

345 

4 

6 

30.3 
33.6 

1  I9IO 

565,000 

18 

472.4                42.65 

3 

345-360 

4 

32? 

VII. 

I9IO 

681,600 

18 

485.6                 45.93 

3 

400 

4 

34.8 

VIII. 

191 1 

681,600 

18 

485.6            45-9 

3 

100 

>t 

35 

IX. 

I9II 

S  600,000 
\  640,000 

16 
17 

433-1  > 

459-3  \         45.9 

3 

450-460 

1 

48 
48 

X. 

191 1 

681,600 

18 

485.6            45.9 

3 

450-460 

44 

XI. 

I912 

681,600 

18 

485-6            45-9 

3 

450-460 

45 

1911  over  100  trips,  aggregating  8,500 
miles  and  carried  2,300  persons.  Reg- 
ular excursion  tickets  can  now  be  pur- 
chased in  New  York  by  outgoing  tour- 
ists which,  on  presentation  at  the 
Zeppelin  airport  at  Friedrichshafen, 
entitle  the  bearer  to  an  airship  voy- 
age, usually  conducted  on  schedule 
time,  over  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  interesting  regions  of  Germany 
and  with  the  accommodations  of  a 
modern  palace  car.  The  above  table 
gives  the  dimensions,  power  and  speed 
of  Count  Zeppelin's  various  dirigibles 
up  to  1912. 

Rivaling  these  unique  rigid  dirigi- 
bles, at  least  in  celerity  and  control, 
if  not  in  size,  are  the  great  non-rigid 
dirigibles  of  Gross  and  of  Parseval  in 


Germany,  of  Clement  and  of  Julliot  in 
France,  and  of  the  national  govern- 
ment in  Italy.  These  all  comprised 
elongated  silk  bags,  more  or  less  whale 
shaped,  from  which  were  suspended 
the  car  carrying  the  crew  and  passen- 
gers and  the  mechanism  of  propulsion 
and  control.  Scores  of  these  large 
non-rigid  dirigibles  sprang  into  being 
for  sportive  or  military  use,  powered 
suflBciently  to  run  all  day,  to  voyage 
hundreds  of  miles,  and  to  attain  speeds 
of  thirty  to  forty  miles  an  hour.  The 
Parseval  in  particular  has  an  excel- 
lent reputation  for  the  speed  and  pre- 
cision with  which  it  carries  passengers 
on  schedule  time  above  the  city  of 
Berlin  and  over  some  of  the  most  in- 
teresting historical  places  in  Germany. 


GROWTH  OF  PASSIVE   FLIERS. 


For  many  decades  two  kinds  of 
passive  flight  have  been  recognized  in 
nature,  and  have  been  understood  to 
be  achievable  by  man.  One  is  vol- 
planing, or  gliding  by  aid  of  gravity 
or  acquired  momentum;  the  other  is 
soaring,  or  gliding  by  force  of  the 
wind  without  loss  of  altitude.  Human 
volplaning  has  been  so  far  perfected 
as  no  longer  to  be  a  novelty ;  human 
soaring:  is  a  much  neglected  art,  though 
doubtless  capable  of  very  great  de- 
velopment. 

The  permanent  art  of  passive  man- 
flight  dates  from  Otto  Lilienthal's  ex- 
periments near  Berlin  in  the  early 
nineties    of    the   last    century,    though 


long  previous  to  that  time  some  won- 
derful feats  of  gliding  and  soaring,  of 
both  men  and  models,  were  reported 
by  reliable  witnesses.  Lilienthal  made 
numerous  glides  several  hundred  feet 
in  length,  down  hill  slopes,  sometimes 
pausing  in  the  air  or  rising  consider- 
ably above  his  launching  place.  Some- 
times also  he  wheeled  about  and  re- 
turned nearly  to  his  starting  point. 
At  first  he  used  a  monoplane  glider, 
then  a  biplane,  in  each  case  control- 
ling his  poise  in  the  air  by  shifting 
his  weight  as  he  hung  by  his  arms 
underneath  the  kite-like  motorless 
craft.  He  finally  prepared  to  convert 
his  glider  into  a  dynamic  aeroplane  by 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


441 


adding  a  light  engine;  but  in  an  un- 
lucky glide  his  structure  gave  way  and 
dropped  him  to  his  death  among  its 
tangled  wreckage — the  protomartyr  ! 

Lilienthal's  work  was  continued  by 
various  disciples,  mainly  American, 
who  perfected  his  structural  designs 
and  means  of  balance.  Chanute  and 
Herring  in  the  latter  nineties  devel- 
oped the  familiar  Chanute  biplane, 
whose  Pratt  truss  arrangement  of  two 
superposed  concave  surfaces  is  now 
commonly  used  in  many  types  of  power 
aeroplanes.  They,  too,  maintained 
their  aerial  poise  by  shifting  their 
suspended  weight.  Early  in  the  twen- 
tieth century  the  Wright  brothers,  of 
Ohio,  and  Prof.  Montgomery,  of  Cali- 
fornia, introduced  in  practice  the  mod- 
ern dynamic  system  of  controlling  an 
aeroplane  in  passive  flight  without 
shift  of  the  operator's  weight,  though, 
broadly  speaking,  their  devices  had 
been  previously  invented  and  pub- 
lished by  various  other  votaries  of 
aviation,  as  will  be  shown  later. 

The  records  for  volplaning  have  not 
been  kept  with  much  care,  but  some 
are  well  attested.  Lilienthal,  Chanute 
and  Herring  and  the  Wrights  all  per- 
formed short  flights  of  usually  less 
than  1,000  feet,  along  sloping  ground. 
Montgomery  in  1905  launched  from  a 
balloon  4,000  feet  in  air  a  glider  bear- 
ing on  its  back  a  dauntless  aeronaut, 
Maloney,  who  by  means  of  wing  warp- 
ing and  a  double  rudder  guided  it, 
with  many  a  playful  dip  and  wheel, 
securely  down  to  a  designated  spot, 
where  he  landed  in  safety.  With  a 
like  aerial  glider  another  Montgomery 
aeronaut  cut  corkscrews  in  the  air. 
The  record  for  volplaning  in  a  power 
machine,  which  really  becomes  a  glider 
when  the  motor  stops,  is  held  by 
Lincoln  Beachy,  who  during  the  Chi- 


cago meet  of  1911,  glided  sheer  down 
to  earth  in  a  Curtiss  biplane  from  an 
elevation  of  11,642  feet. 

The  records  for  soaring  are  briefer, 
and  some  are  not  so  well  attested.  In 
1859  Capt.  Le  Bris,  piloting  a  glider 
patterned  after  an  albatross,  soared 
800  feet  high  and  descended  safely  to 
earth.  This  on  the  authority  of  De  la 
Landelle,  who  wrote  a  history  of  aero- 
nautics, published  in  1884,  and  who 
had  the  account  from  Le  Bris's  neigh- 
bors. Mouillard,  nearly  twenty  years 
ago,  soared  138  feet  over  a  prairie 
after  an  initial  run  and  jump  across 
a  roadside  ditch  with  a  glider  strapped 
to  his  waist.  Many  recent  aeroplan- 
ists  have  been  carried  well  upward  by 
rising  wind  currents.  During  the  glid- 
ing experiments  of  Chanute  and  Her- 
ring one  of  the  operators  was  raised 
by  the  wind  some  forty  feet  high,  then 
landed  almost  in  his  tracks  without 
serious  shock.  Lateral  glides  along  the 
hillside  were  also  made,  one  forty-eight 
seconds  in  length,  which  showed  the 
possibility  of  patrolling  to  and  fro  in 
such  places.  Mr.  Atwood  relates  that 
while  flying  over  a  mountainous  coun- 
try he  once  encountered  an  upsloping 
current  which  lifted  him  over  1,000 
feet  high.  Orville  Wright  was  sup- 
ported on  such  an  ascending  current 
above  a  hill  slope  for  nearly  ten  min- 
utes, sometimes  stationary,  again  glid- 
ing forward  or  backward,  and  some- 
times rising  to  a  considerable  eleva- 
tion above  the  starting  point.  Mr. 
Ludolph  Schroeder  relates  that  in  May, 
1908,  he  launched  from  the  Palisades, 
on  the  Hudson,  a  riderless  glider  six 
feet  long,  made  of  one-inch  pine 
boards,  and  saw  it  caught  up  by  the 
oncoming  wind  and  carried  hundreds 
of  feet  high  and  many  thousand  feet 
to  the  west  of  the  river. 


GROWTH   OF  POWER   FLIERS. 


From  time  immemorial  aviation  had 
been  cultivated  in  a  crude,  tentative 
and  unpromising  fashion  before  any 
noteworthy  and  definite  progress  be- 
gan to  be  recorded.  Such  progress 
dates  from  the  first  decade  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Prior  to  that  time 
many  volant  devices  had  been  tested, 
and  some  little  flying  had  been 
achieved,  but  no  permanent  and  sub- 
stantial contribution  to  either  the 
science  or  art  of  dynamic  flight  had 
been  transmitted  to  succeeding  genera- 
tions. 

England  made  the  first  substantial 


contribution  to  the  science  of  aviation. 
In  1809  and  1810  Sir  George  Cayley 
published  in  Nicholson's  Journal,  now 
the  Philosophical  Magazine,  a  paper 
describing  his  experiments  with  large 
aerial  glider  models,  and  setting  forth 
the  principles  of  design  conducive  to 
inherent  stability.  He  clearly  con- 
ceived and  explained  the  advantage  of 
placing  the  wings  of  an  aeroplane  at 
a  dihedral  angle  to  one  another,  as 
soaring  birds  do,  to  maintain  a  pendu- 
lous lateral  equilibrium,  and  he  em- 
ployed that  device.  He  anticipated  by 
sixty  years    the    Frenchman,  P^naud, 


442 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  OFFENBURG-FREIBURG  EXPRESS  RACING  WITH  AND  SNAPSHOTTED 
FROM  THE  ZEPPELIN  AIR-SHIP  "SCHWABEN." 


Courtesy  of    "The   Illustrated    London   Times." 
THE  AIR-SHIP  "ZEPPELIN  III."  FLYING  OVER  THE  ELBE  DURING  A  SEVERE 

THUNDERSTORM. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


443 


in  providing  for  fore  and  aft  equilib- 
rium by  setting  the  tail,  or  horizontal 
rudder,  at  a  slightly  negative  angle,  so 
that  when  the  flier  plunges  too  swiftly 
downward  the  increasing  pressure  on 
top  of  its  tail  causes  the  bow  to  rise 
until  the  speed  and  course  of  flight 
attain  their  natural  uniformity.  From 
the  weight  and  observed  rate  of  de- 
scent of  his  glider  model  he  computed 
the  work  of  gravity  expended  in  its 
propulsion,  and  thence  proceeded  to 
estimate  the  power  and  weight  of  an 
artiflcial  motor  that  should  drive  a 
dynamic  aeroplane.  Finding  the  cum- 
brous steam  engine  of  his  time  in- 
adequate, he  conceived  the  idea  of  em- 
ploying an  internal  combustion  engine 
in  its  place,  thus  anticipating  the  mod- 
ern aeronautical  motor.  Indeed,  the 
contributions  to  the  science  of  flight 
made  by  Sir  George  Cayley  seem  to 
be  the  most  radical,  fundamental  and 
original  of  any  that  have  been  re- 
corded up  to  the  present  time  by  the 
promoters  of  mechanical  flight. 

The  English  engineer,  Samuel  Hen- 
son,  made  the  next  substantial  ad- 
vance in  the  devices  and  principles  of 
aviation.  He  had  not  the  originality 
and  scientific  method  of  his  illustrious 
predecessor,  Cayley ;  but,  as  patent 
lawyers  phrase  it,  he  "reduced  to  prac- 
tice" his  remarkable  conception  of  a 
dynamic  aeroplane.  In  1842,  he  pat- 
ented a  monoplane  having  all  the  me- 
chanical features  essential  to  success- 
ful flight.  It  was  provided  with  a 
horizontal  and  a  vertical  rudder  oper- 
able by  the  pilot  to  control  the  poise 
of  the  flier  about  corresponding  axes, 
and  was  furnished  with  a  vertical  keol 
surface,  placed  above  the  center  of 
gravity,  to  aid  in  steering  and  to  lend 
inherent  lateral  stability,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  side  planes  in  a  box  kite. 
Henson's  monoplane  was  thus  equipped 
as  well  for  security  of  poise  and  con- 
trol in  flight  as  a  practical  modern 
aeroplane  of  the  V'oisin  type.  Its 
wings,  which  were  of  very  efficient 
shape,  were  trussed  and  covered  very 
much  like  those  of  a  modern  mono- 
plane. The  machine  was  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  an  engine  actuating  twin 
screws,  like  the  successful  models  of 
Tatin,  Langley  and  others  of  later 
date ;  and  was  provided  with  a  three- 
wheel  chassis  for  starting  and  landing, 
as  commonly  practised  nowadays  by 
machines  of  the  Curtiss  type. 

Thus,  while  Cayley  first  set  forth 
the  scientific  principles  of  flight.  Hen- 


son  may  be  called  the  first  practical 
inventor  of  the  commercial  aeroplane, 
in  so  far  as  he  first  disclosed  and  pat- 
ented an  invention  capable  of  sustained 
flight  with  passengers.  His  system  of 
control  was  the  same  in  principle  as 
that  of  the  early  Voisin  machine  in 
which  Paulhan  once  flew  82  miles  in 
gusty  weather.  For  lack  of  suitable 
motive  power,  however,  Henson  wisely 
refrained  from  constructing  a  full-size 
machine. 

In  1846  StringfeUow,  who  had  previ- 
ously experimented  with  Henson,  built 
a  steam  model  aeroplane  of  about  the 
size  of  a  large  soaring  bird,  and 
weighing  altogether,  with  fuel  and 
water,  61^  pounds.  A  special  feature 
of  this  model  was  that  its  main  sur- 
faces were  sloped  like  the  wings  of 
a  bird,  slightly  concave  below  and 
feathered  toward  the  back ;  thus  mak- 
ing it  more  efficient  and  stable  in 
flight.  With  a  good  head  of  steam, 
and  propellers  whirling,  the  model  ran 
down  a  stretched  wire,  leaped  into  the 
air  "and  darted  off  in  as  fair  a  flight 
as  it  was  possible  to  make,  to  a  dis- 
tance of  about  40  yards."  This  was 
the  first  power-driven  aeroplane  model 
to  fly  successfully  and  balance  itself 
in  the  air. 

In  1868  another  Englishman  dis- 
tinguished in  aviation  science,  Mr.  F. 
H.  Wenham,  published  a  paper  setting 
forth  the  aerodynamic  advantages  of 
driving  aeroplanes  long  edge  first,  to 
increase  their  lift,  and  of  placing  sev- 
eral surfaces  one  above  the  other  to 
secure  ample  support  with  moderate 
wing  spread.  He  may  thus  be  re- 
garded as  the  first  inventor  of  a  bi- 
plane or  multiplane.  He  reduced  to 
practice  these  ideas  by  patenting  a 
multiple  surface  aeroplane,  and  mak- 
ing a  tentative  glider  on  which  the 
pilot  should  lie  prone  in  flight. 

Profiting  by  this  new  principle  of 
construction  and  support,  Stringfel- 
low  in  1868  built  a  triplane  model 
propelled  by  twin  screws  actuated  by 
a  high  pressure  steam  engine  con- 
tained in  a  double-wedge  shaped  car, 
which  car  moreover  served  as  a  steady- 
ing keel.  The  sustaining  part  of  this 
machine  comprised  three  superposed 
parallel  planes  held  rigidly  in  place  by 
vertical  posts  and  oblique  tie  wires. 
He  was  thus  first  to  use  the  Pratt 
truss  arrangement  common  to  the  bi- 
planes and  multiplanes  of  the  present 
day.  The  little  model  flew  in  the 
Crystal  Palace,  London,  but  with  in- 


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different  success.  It  now  hangs  from 
the  ceiling  of  the  American  Museum 
at  Washington,  along  with  other  his- 
torical  model  fliers. 

In  1884,  Horatio  Phillips,  of  Eng- 
land, who  had  tested  a  great  variety  of 
model  wing  forms  in  a  wind-tunnel, 
patented  a  shape  very  like  the 
wing  of  a  good  modern  aeroplane.  He 
was  the  first  to  show  the  world  quan- 
titatively, by  published  researches  and 
by  actual  use  in  experimental  aero- 
planes, the  superior  merits  of  arched 
surfaces,  both  single  and  superposed. 
Phillips'  wing-shape  has  been  adopted 
with  various  modifications  in  many 
notable  aeroplanes  of  recent  years.  In- 
vestigations leading  to  similar  results 
were  conducted  in  Germany,  by  Otto 
Lilienthal  and  his  brother.  Their  re- 
sults were  published  in  the  succeeding 
decade,  and  amply  tested  in  several 
man-carrying  gliding  machines,  both 
monoplanes  and  biplanes,  with  which 
many  hundred  successful  glides  down 
hill  slopes  were  made.  Finally  Octave 
Chanute,  the  distinguished  American 
railway  and  bridge  engineer,  aided  by 
Mr.  A.  M.  Herring,  perfected  the  two- 
surface  glider,  and  developed  the  fin- 
ished type  of  structure  now  commonly 
known  as  the  Chanute  biplane.  A  par- 
ticular feature  of  the  original  Chanute 
glider  for  securing  inherent  lateral 
stability  were  the  vertical  side  planes, 


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DIRIGIBLE  AIR-SHIP  TICKET. 
PRICE  $50.00. 


first  used  by  Lawrence  Hargrave,  in- 
ventor of  the  box  kite. 

The  now  very  commonly  used  sys- 
tem of  controlling  the  poise  of  an 
aeroplane  in  flight  was  invented  and 
disclosed  many  times  before  the  ad- 
vent of  practical  flying.  In  1868  Mat- 
thew Boulton  of  England  first  gave 
to  the  world  a  system  of  control  com- 
prising a  vertical  rudder,  a  horizontal 
rudder,  and  a  pair  of  reverse  turning 
ailerons  operable  by  hand  or  auto- 
matically. He  was  therefore  the  or- 
iginal inventor  of  the  three-torque,  or 
three-rudder,  system  in  aviation.  In 
1893  the  system  of  torsional  wings 
together  with  vertical  and  horizontal 
rudders  for  controlling  flight  was  pub- 
licly described  by  the  present  writer  * 
in  America  and  by  Felix  Ader  in 
France,  who  embodied  it  in  his  mono- 
plane. This  system  was  practically 
employed,  in  one  form  or  another,  by 
the  Wright  brothers  and  by  Prof. 
Montgomery,  early  in  the  twentieth 
century.  The  first  public  demonstra- 
tion of  the  system  was  made  by  Mont- 
gomery as  early  as  April,  1905.  In 
1899  Hugo  Mattullath,  of  New  York, 
drew  up  patent  specifications,  later 
allowed  by  the  U.  S.  Patent  Oflice,  for 
a  hydroaeroplane  with  two  floats  and 
a  control  system  comprising  a  vertical 
rudder  and  aileron-like  surfaces  on 
either  side  of  his  machine  fore  and 
aft.  The  common  aileron  system 
seems  to  have  been  first  practically 
used  and  indeed  reinvented  early  in 
1908,  by  the  Aerial  Experiment  As- 
sociation, at  Hammondsport,  N.  Y. 

As  to  the  first  human  power  flights, 
Ader  in  1890"  is  reported  to  have  flown 
150  feet  in  a  wheel-mounted  monoplane 
driven  by  a  steam  engine  actuating 
twin  screws,  and  controlled  in  flight 
by  independently  operable  horizontal 
and  vertical  rudders  and  reversely 
warpable  wing  tips.  The  construc- 
tion of  his  machine  is  well  known, 
but  its  flights  are  not  well  authenti- 
cated. Maxim  three  years  later  rose 
from  a  track  in  a  steam  driven  multi- 
plane, the  largest  yet  built,  weighing 
3.5  tons  and  lifting  more  than  a  ton 
of  extra  load.  It  had  horizontal  and 
vertical  rudders,  but  no  torsional  wings 
and,    because    of    its    low    center  .  of 

*The  writer  also  applied  the  system 
in  the  winter  of  1903,  to  the  design, 
for  the  American  Transit  Co.,  of  a 
wheel  mounted  aeroplane  with  stream- 
line body  enclosing  the  aviator  and 
having  transparent  walls. 


446 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


gravity,  it  was  too  unsteady  for  prac- 
tical flight.  Owing  to  their  excessive 
waste  of  fuel  and  water,  both  the 
Ader  and  the  Maxim  power  plants  were 
unsuitable  for  long  voyages  in  the  air. 

The  first  dynamic  aeroplane  of  ade- 
quate stability  and  power  to  carry  a 
man  in  prolonged  flight  was  that  of 
Dr.  Langley,  completed  in  1903.  The 
famous  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  and  his  assistant,  Charles 
M.  Manley,  by  designing  and  construct- 
ing a  suitable  motor,  surmounted  the 
last  formidable,  the  hardest,  the  cen- 
turies old  obstacle  in  the  development 
of  an  aeroplane  adapted  to  human  flight. 
This  was  a  gasoline  engine  of  fifty-two 
brake  horse  power  weighing  two  hun- 
dred pounds  and  competent  to  run 
for  many  hours  under  full  load.  More- 
over they  had  provided  for  both  inher- 
ent stability  and  effective  manipula- 
tion of  the  machine  in  flight.  The 
pilot  could  control  the  poise  and  course 
by  several  devices ;  he  could  shift  his 
weight  some  feet  in  either  direction  ; 
he  could  elevate  and  depress  the  rear 
double  rudder,  which  when  untouched 
insured  steady  longitudinal  poise  on  the 
principle  introduced  by  l*enaud ;  he 
could  steer  to  right  and  left  by  turn- 
ing about  its  vertical  axis  a  wind-vane 
rudder  below  and  rearward'  of  the  boat. 
The  wings  were  set  at  a  dihedral  angle, 
the  lines  of  lift,  propeller  thrust  and 
forward  resistance  passed  through  the 
centroid,  or  near  it,  thus  providing 
for  projectile  and  gravitational  stabil- 
ity. 

This  machine  was  nearly  a  dupli- 
cate, on  a  four-fold  scale,  of  the  gaso- 
line driven  model  which  during  the 
same  year  had  flown  many  times  with 
good  inherent  equilibrium,  and  this 
model  in  turn  closely  resembled 
in  aerodynamic  features  the  steam- 
driven  model  which  flew  and  balanced 
itself  successfully  above  the  Potomac 
river  in  1896.  Naturally  therefore,  it 
was  expected  that,  with  a  pilot  on  its 
back,  the  large  machine  would  fly  even 
more  securely  than  its  miniature  pro- 
totype. Unfortunately  this  elaborately 
perfected  monoplane  met  with  an  ac- 
cident in  launching,  thereby  bringing 
upon  its  inventor  unmerited  censure, 
and  depriving  him  of  the  credit  of 
having  produced  the  first  successful 
passenger  aeroplane.  But  it  is  now 
understood  by  aeronautical  engineers 
that  his  large  machine,  as  well  as  the 
model,  had  all  the  elements  essential 
to  prolonged  flight  with  good  inherent 


stability,  and  with  sufficient  manual 
control  for  practical  service  in  mod- 
erate weather.  Moreover  Bleriot,  in  a 
tandem  monoplane  closely  patterned 
after  Langley's,  made  a  successful 
flight  in  1907. 

Langley's  culminating  labors  in  avi- 
ation, though  apparently  thwarted  in 
the  hour  of  imminent  triumph,  left 
his  colleagues  in  both  hemispheres  un- 
daunted and  optimistic.  A  score  of 
sanguine  experimentalists  were  now  at 
work  in  either  hemisphere.  Archdeacon 
in  France  had  offered  a  prize  of  3,000 
francs  for  the  first  person  to  fly  pub- 
licly 25  meters,  with  a  maximum  de- 
scent not  exceeding  one-third  of  the 
range.  Bleriot,  Santos-Dumont,  Voisin, 
Ferber,  Levavasseur,  Esnault-Pelterie, 
Phillips,  Cody,  Ellhamer,  abroad,  the 
Wrights,  Berliner,  Graham  Bell,  Mont- 
gomery in  this  country,  and  many 
others  who  eventually  built  successful 
aeroplanes,  were  now  pursuing  avia- 
tion with  unwavering  confidence.  The 
Wrights,  in  this  country,  and  Phillips 
abroad  were  the  first  to  achieve  a 
measure  of  success ;  the  former  in 
December,  1903,  when  one  of  them 
flew  for  fifty-nine  seconds  in  a  wheel- 
less  biplane  driven  by  a  gasoline  mo- 
tor ;  the  latter  in  1904,  when  he  flew 
across  a  field  in  a  wheel-mounted  gas- 
oline-driven multiplane.  But  these 
were  private  flights  of  no  avail  to 
the  profession  generally,  except  that 
the  report  of  the  Wright  experiments 
stimulated  others  to  increased  activity 
which  soon  led  to  success  in  several 
localities,  while  the  Wrights  were  still 
concealing  their  apparatus.  The  first 
flights  made  before  the  technical  pub- 
lic were,  in  Europe,  those  of  Santos- 
Dumont  and  Ellhamer,  in  America, 
those  of  the  Aerial  Experiment  Asso- 
ciation at  Hammondsport,  New  York. 
The  latter  was  the  first  to  demonstrate 
before  technical  men  the  merits  of  the 
three-rudder  system  of  control  on  a 
dynamic  aeroplane.  Henceforward  the 
art  advanced  with  prodigious  strides, 
under  the  munificent  patronage  of  a 
marveling  and  delighted  public. 

Among  the  recent  improvements  em- 
ployed in  present-day  aeroplanes  are 
the  wheeled-landing  skids,  the  various 
automatic  stabilizing  surfaces  and  the 
aquatic  appliances.  Landing  skids 
were  familiar  in  the  art  during  the 
last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  skids  combined  with  wheels,  to 
which  they  were  elastically  attached, 
were  introduced  by  Henri  Farman  in 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


447 


1909.  Among  the  automatic  stabiliz- 
ing surfaces  may  be  noted,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  rigid  dorsal  fin  first  pat- 
ented by  Henson,  the  elastic  rearward 
protruding  wing-tips  and  the  elastic 
tail  introduced  by  the  Austrian  engi- 
neer, Etrich,  and  the  pendulum-oper- 
ated controlling  surfaces  devised  and 
tried  by  various  experimentalists,  but 
not  yet  generally  adopted.  The  aqua- 
tic devices  proposed  many  years  ago, 
and  first  practically  employed  by  Cur- 
tiss  in  America,  which  enable  an  aero- 
plane to  rise  from  the  water  and  land 
thereon,  constitute  perhaps  the  most 
radical  modern  improvement  in  avia- 
tion, virtually  adding  a  new  and  very 


important    domain    to    the    empire    of 
dynamic  flight. 

Following  the  successful  inaugura- 
tion of  the  flying-machine  for  sportive 
and  military  uses,  special  types  of 
aeroplanes  were  rapidly  developed  for 
the  attainment  of  special  ends.  Ma- 
chines of  stream-line  form  with  pow- 
erful motors,  and  limited  wing  sur- 
face, were  used  to  attain  high  speed, 
as  the  Nieuport,  Deperdussin,  Esnault- 
Pelterie,  etc. ;  machines  of  large  wing 
surface  and  great  power  were  used  to 
carry  large  burdens,  etc.  Without 
presenting  the  details  of  construction, 
the  following  tables  exhibit  the  mar- 
velous progress  of  the  art  as  told  by 
the  records  of  well  attested  flights. 


THE  $2,400  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  TROPHY  WON  BY  GLENN  H.  CURTISS.     (Page  456.) 


448 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


451 


AVIATION  WORLD  RECORDS. 


(Compiled  by  London  Aeronautics.) 


SPEED 

DISTANCE 

■  '    TIME 

PILOT 

PLACE 

DATE 

AERSPLANE 

MOTOR 

■      S  km. 

0 

i; 

s. 
43? 

].  V^drines 

United  States 

Sept.    9,  1912 

Deperdussin  m. 

160-Gnome 

lb    .,   . 

3 

28 

.  V^drines 

United  States 

Sept.    9.  1912' 

Deperdussin  ra. 

160-Gnome 

20    ;, 

6 

56, 

.  V^drines 

United  States 

Sept.    9.  1912 

Deperdussin  m. 

160-Gnome 

.  30  ;, 

10 

32^ 

Vadrines 

United  States 

Sept.    9.  1912 

■  Deperdussin  m. 

160-Gnome 

40    „    . 

14 

3| 

J.  V^drines 

United  States 

Sept.    9,  1912 

Deperdussin  m 

160-Gnome 

50    „ 

17 

35 

J..Vadrines 

United  States 

Sept. -9.  1912 

Deperdussin  m 

160-Gnome 

100    ;, 

35 

16t 

.  V^drines 

United  States 

■  Sept.   9,  1912 

Deperdussin  m. 

160-Gnome 

'      a 

150    „ 

52 

"* 

.  Vddrines 

France 

uly    13,  1912 

Deperdussin  m. 

160-Gnome 

§ 

200    „ 

10 

55 

J.  Vadrines 

France 

ulv    13.  1912 

Deperdussin  m. 

160-Gnome 

<  . 

250  .  „ 

7 

54 

M.  Tabuteau 

France 

Mar.    1.  1912 

Morane-Saulnier  m 

$0-Gnome ' 

300     „ 

49 

•  0 

M   Gobioni 

Italy 

Mar.  28,  1912 

Caproni  m 

60-Anzani 

'.« 

350     „ 

26 

16 

E.  Gilbert 

France 

Dec.  30,  1912 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

400     „ 

55 

27* 

E   Gilbert 

France 

Dec.  30,  1912 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

450     „ 

24 

44« 

E.  Gilbert 

t'rance 

Dec.  30,  1912 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

500     „ 

54 

6i 

E.  Gilbert 

France 
prance 

Dec.  30.  1012 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

600    „    ■ 

52 

38 

E.  Gilbert 

Dec.  30,  1912 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

700     „ 

31 

1 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11,  1912 

M.  Farman  b. 

70-Renault 

800     „      ■ 

44 

45* 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11,  1912 

M    Farman  b. 

70-Renault 

900    ,,- 

59 

Oi 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11,  1912 

M.  Farman  b. 

70-Renault 

1000    „   . 

1 

12 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11,  1912 

M.  Farman  b. 

70-Renault 

5  km 

2 

58 

H.  Bier 

Austria 

Oct.     1,  1912 

Etrich  m. 

120  Austrian-Daimlei 

10    „ 

•4 

24t 

Legagneux 

•France 

uly   20,  1912 

,  Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

20    „ 

8 

51 

Legagneux 

France 

uly   20.  1912 

Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

'J; 

.30    „ 

b 

13 

"! 

Legagneux 

France 

uly '20,  1912 
July  20,  1912 

2ensm. 

80-Gnome 

o' 

40  •  ,. , 

0 

17 

Legagneux 

France 

Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

S 

50    „    , 

0 

23 

13 

Legagneux 

France 

July  20.  1912 

Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

,3 

.  100    „  ■ 

0. 

44 

36t 

Legagneux 

France 

July  20.  1912 

Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

i 

150';. 

1. 

7, 

10 

Legagneux 

France 

July  20,  1912 

Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

200     „ 

1 

56 

30 

Slavorossoff 

Italy 

Jan.-  26,  1912 

Caproni  m. 

80-Gnome 

o 

250     „ 

2 

■24 

30 

Slavorossoff 

Italy 

Jan.   26,  1912 

Caproni  m. 

80-Gnome 

300     „ 

3 

4 

50 

M.  Guillaux. 

France 

Feb.  11,  1912 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

350    „ 

3 

34 

46 

M.  Guillaujf 

France 

Feb.  11,  1912 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

400    „ 

4 

4 

<   4 

M.  Guillaux 

France 

Feb.  11,  1912 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

.  5  km. 

0 

3 

52 

Austria 

une  30.  1912 

Nieuport  m. 

70-Gnome 

'  -S 

■10    „ 

0 

5 

45 

C   Nieuport  ' 

Austria 

June  30.  1912 

Nieuport  m. 

70-Gnome 

'd  5P 

•   20    ,, 

0 

11 

591 

E.  Nieuport 

•  France 

Mar.    9,  1911 

Nieuport  m. 

50-Gnome 

;^|- 

30     „ 

0 

17 

52* 

F,.  Nieuport 

•France 

Mar.    9,  1911 

Nieuport  m. 

50-Gnome 

40     „ 

0 

22 

44t 

E.  Nieuport ' 

France 

Mar.    9,  1911 

Nieuport  m. 

50-Gnome 

P< 

50     „ 

0 

29 

37i 

E.  Nieuport 

France 

Mar.    9,  1911 

Nieuport  m. 

50-Gnome 

100     „ 

0 

59 

8 

E.Nieuport 

France 

Mar.    9,  1911 

Nieuport  m. 

50-Gnome 

5  km,' 

0 

3 

48 

P.  Mandelli 

Austria 

Aug.  16,  1912 

Autoplan  m 

_ 

■il 

10    „ 

0 

6 

16? 

Busson 

France 

Mar.  10,  1911 

Deperdussin  m 

^. 

20    „ 

0 

12 

3 

P.  Mandelli 

Austria 

Aug.  16,  1912 

Autoplan  m. 

_ 

30     „ 

0 

17 

37 

P.  Mandelli 

Austria. 

Aug.  16,  1912 

Autoplan  m.    • 

_ 

H  g 

40    „ 

0 

23 

11 

P   Mandelli 

Austria 

Aug.  26,  1912 

Aytoplan  ra. 

_ 

Oc 

30    „ 

0 

29 

47 

P   Mandelli 

Austria^ 

Aug.  16,  1912 

Autoplan  m. 

_ 

100    „ 

0 

56 

33 

P.  Mandelli. 

Austria 

Aug.  16.  1912 

Autoplan  m. 

— 

.,     S  km. 

0 

3 

34 

Busson 

France 

'■Mar.  10.  1911 

Deperdussin  m 

_ 

10    „ 

0 

7 

8 

Busson 

France 

Mar.  10,  1911 

Deperdussin  m. 

_ 

e' 

20    „ 

0 

H 

oi> 

Busson 

France 

Mar.  10,  1911 

Deperdussin  m. 

_ 

30    „ 

0 

21 

5J^ 

,     F.  Cliampel 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Champel  b. 

100-Anzani 

s| 

40     „ 

0 

29 

i3:< 

F.  Champel 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Champclb. 

lOO-Anzani 

£| 

50    „ 

0 

36 

31 

F.  Champel 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Champel  b. 

100-Anzani 

100     „ 

I 

13 

u 

F.  Champel 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Champel  b. 

lOO-Anzani 

Oi 

150    „ 

.1 

49 

lu 

F.  Champel 

France 

•    April  15,  1913 

Champel  b. 

100-Anrani 

.    200     „ 

2 

25 

2i 

F   Champel 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Champel  b. 

lOO-Anzani 

L      250     „ 

3 

' 

17 

F   Champel 

France 

April  15,  19J3 

Champel  b. 

lOO-Anzani 

GREATEST    SPEED    (Over    5   Km    Circuit) 


Pilot  Alone  ... 
One  Passenger 
Two  Passengers 
Three  Passengers 
Four  Passengers 


J.  Vedrines 
G.  Legagneux 
E.  Nieuport 
P.  Mandelli 
Busson 


10812 
84-42 
6387 
65 -84 
5418 


Sept.  9,  1912 
July  20,  1912 
Mar  9,  19U- 
Aug  16,  1912 
Mar   10,  1911 


Deperdussin  m. 

Zens  m. 

Nieuport  m. 

Autoplan  m. 


160-Gnome 
80-Gnome 
50-Gnome 


DATE 


AEROPLANE 


■Pilot  Alone - 

One  Passenger 
TwT>  Passengers 
Three  Passengers 
Four  ~ 


•  M.  Fourny 
M.  Guillaux 

H.  Bier 
V  Mandelli 
F  Champel 


France 
Austria 
Austria 
France 


Sept.  W,  1913 
Feb.  11.  1913 
Oct.  1.  IMl 
Aug.  16.  1912 
April  15,  1913 


M.  Farman  b. 

Clement-Bayafd  1 

Etrich  m. 

Autoplan  m. 


70-Renault 

50-Gnorae 

120-Austrian-Dairaler 


Courtesy  of  "Flying. 


452 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AVIATION  WORLD  RECORDS— Continued. 

TIME 


TIME 

DISTANCE 

PILOT 

PLACE    . 

DATE 

AEROPLANE 

MOTOR 

Jhr 

miles- 
2835 

J.  V^drines 

France 

uly   13.  1912 

Deperdussin  m. 

160-Gnome 

i    „ 

52-57 

J.  Vedrines 

France 

uly  13.  1912 

Deperdussin  m.     ' 

160-Gnome 

104-48 

J.  V^drines 

France 

.     uly    13,  1912 

Deperdussin  m. 

2    „ 

145-58 

M.  Tabuteau 

France 

-Mar.    1.  1912 

Morane-Saulnier  m. 

50-Gnome 

192-68 

M,  Tabuteau 

France 

Mar     1.  1912 

Morane-Saulnier  m 
Morane-Safflnier  ni. 

50-Gnome 

4    >• 

255- 17 

E.  Gilbert 

France 

Dec.  30,  1912 

50-Le  Rhone 

5    „ 

316-71 

E.  Gilbert 

France 

Dec    30.  1912 

Morane-Saulnier  m. 

50-Le  Rh6ne 

Pilot  Alon* 

6    „ 

304-29 

P   M    Bournique 

France 

Dec.  31,  1910 

REPm. 

60-REP 

7    „ 

324-74 

M.  Tabuteau 

France 

Dec.  30,  1910 

M.  Farman  b.- 

70-Renault 

8    » 

363-41 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11,  1912 

M.  Farman  b 

70-Renault 

9   ,^ 

410-60 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11,  1912 

M.  Farman  b. 

70-Renault 

10    1, 

462-52 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11.  1912 

M.  Farman  b. 

70-Renault 

11    „ 

509-72 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11,  1912 

M.  Farman  b. 

70-Renault 

12    „ 

561-63 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept,  11,  1912 

■M. -Farman  b. 

70--Renault 

13    „ 

618-83 

M.  Fourny 

France 

Sept.  11.  1912 

M.  Farman  b. 

70-Renault 

Jhr 

19-26 

Legagneux 

Francd 

July     5,  1912 

Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

J   -, 

41-38 

Legagneux 

France 

,  uly  20,  1912 

Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

•OnePaisehger    ... 

1    » 

72-88 

Legagneux 

France 

uly  20,  1912 

Zens  m. 

80-Gnome 

2    „ 

119 

M.  Guillaux 

Frante 

Feb.  11,  1913 

CI^ment-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

3   „ 

181 

M.  Guillaux 
k.  Guillaux 

France 

Feb.  11,  1913 

Clement-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

4    „ 

2+3 

France 

Feb.  11,  1913 

CUment-Bayard  m. 

50-Gnome 

•  three  Pas^g^rs... 

l.hr. 

65-84. 

P  Man^elU 

Austria 

Aug.  16,  1912 

Autoplan-m. 

— 

(- 

\\ 

12-5     , 

1?  Champel 

France 

April  15;  1913  ' 

Champel  b. 

100-Anzani 

. 

25 

F  Champel 

France 

April  15.  1913 

Champel  b. 

100-Anzani 

.  Four  Passengen...  ■{ 

51 

F   Champel 

France 

April  15.  1913 

Champel  b. 

lOO-Anzani 

2    „ 

1025  ■ 

F.  Champel 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Champel  b. 

100-Anzani 

■     •■ 

3    „. 

153-5 

F   Champel 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Champel  b 

lOO-Anzani 

PILOT 

Time 

PLACE 

DATE 

AEROPLANE 

MOTOR 

Pilot  Alone      

M    Fourny 

"3,  17  in 

France 

Sept.  11.  1912 

M   Farman  b 

70-Renault 

One  Passenger. 

J-  Suvelack 

4    34     0 

Germaily 

Nov     8,  1911 

— 

— 

Two  Passengers 

H    Oelerich 

2    41      0 

Germany 

July     5,  1912 
Jan.   25,  1912 

— 

— 

Three  PasspngerS 

Grulich 

1     35      0 

Germany 

— 

— 

.Four  Passengers 

F  Champel 

3       1     17 

France 

April  15.  1913 

Champel  K 

lOO-Anzani 

Five.  Passengers         1.. 

H.  Faller 

1     ro     17 

Germany 

Feb     9,  1913 

Aviatik  b. 

— 

Six  Passengers  < 

-.H.  Faller 
»  Frantz 

0     20    20 

Germany 

Jan.     4,  1913 

Aviatik  b. 

— 

yPight  Passengers-,     ... 

0     11    28? 

France 

Mar.    8.  1913 

Savary  b. 

no-Canton-Unn« 

HEIGHT 

PILOT 

PLACE 

DATE 

AEROPLANE 

MOTOR 

Pilot  Al-ine 

19.600  ft 

J.  Perreyon 
J.  Perreyon 

France 

Mar  11.  1913 

Bl^riot  m. 

160-Gnome 

pne  Pasieriger  ,      .;. 
Two  Passengers     ... 

16,270  „ 

Francis 

June    3.  1913 

Bl^riot  01. 

.  t  SO-Gnome 

11,740  ,■, 

von  Blaschke 

Austria 

June  29,  1912 

Lohner  b. 

12d-iustrian-Dairaler 

Three  Passengers   .1. 

S,510  „ 

Marty 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Caudron  b. 

100-Anzani 

■  Four  Passengers     ;.-. 
JPive  Pas£ngers      ... 

i590  „ 

,       Marty 

France 

April  15,  1913 

Caudron  b. 

lOO-Anzani 

3,600  „ 

P.  Gougenheim  ' 

France 

Feb.  10,  1913 

H.  Farman  b 

80-Gnome 

Six  Passe|igers       ... 

2,790  „ 

Frangeois 

France 

May     8,  1913 

H.  Farman  b 

80-Gnome 

BALLOONS 

.-PILOT  , 
E-Uumpeiiiiayfer    ... 

DISTANCE 
.JOURNEY 
Lamotte-Voltchy-Iar        ... 

DATE 
March  19-21,  19i3 

DISTANCE 
1503  mUes 

c^i.  sch^k^ 

.  dufCation' 

^rlii-Borgstt^            

1908 

..e      . 

i.        73  hours 

B^tt  and  gfiriiig 

ALTITUDE 

June  30,  1901 

.         35,'f20  ft. 

AVIATION  FATALITIES. 


Keeping  pace  -with  the  marvelous  develop- 
ment in  the  field  of  aeronautics  has  been  the 
growing  increase  in  the  number  of  fatalities 
due  to  accidents  in  the  air.  Hardly  a  day- 
passes  without  its  victim,  and  while  at  first 
people  were  horrified,  to-day  they  take  it 
as  a  matter  of  course,  giving  it  merely  a 
passing  notice. 

Since  1908  there  have  been  371  a-viators 
killed  in  the  attempt  to  conquer  the  air. 
During  the  year  1908  one  aviator  was  killed; 
4  were  killed  in  1909;  36  in  1910;  73  in  1911; 
127  in  1912  and  130  in  1913  (up  to  Sept.  24). 


Germany,  which  of  late  has  been  more  active 
in  aeronautics  than  any  other  nation,  has 
lost  121  airmen;  France  is  second  with  99 
and  the  United  States  third  with  66.  Then 
in  order  follow  England  with  25,  Russia  18, 
Austria  9,  Japan  S,  Greece  6,  Belguim  6, 
Switzerland  3  and  all  others,  including  Italy, 
China,  Spain  and  Peru,  have  lost  10  airmen. 
The  heavy  toll  in  Germany  is  probably  due 
to  the  dirigible  balloon.  The  majority  of  the 
aviators  killed  in  the  various  countries  have 
been  army  aviators,  due  to  the  attempts  to 
increase  the  possibility  of  the  aeroplane  as  a 
naval  scout. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.  453 

LATEST  WORLD'S  FLYING  RECORDS. 

SPEED. 

Time  on  a  given  distance. 

(Aviator  alone) 

On  June  17,  1913.  M.  Prevost  broke  all  speed  records  for  distances  of  10  to  100  kilometers, 
on  the  course  at  Etampes,  France.  His  time  for  the  various  distances  was  as  follows:  10  km. 
(6.214  miles),  3m.  20.^  s.;  20  km.  (12.427  miles),  6m.  SOJ^  s.;  30  km.  (18.641  miles),  10  m.  2  s.; 
40  km.  (24.855  miles),  13  m.  23  s.;  50  km.  (31.068  miles),  16  m.  43§  s.;  100  km.  (62.137  miles), 
33m.    30§s. 

The  record  for  250  kilometers  was  broken  by  J.  Vedrines  on  Jan.  9,  1913,  his  time  for 
the  distance  being  2  hrs.  1  m.  53^  s.  The  record  for  200  kilometers  was  broken  on  September 
29,  1913,  at  the  Bethany  aerodrome,  by  Maurice  Prevost,  ^whose  time  for  the  distance  was 
59  m.  45§  s.;  a  terrific  speed  of  124.80  miles  per  hour. 

GREATEST  SPEED. 

(Over  5  km.  circuit) 

(Aviator  alone) 

M.  Prevost  broke  all  speed  records,  over  a  5  kilometer  course,  at  Etampes,  France,  June 
17,  1913,  when  he  attained  a  speed  of  111.66  miles  per  hour. 

TIME. 

Distance  in  a  given  time. 
(Aviator  alone) 

On  June  17,  1913,  M.  Prevost  covered  a  distance  of  53.59  miles  in  one-half  hour. 
On  July  13,  1913,  J.  Vedrines  covered  a  distance  of  153.34  miles  in  2  hours. 

DURATION. 

Practically  all  the  records  for  duration  have  been  broken  by  H.  Faller  of  Germany.  On 
Feb.  13,  1913  he  carried  2  passengers  for  3  hrs.  16  m.  On  Jan.  30,  1913  he  carried  3  passengers 
for  2  hrs.  3  m.     On  Jan.  5,  1913  he  carried  6  passengers  for  1  hr.  and  7  passengers  for  6  m.  49  s. 

CROSS  COUNTRY. 

1.  SPEED. 

On  September  15,  1913,  Maurice  Guillaux  established  a  new  cross-country  record,  cover- 
ing a  distance  of  118  miles,  with  a  passenger,  from  Savigny-sur-Brage  to  Paris,  in  50 
minutes.     This  was  at  the  rate  of  nearly  142  miles  per  hour. 

2.  TIME. 

Distance  in  a  given  time. 
(Aviator  alone) 

The  single-day  record  for  cross-country  flight  is  held  by  Maurice  Guillaux,  having  cov- 
ered 859  5€  miles. 

AMERICAN  AVIATION  RECORDS. 

CROSS  COUNTRY. 

1.  DISTANCE. 

(a)  Aviator  alone. 

220  miles,  Lt.  T.  deWitt  Milling,  U.S.A.— Texas  City,  Texas  to  San  Antonio,  Texas- 
March  28th,  1913 — Burgess-Wright  Tractor  biplane — 70  h.p.  Renault  motor. 

(b)  Aviator  and  one  passenger. 

(Same  as  above). 

2.  DURATION, 
fa)  Aviator  alone. 

Lt.  T.  deWitt  Milling,  U.S.A. — Texas  City,  Texas  to  San  Antonio,  Texas,   March  28, 
1913 — Burgess-Wright  Tractor  biplane — 70  h.p.  Renault  motor — 4  hours,  22  minutes, 
(b)  Aviator  and  one  passenger. 

(Same  as  for  aviator  alone). 


454 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE. 


The  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  organized  in  1848,  is  a 
learned  society  existing  as  a  continuation  of 
the  American  Association  of  Geologists  and 
Naturalists,  organized  in  1840.  It  was  char- 
tered In  its  present  form  in  1874.  At  present 
it  has  a  membership  of  about  8,000.  Any 
person  may  become  a  member  of  the  associa- 
tion upon  recommendation  in  writing  of  two 
members  or  fellows,  after  which  he  is  elected 
to  membership  by  the  Council,  or  by  the  spe- 
cial committee  of  the  Council  resident  in 
Washington.  The  admission  fee  for  members 
is    $5    and   the   annual    dues    $3. 

Fellows  are  elected  by  the  Council  from 
such   of  the  members  as  are  professionally  en- 


gaged In  science.  On  the  election  of  any 
member  as  a  fellow,  a  fee  of  $2'  is  paid  1ft 
addition    to   the   annual    dues    of    $3. 

Any  member  or  fellow  who  pays  the  aum 
of  $50  to  the  association,  at  any  one  time,  be- 
comes a  life  member  and  as  such  Is  exempt 
from  all  further  assessments.  Any  person  pay- 
ing the  sum   of   $1,000   is  classed  as  a  patron. 

The  association  is  made  up  of  11  sections 
as   follows: 

Mathematics  and  Astronomy;  Physics;  Chem- 
istry; Mechanical  Science  and  Engineering; 
Geology  and  Geography;  Zoology;  Botany;  An- 
thropology and  Psychology;  Social  and  Eco- 
nomic Science;  Physiology  and  Experimental 
Medicine;   Education. 


NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES. 


The  National  Academy  of  Sciences  was  in- 
corporated under  the  Act  of  Congress  May  3, 
1863,  with  the  object  that  it  "shall,  when- 
ever called  upon  by  any  department  of  the 
Government,  investigate,  examine,  experiment 
and  report  upon  any  subject  of  science  or  art; 
the  actual  expense  ***  to  be  paid  from  appro- 
priation which  may  be  made  for  the  purpose." 
The  Association  can  not,  under  any  circum- 
stances receive  compensation  from  the  govern- 


ment for  its  services.  The  annual  meeting  is 
held  in  Washington  on  the  third  Tuesday  in 
April;  annual  reports  are  made  each  year  at 
the  Autumn  meeting  which  is  held  at  such 
places  in  the  United  States  as  may  be  desig- 
nated by  the  Council.  The  membership  of  the 
Association  is  limited  to  150,  not  more  than 
10  to  be  elected  in  one  year;  the  number  of 
foreign  associates  is  limited  to  50.  There  are 
at  present  120  members  and  44  foreign  asso- 
ciates. 


THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 


The  Smithsonian  Institution  was  created  In 
1846  by  an  Act  of  Congress  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  will  of  James  Smith- 
son,  an  English  chemist  and  mineralogist,  who 
bequeathed  his  fortune  to  the  United  States 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  at  Washington, 
an  institution  for  "the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men."  From  the  income 
of  the  fund  the  building,  known  as  the 
Smithsonian  Building,  was  erected  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  The  institution  is  legally  an 
establishment  having  as  its  members  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  the  Vice-President, 
the  Chief  Justice  and  the  President's  Cabinet. 
It  is  governed  by  a  Board  of  Regents  consist- 
ing of  the  Vice-President,  the  Chief  Justice, 
three  members  of  the  United  States  Senate, 
three    members    of    the-   House    of    Representa- 


tives and  six  citizens  appointed  by  joint  reso- 
lution  of   Congress. 

For  increase  of  knowledge,  the  institution 
aids  investigation  by  making  grants  for  re- 
search and  exploration,  supplying  books,  ap- 
paratus, etc.  It  occasionally  provides  lectures 
which  are  published;  initiates  scientific  pro- 
jects; publishes  scientific  papers.  For  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge  the  institution  issues 
three  regular  series  of  publications:  "Annual 
Report,"  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge,"  and  "Smithsonian  Miscellaneous 
Collections."  The  institution  in  co-operation 
with  the  Library  of  Congress  maintains  a  sci- 
entific library  which  contains  about  260,000 
volumes.  The  original  endowment  of  $541,000 
has  been  Increased  by  gifts  and  accumulated 
interest  to  $987,000,  yielding  an  annual  in- 
come   of    $58,375. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  CENSUS  BUREAU. 


The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
•which  is  under  the  control  of  the  Department 
of  Commerce  and  Labor,  is  divided  into  two 
main  branches,  namely,  the  taking  of  the 
decennial  censuses  of  the  United  States,  and 
of  collecting  such  special  statistics  as  are  re- 
quired by  Congress.  The  thirteenth  decennial 
census  was  taken  in  1910  and  in  accordance 
with  the  Act  of  Congress  approved  July  2, 
1902,  covered  population,  agriculture,  manu- 
factures   and    mines    and    quarries. 

The  special  statistical  inquiries,  which  are 
mostly  made  in  the  Intervals  between  the 
decennial  censuses,   Include  statistics  of  births 


and  deaths  in  registered  areas ;  statistics  re- 
garding the  insane,  feeble-minded,  deaf  and 
dumb,  and  blind;  crime,  pauperism  and  be- 
nevolence; social  and  financial  statistics  of 
cities;  wealth,  debt  and  taxation;  religious 
bodies;  electric  light  and  power,  telephones 
and  telegraphs,  and  street  railways;  transpor- 
tation by  water;  cotton  production  and  dis- 
tribution; and  production  of  forest  products. 
The  Stat  sties  relating  to  deaths  in  cities  and 
to  the  production  of  cotton  are  secured  an- 
nually; the  other  statistics  mentioned  are  se- 
cured at  intervals  of  from  five  to  ten  years, 
but  not  at  the  same  time  as  the  regular 
decennial    censuses. 


THE  PRESIDENTIAL  SUCCESSION. 


In  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resignation 
or  inability  of  both  the  President  and  Vice- 
President,  then  the  Secretary  of  State  shall 
act  as  President  until  the  disability  of  the 
President  or  Vice-President  is  removed  or  a 
President  is  elected.  The  remainder  of  the 
order  of  succession  is  as  follows:     Secretary  of 


the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney-Gen- 
eral, Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  and  Secretary  of  the  Inteiior.  The  act- 
ing President  must,  upon  taking  office,  con- 
vene Congress,  if  not  at  the  time  In  session, 
in  extraordinary  session,  giving  twenty  days,* 
notice. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


455 


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PART  II. 

CHAPTER  I. 
CHEMISTRY. 

Edited  by  William  W.  Share,  Ph.D. 


INTERNATIONAL  ATOMIC   WEIGHTS   FOR  1912. 

Symbol. 

0=16. 

H=l. 

Element. 

Symbol. 

0=16. 

H  =  l. 

Al 

27.1 

26.88 

Molybdenum 

Mo 

96.0 

95.2 

Sb 

120.2 

119.25 

Neodymium 

Nd 

144.3 

143.2 

A 

39.88 

39.56 

Neon 

Ne 

20.2 

20. 

As 

74.96 

74.37 

Nickel 

Ni 

58.68 

58.21 

Ba 

137.37 

136.28 

Niton 

Nt 

222.4 

220.6 

Bi 

208. 

206.35 

Nitrogen 

N 

14.01 

13.90 

B 

11. 

10.91 

0.smium 

Oa 

190.9 

189.4 

Br 

79.92 

79.29 

Oxygen 
Palladium 

O 

16. 

15.88 

Cd 

112.40 

111.51 

Pd 

106.7 

105.8 

Cs 

132.81 

131.8 

Phosphorus 

P 

31.04 

30.79 

Ca 

40.07 

39.75 

Platinum 

Pt 

195.2 

194.64 

C 

12. 

11.91 

Potassium 

K 

39.10 

38.79 

Ce 

140.25 

139.1" 

Praseodymium 

Pr 

140.6 

139.5 

CI 

35.46 

35.18 

Radium 

Ra 

226.4 

224.6 

Cr 

52. 

51.59 

.Rhodium 

Rh 

102.9 

102.1 

Co 

58.97 

58.5 

Rubidium 

Rb 

85.45 

84.8 

Cb 

93.5 

92.76 

Ruthenium 

Ru 

101.7 

100.9 

Cu 

63.57 

63.06 

Samarium 

Sa 

150.4 

149.2 

Dy 

162.5 

161.2 

Scandium 

Sc 

44.1 

43.8 

Er 

167.7 

166.4 

Selenium 

Se 

79.2 

78.6 

Eu 

152. 

151.1 

Silicon 

Si 

28.3 

28.08 

F 

19. 

18.75 

Silver 

Ag 

107.88 

107.02 

Gd 

157.3 

156.1 

Sodium 

Na 

23. 

22.82 

Ga 

69.9 

69.3 

Strontium 

Sr     . 

87.63 

86.93 

Ge 

72.5 

71.9 

Sulphur 

•s 

32.07 

31.82 

Gl 

9.1 

9. 

Tantalum 

Ta 

181.5 

180.1 

Au 

197.2 

195.6 

Tellurium 

Te 

127.5 

126.5 

He 

3.99 

3.96 

Terbium 

Tb 

159.2 

157.9 

H 

1.008 

1. 

Thallium 

Tl 

204. 

202.4 

In 

114.8 

113.9 

Thorium 

Th 

232.4 

230.6 

I 

126.92 

125.91 

Thulium 

Tm 

168.5 

167.2 

Ir 

193.1 

191.56 

Tin 

Sn 

119. 

118.06 

Fe 

55.84 

55.4 

Titanium 

Ti 

48.1 

47.7 

Kr 

82.92 

82.2 

Tungsten 

W 

184. 

182.5 

La 

139. 

137.9 

Uranium 

U 

238.5 

236.6 

Pb 

207.1 

205.46 

Vanadium 

V 

51. 

50.6 

Li 

6.94 

6.88 

Xenon 

Xe 

130.2 

129.2 

Lu 

174. 

172.6 

Ytterbium  (Neo) 

Yb 

172. 

170.6 

Mg 

24.32 

24.13 

Yttrium 

Yt 

89. 

88.3 

Mn 

54.93 

54.49 

Zinc 

Zn 

65.37 

64.8 

Hg 

200.6 

199.01 

Zirconium 

Zr 

90.6 

89.95 

ELEMENTS  IN 

THE  OR 

DER  OF  THEIR  DISCOVERY. 

Discoverer. 

Date. 

Element. 

Discoverer. 

Date. 

Prehistoric 

Antimony 

Valentine 

1450 

" 

Bismuth 

" 

1450 

" 

Zinc 

Paracelsus 

1520 

" 

Phosphorus 

Brandt 

1669 

" 

Arsenic 

Schroeder 

1694 

" 

Cobalt 

Brandt 

1733 

" 

Platinum 

Wood 

1741 

" 

Nickel 

Cronstedt 

1751 

" 

Hydrogen 

Cavendish 

1766 

457 


458 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  ELEMENTS  IN  THE  ORDER   OF  THEIR  DISCOVERY— Continued. 


Element. 


Discoverer. 


Date. 


Nitrogen 

Rutherford 

1772 

Chlorine 

Scheele 

1774 

Manganese 

Gahn 

1774 

Oxygen 

Priestley 

1774 

Tungsten 

d'Elhujur 

1781 

Molybdenum 

Hjelm 

1782 

Tellurium 

Reichenstein 

1782 

Uranium 

Klaproth 

1789 

Titanium 

Gregor 

1789 

Chromium 

Vauquelin 
Hutchett 

1797 

Columbium 

1801 

Tantalum 

Ekeberg 

1802 

Cerium 

Berzelius 

1803 

Iridium 

Tennant 

1803 

Osmium 

1803 

Palladium 

Wollaston 

1804 

Rhodium 

" 

1804 

Sodium 

Davy 

1807 

Potassium 

" 

1807 

Calcium 

" 

1808 

Barium 

" 

1808 

Strontium 

" 

1808 

Boron 

" 

1808 

Iodine 

Courtois 

1811 

Cadmium 

Stromeyer 

1817 

Lithium 

Arfvedson 

1817 

Selenium 

Berzelius 

1817 

Silicon 

1823 

Zirconium 

" 

1824 

Bromine 

Balard 

1826 

Aluminium 

Woehler 

1828 

Glucinum 

1828 

Element. 

Discoverer. 

Date. 

Thorium 

Berzelius 

1828 

Yttrium 

Woehler 

1828 

Magnesium 

Bussy 

1829 

Vanadium 

Sefstroem 

1830 

Lanthanum 

Mosander 

1839 

Erbium 

" 

1843 

Terbium 

" 

1843 

Ruthenium 

Claus 

1845 

Caesium 

Bunsen 

1860 

Rubidium 

1860 

Thallium 

Crookes 

1862 

Indium 

Reich  &  Richter 

1863 

Gallium 

Boisbaudran 

1875 

Ytterbium 

Marignac 

1878 

Samarium 

Boisbaudran 

1879 

Scandium 

Nilson 

1879 

Thulium 

Cleve 

1879 

Neodymium 

Welsbach 

1885 

Praseodymium 

" 

1885 

Gadolinium 

Marignac 

1886 

Germanium 

Winkler 

1886 

Argon 

Ramsay  &  Rayleigh 

1894 

Helium 

Ramsay 

1895 

Krypton 

Ramsay  &  Travers 

1898 

Neon 

" 

1898 

Xenon 

" 

1898 

Radium 

Curie 

1898 

Europium 

Demarcay 

1901 

Dysprosium 

Urbain 

1906 

Lutecium 

" 

1907 

Neoytterbium 

" 

1907 

Niton 

Ramsay  &  Gray 

1910 

MELTING  POINTS  OF  SOME  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS. 


Substance. 

Aluminium 

Antimony 

Bismuth 

Cadmium 

Calcium 

Chromium 

Cobalt 

Copper 

Gold 

Iridium 

Iron,  pure 

gray  pi^ 
white  pig 

Steel, 

cast 

Lead 

Lithium 


degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Substance. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

657 

1215 

Magnesium 

632.6 

1171 

630 

1168 

Manganese 

1207 

2205 

269 

516 

Mercury 

-38.85 

-37.93 

321.7 

611 

Nickel 

1435 

2615 

800 

1472 

Phosphorus 

44.2 

112 

1515 

2759 

Platinum 

1753 

3187 

1464 

2667 

Potassium 

63.6 

146.5 

1065 

1949 

Selenium 

217 

423 

1060 

1940 

Silver 

961.5 

1763 

1950 

3542 

Sodium 

97.6 

208 

1505 

2741 

Sulphur 

114.5 

238 

1275 

2327 

Tantalum 

2300 

4172 

1075 

1967 

Tin 

232 

550 

1360 

2480 

Titanium 

3000 

5432 

1375 

2507 

Tungsten 

2800 

5072 

327 

621 

Vanadium 

1680 

3056 

180 

356 

Zinc 

419 

786 

BOILING  POINTS  OF  SOME  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS. 


Degrees 

Degrees 

Substance. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Substance 

Bromine 

58.7 

137.6 

Oxygen 

Cadmium 

778 

1400 

Ozone 

Chlorine 

-33.6 

-28.5 

Phosphorus 

Fluorine 

-187 

-304.6 

Potassium 

Hydrogen 

-252.5 

-422.5 

Selenium 

Iodine 

185.5 

366 

Sodium 

Mercury 

357.33 

675.2 

Sulphur 

Nitrogen 

-195.5 

-320 

Zinc 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

-182.5 

-296.5 

-119 

-182.2 

290 

554 

757.5 

1396 

690 

1274 

877.5 

1612 

444.6 

800 

918 

1684 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


459 


THE  MOST  PLENTIFUL  ELEMENTS  AND 
THEIR    PERCENTAGE     DISTRIBU- 
TION IN  KNOWN  MATTER. 


Oxygen 

47.98 

Titanium 

.30 

Silicon 

25.30 

Carbon 

.21 

Aluminium 

7.26 

Chlorine 

.15 

Iron 

5.08 

Phosphorus 

.09 

Calcium 

3.51 

Manganese 

.07 

Magnesium 
Sodium 

2.50 

Sulphur 

.04 

2.28 

Barium 

.03 

Potassium 

2.23 

Nitrogen 

.02 

Hydrogen 

.94 

Chromium 

.01 

ELEMENTARY  COMPOSITION   OF  THE 

HUMAN  BODY. 

Per  cent. 

Pounds. 

Oxygen 

62.43 

93.645 

Carbon 

21.15 

51.725 

Hydrogen 

9.865 

14.798 

Nitrogen 

3.1 

4.65 

Calcium 

1.9 

2.85 

Phosphorus 

.946 

1.419 

Potassium 

.23 

.345 

Sulphur 

.162 

.243 

Chlorine 

.081 

.121 

Sodium 

.081 

.122 

Magnesium 

.027 

.040 

Iron 

.014 

.021 

Fluorine 

.014 

.021 

100. 


1.50. 


HEAT  OF  COMBUSTION 


SUBSTANCE. 

CALORIES. 

B.  T.  U. 

Alcohol,  ethyl 

7,184 

12,931 

"         methyl 

5,330 

9,594 

amyl 

8,958 

16,124 

Benzene 

10,030 

18,054 

Carbon,  amorphous 

8,080 

14,544 

Coal,  bituminous 

J     7,800 
t     9,000 

14,040 

16,200 

"     anthracite 

7,800 

14,040 

"      lignite 

6,900 

12,420 

Coke 

7,000 

12,600 

Gas,  coal 

f     4,440 
1     7,370 

7,990 

12,266 

Acetylene 

11,927 

21,469 

Ethylene 

11,858 

21,344 

Methane 

13,063 

23,513 

Hydrogen 

34,462 

62,032 

Carbon  monoxide 

5,640 

10,152 

Oil,  lard 

9,300 

16,740 

"     olive 

9,473 

17,051 

Wood,  hard 

4,750 

8,550 

"       soft  resinous 

5,050 

9,090 

A  Calorie  Ls  the  amoimt  of  heat  required  to 
raise  1  gramme  of  water  1  degree  Centigrade. 

A  British  Thermal  Unit  (B.  T.  U.)  is  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  pound  of 
water  1  degree  Fahrenheit. 


CHEMICAL  SUBSTANCES  AND  THEIR  COMMON  NAMES. 


COMMON  NAME. 

Alcohol 
Alum 

Aqua  fortis 
Aqua  regia 
Banana  ether 
Black  lead 
Borax 
Brimstone 
Calomel 
Carbolic  acid 
Caustic  potash 

"        soda 
Chalk 

Choke  damp 
Chrome  yellow 

"        green 
Clay 

Copperas 

Corrosive  sublimate 
Cream  of  tartar 

Epsom  salts 
Fire  damp 
Fusel  oil 
Glauber's  salt 
Grape  sugar 
Goulard  water 
Iron  pyrites 
Laughing  gas 
Lime,  quick 
"       slaked 
Litharge 
Lunar  caustic 


CHEMICAL  NAME. 

Ethyl  alcohol 

Potassium  aluminium 
sulphate 

Nitric  acid 

Nitro-hydrochloric    acid 

Amyl  acetate 

Graphite  carbon 

Sodium  tetraborate 

Sulphur 

Mercurous  chloride 

Phenol 

Potassium  hydroxide 

Sodium  hydroxide 

Calcium  carbonate 

Carbon  dioxide 

Lead  chromate 

Chromium  oxide 

Aluminum  silicate 

Ferrous  sulphate 

Mercuric  chloride 

Potassium  hydrogen  tar- 
trate 

Magnesium  sulphate 

Methane 

Amyl  alcohol 

Sodium  sulphate 

Glucose 

Basic  lead  acetate 

Iron  disulphide 

Nitrous  oxide 

Calcium  oxide 

"         hydroxide 

Lead  oxide 

Silver  nitrate 


COMMON  NAME. 

Marsh  gas 
Mosaic  gold 
Muriatic  acid 
Orpiment 
Paris  green 
Plaster  of  Paris 
Prussian  blue 
Realgar 
Red  lead 
Rochelle  salt 

Sal  ammoniac 
Salt,  common 
Salt  of  tartar 
Saltpetre 
Salts  of  lemon 
Soda,  washing 

"      baking 

"      ash 
Spirits  of  hartshorn 
Spirits  of  salt 
Tartar  emetic 

Verdigris 
Vermilion 
Vinegar 
Vitriol,  blue 

"        green 

"        oil  of 

"        white 
Volatile  alkali 
White  lead 
Wood  alcohol 
Zinc  white 


CHEMICAL  NAME. 

Methane 

Stannic  sulphide 

Hydrochloric  acid 

Arsenic  trisulphide 

Copper  arsenite 

Calcium  sulphate 

Ferric  ferrocyanide 

Arsenic  disulphide 

Lead  oxide 

Sodium    potassium     tar- 
trate 

Ammonium  chloride 

Sodium  chloride 

Potassium  carbonate 
"  nitrate 

Oxalic  acid 

Sodium  carbonate 

"     hydrogen  carbonate 

Sodium  carbonate 

Ammonium  hydroxide 

Hydrochloric  acid 

Potassium  antimonyl  tar- 
trate 

Basic  copper  acetate 

Mercuric  sulphide 

Acetic  acid 

Copper  sulphate 

Ferrous  sulphate 

Sulphuric  acid 

Zinc  sulphate 

Ammonium  hydroxide 

Basic  lead  carbonate 

Methyl  alcohol 

Zinc  oxide 


460 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 


To  Convert  Degrees  Baum6  into 
Specific  Gravity. —  (1)  For  liquids 
heavier  than  water :  Subtract  the  de- 
gree of  Baume  from  145  and  divide 
into  145.  The  quotient  is  the  specific 
gravity. 

(2)  Fop4iquids  lighter  than  water: 
Add  the  degree  of  Baume  to  130  and 
divide  it  into  140.  The  quotient  is  the 
specific  gravity. 

To  Convert  Specific  Gravity  into  De- 
grees Baume. —  (1)  For  liquids 
heavier  than  water:  Divide  the  speci- 
fic gravity  into  145  and  subtract  from 
145.  The  remainder  is  the  degree  of 
Baum§. 

(2)  For  liquids  lighter  than  water: 
Divide  the  specific  gravity  into  140 
and  subtract  130  from  the  quotient. 
The  remainder  will  be  the  degree  of 
Baume. 

COMPARISON      OF      DEGREES      TWADDELL 
AND   SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

In  order  to  change  degrees  Twad- 
dell  into  specific  gravity,  multiply  by 
5,  add  1,000  and  divide  by  1,000. 

Example:     Change  168  deg.  Twad- 
dell  into  specific  gravity. 
168X5 

840 
1,000 

1,000)1,840 

1.84,  specific  gravity. 

To  change  specific  gravity  into  de- 
grees Twaddell,  multiply  by  1,000, 
subtract  1,000  and  divide  by  5. 

Example :  Change  1.84  specific 
gravity  to  degrees  Twaddell. 

1.84X1,000 

1,840 

1,000 

5)840 
168°  Tw. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

Determination  of  Specific  Gravity': 
Solids:  (1)  Solids  heavier  than,  and 
insoluble  in  water : 

a.  By  weighing  in  air  and  water. — 

Q (weight  in  air) 

*     (loss  of  weight  in  water) 

&.  By  Nicholson's  hydrometer.  Let 
wi  be  the  weight  required  to  sink  the 
instrument  to  the  mark  on  the  stem  ;  to 


Sp.  gr.  = 


take  the  specific  gravity  of  any  solid 
substance,  place  a  portion  of  it  weigh- 
ing less  than  wi  in  the  upper  pan, 
with  such  additional  weight,  say  1^3, 
as  will  cause  the  instrument  to  sink 
to  the  zero  mark.  The  weight  of  the 
substance  is  then  wi — ws.  Next  trans- 
fer the  substance  to  the  lower  pan, 
and  again  adjust  with  weight  w?*  to 
the  zero  mark. 

Sp.gr.  =Hl^li^3 
W4  —  W3 

c.  By  the  specific  gravity  bottle 
(applicable  to  powders).  Weigh  the 
flask  filled  to  the  mark  with  water, 
then  place  the  substance,  of  known 
weight,  in  the  flask,  fill  to  the  mark 
with  water,   and  weigh   again. 

weight  of  substance  in  air 

wt.  in  air  +  wt.  of  flask  and  water  — 

wt.  of  flask  filled  with  substance  and 

water. 

(2)  Solids  lighter  than  and  insolu- 
ble in  water.  The  solid  is  weighted 
with  a  piece  of  lead  and  weighed  in 
water. 

_  ^         (weight  of  substance  in  air) 

bp.  gr--(,^  of  iga^j  jn  water) -(wt.  of  lead 
and  substance  in  water)  -I-  (wt.  of  sub- 
stance in  air) 

(3)  Solids  heavier  than  and  soluble 
in  water.  Proceed. as  in  1  o,  using 
instead  of  water  some  liquid  without 
action  on  the  solid. 

(weight  of  bulk  of  liquid  equal  to  sub- 
stance)    —     (weight    of    substance    in 
air)     —     (weight     of     substance     in 
liquid). 

,.,,,,,  ^  (wt.  of  bulk  of  liquid 
(wt.  of  bulk  of  water        equal  to  substance) 

equal  to  substance)  =  ^ — -. 7-p — r-jr — 

(sp.  gr.  of  liquid) 


Sp.  gr.  = 


(weight  of  substance  in  air) 

(weight  of  bulk   of  water  equal  to 

substance) 

Liquids:    (1)  By  the  hydrometer. 

(2)  By  the  specific  gravity  bottle. 

Weigh  the  bottle  filled  to  the  mark 
with  water,  and  again  when  filled  to 
the  mark  with  liquid. 

(weight     of    liquid     and    bottle)  — 

Q (weight  of  bottle) 

(weight     of    water     and     bottle)  — 
(weight  of  bottle) 

Tables  of  Specific  Gravity  will  be 
found  under  Weights  and  Measures. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


461 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 
Tables  showing  a  comparison  of  the  degrees  of  Baum6,  Cartier,  and  Beck's  Areometers,  with 
specific  gravity  degrees. 


For  Liquids  Lighter  than  Water. 


Degrees  of 
Baum^, 

Baum^. 

Cartier. 

Beck. 

Cartier, 

Beck. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

0 

1.0000 

0.9941 

2 

0.9883 

3 

0  9826 

4 

0.9770 

5 

0.9714 

6 

0.9659 

7 

0.9604 

8 

0.9550 

9 

0.9497 

10 

1.000 
0.993 

0.9444 

11 

1.000 

0.9392 

12 

0.986 

0.992 

0.9340 

13. 

0.979 

0.985 

0.9289 

14 

0.973 

0.977 

0.9239 

15 

0.967 

0.969 

0.9189 

16 

0.960 

0.962 

0.9139 

17 

0.954 

0.955 

0.9090 

18 

0.948 

0.948 

0.9042 

19 

0.942 

0.941 

0.8994 

20 

0.935 

0.934 

0.8947 

21 

0.929 

0.927 

0.8900 

22 

0.924 

0.920 

0.8854 

23 

0.918 

0.914 

0.8808 

24 

0.912 

0.908 

0.8762 

25 

0.906 

0.901 

0.8717 

26 

0.901 

0.895 

0.8673 

27 

0.895 

0.889 

0.8629 

28 

0.889 

0.883 

0.8585 

29 

0.884 

0.877 

0.8542 

30 

0.879 

0.871 

0.8500 

31 

0.873 

0.865 

0.8457 

32 

0.868 

0.859 

0.8415 

33 

0.863 

0.853 

0.8374 

34 

0.858 

0.848 

0.8333 

35 

0.853 

0.842 

0.8292 

36 

0.848 

0.837 

0.8252 

37 

0.843 

0.831 

0.8212 

38 

0.838 

0.826 

08 173 

39 

0.833 

0.820 

0.8133 

40 

0.829 

0.815 

0.8095 

41 

0.824 

0.810 

0.8061 

42 

0.819 

0.805 

0.8018 

43 

0.815 

0.800 

0.7981 

44 

0.810 
0.806 
0.801 
0.797 
0.792 
0.788 
0.784 
0.781 
0.776 
0.771 
0.769 
0.763 
0.759 
0.755 
0.751 
0.748 
0.744 
0,740 
0.736 

0.7944 

45 

0.7907 

46 

0.7871 

47 

0.7834 

48 

0.7799 

49 

0.7763 

50 

. 

0.7727 

61 

0.7692 

52 

0.7658 

53 

0.7623 

54 

0.7589 

55 

0.7556 

56 

0.7522 

57 

0.7489 

58 

0.7456 

59 

0.7423 

60 

0.7391 

61 

0.7359 

62 

0.7328 

For  Liquids  Heavier  than  Water. 


Degrees  of 

Baum^. 

Beck. 

Baumc:!, 
Beck. 

Sp.  Gi;. 

Sp.  Gr. 

0 

1.000 

1.0000 

1 

1.007 

1.0059 

2 

1.014 

1.0119 

3 

1.020 

1.0180 

4 

1.028 

1 . 0241 

5 

1.034 

1.0303 

6 

1.041 

1.0366 

7 

1.049 

1.0429 

8 

1.057 

1.0494 

9 

1.064 

1.0559 

10 

1.072 

1.0625 

11 

1.080 

1.0692 

12 

1.088 

1.0759 

13 

1.096 

1.0828 

14 

1.104 

1.0897 

15 

1.113 

1.0968 

16 

1.121 

1.1039 

17 

1.130 

1.1111 

18 

1.138 

1.1184 

19 

1.147 

1.1258 

20 

1.157 

1  1333 

21 

1.166 

1.1409 

22 

1.176 

1.1486 

23 

1.185 

1,1565 

24 

1.195 

1.1644 

25 

1.205 

1 , 1724 

26 

1.215 

1.1806 

27 

1.225 

1.1888 

28 

1.235 

1.1972 

29 

1.245 

1.2057 

30 

1.256 

1.2143 

31 

1.267 

1.2230 

32 

1.278 

1.2319 

33 

1.289 

1.2409 

34 

1.300 

1.2500 

35 

1.312 

1,2593 

36 

1.324 

1.2680 

37 

1.337 

1.278a 

38 

1.349 

1.2879 

39 

1.361 

1,2977 

40 

1.375 

1,3077 

41 

1.388 

1,3178 

42 

1.401 

1,3281 

43 

1.414 

1.3386 

44 

1.428 

1.3492 

45 

1.442 

1.3600 

46 

1.456 

1.3710 

47 

1.470 

1.3821 

48 

1.485 

1.3934 

49 

1.500 

1.4050 

60 

1.515 

1,4167 

51 

1.531 

1.4286 

52 

1.546 

1.4407 

53 

1.562 

1.4530 

54 

1.578 

1.4655 

65 

1.596 

1.4783 

56 

1.615 

1.4912 

57 

1.634 

1.5044 

58 

1.653 

1.5179 

59 

1.671 

1.5315 

60 

1.690 

1.5454 

61 

1.709 

1.5596 

62 

1.729 

1,5741 

63 

1.750 

1.5888 

64 

1.771 

1.6038 

462 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THERMOMETER  SCALES. 


Much  annoyance  is  caused  by  the 
great  difference  of  thermometer  scales 
in  use  in  the  different  civilized  coun- 
tries. The  scale  of  Reaumur  prevails 
in  Germany.  As  is  well  known,  he  di- 
vides the  space  between  the  freezing 
and  boiling  points  into  80  deg.  France 
uses  that  of  Celsius,  who  graduated 
his  scale  on  the  decimal  system.  The 
most  peculiar  scale  of  all,  however,  is 
that  of  Fahrenheit,  a  renowned  Ger- 
man physicist,  who  in  1714  or  1715, 
composed  his  scale,  having  ascertained 
that  water  can  be  cooled  under  the 
freezing  point,  without  congealing.  He 
therefore  did  not  take  the  congealing 
point  of  water,  but  composed  a  mix- 


ture of  equal  parts  of  snow  and  sal 
ammoniac,  about  — 14  deg.  R.  The 
conversion  of  any  one  of  these  scales  to 
another  is  very  simple,  and  easily 
made.  To  change  a  temperature  as 
given  by  Fahrenheit's  scale  into  the 
same  as  given  by  the  centigrade  scale 
subtract  32  deg.  from  Fahrenheit's  de- 
grees, and  multiply  the  remainder  by 
5-9.  The  product  will  be  the  tem- 
perature in  centigrade  degrees. 

To  change  from  Fahrenheit's  to 
Reaumur's  scale,  subtract  32  deg.  from 
Fahrenheit's  degrees,  and  multiply  the 
remainder  by  4-9.  The  product  will 
bo  the  temperature  in  Reaumur's  de- 
grees. 


COMPARATIVE   SCALES    OF 

THERMOMETER. 

c. 

R. 

F. 

C. 

R. 

F. 

1      C. 

R. 

46.4 

1       F. 

-30 

-24.0 

-22.0 

14 

11.2 

57.2 

136  4 

-29 

-23.2 

-20.2 

15 

12.0 

59.0 

59 

47.2 

138.2 

-28 

-22.4 

-18.4 

16 

12.8 

60.8 

60 

48.0 

140.0 

-27 

-21.6 

-16.6 

17 

13.6 

62.6 

61 

48.8 

141.8 

-26 

-20.8 

-14.8 

18 

14.4 

64.4 

62 

49.6 

143.6 

•      -25 

-"^O.O 

-13.0 

19 

15.2 

66.2 

63 

50.4 

145.4 

-24 

-19.2 

-11.2 

20 

16.0 

68.0 

64 

51.2 

147.2 

-23 

-18.4 

-9.4 

21 

16.8 

69.8 

65 

52.0 

149.0 

-22 

-17.6 

-7.6 

22 

17.6 

71.6 

66 

52.8 

150.8 

-21 

-16.8 

-5.8 

23 

18.4 

73.4 

67 

53.6 

152.6 

-20 

-16.0 

-4.0 

24 

19.2 

75.2 

68 

54.4 

154.4 

-19 

-15.2 

-2.2 

25 

20.0 

77.0 

69 

55.2 

156.2 

-18 

-14.4 

-0.4 

26 

20.8 

78.8 

70 

56.0 

158.0 

-17 

-13.6 

1.4 

27 

21.6 

80.6 

71 

56.8 

159.8 

*-16 

-12.8 

3.2 

28 

22.4 

82.4 

72 

57.6 

161.6 

-15 

-12.0 

5.0 

29 

23.2 

84.2 

73 

58.4 

163.4 

-14 

-11.2 

^.8 

30 

24.0 

86.0 

74 

59.2 

165.2 

-13 

-10.4 

8.6 

31 

24.8 

87.8     1 

75 

60.0 

167.0 

-12 

-9.6 

10.4 

32 

25.6 

89.6     1 

76 

60.8 

168.8 

-11 

-8.8 

12.2 

33 

26.4 

91.4 

77 

61.6 

170.6 

-10 

-8.0 

14.0 

34 

27.2 

93.2 

78 

62.4 

172.4 

-9 

-7.2 

15.8 

35 

28.0 

95.0 

79 

63.2 

174.2 

-8 

-6.4 

17.6 

36 

28.8 

96.8 

80 

64.0 

176.0 

-7 

-5.6 

19.4 

37 

29.6 

98.6 

81 

64.8 

177.8 

-6 

-4.8 

21.2 

38 

30.4 

100.4 

82 

65.6 

179.6 

-5 

-4.0 

23.0      1 

39 

31.2 

102.2 

83 

66.4 

181.4 

-4 

-3.2 

24.8 

40 

32.0 

104.0 

84 

67.2 

183.2 

-3 

-2.4 

26.6 

41 

32.8 

105.8 

85 

68.0 

185.0 

-2 

-1.6 

28.4 

42 

33.6 

107.6 

86 

68.8 

186.8 

-1 

-0.8 

30.2 

43 

34.4 

109.4 

87 

69.6 

188.6 

0 

0.0 

32.0 

44 

35.2 

111.2      1 

88 

70.4 

190.4 

1 

0.8 

33.8 

45 

36.0 

113.0     I 

89 

71.2 

192.2 

2 

1.6 

35.6 

46 

36.8 

114.8      I 

90 

72.0 

194.0 

3 

2.4 

37.4 

47 

37.6 

116.6 

91 

72.8 

195.8 

4 

3.2 

39.2 

48 

38.4 

118.4 

92 

73.6 

197.6 

5 

4.0 

41.0 

49 

39.2 

120.2 

93 

74.4 

199.4 

6 

4.8 

42.8 

50 

40.0 

122.0 

94 

75.2 

201.2 

7 

5.6 

44.6 

51 

40.8 

123.8 

95 

76.0 

203.0 

8 

6.4 

46.4 

52 

41.6 

125.6 

96 

76.8 

204.8 

9 

7.2 

48.2 

53 

42.4 

127.4 

97 

77.6 

206.6 

10 

8.0 

50.0 

54 

43.2 

129.2 

98 

78.4 

208.4 

11 

8.8 

51.8 

55 

44.0 

131.5 

99 

79.2 

210.2 

12 

9.6 

53.6 

56 

44.8 

132.8 

100 

80.0 

212.0 

13 

10.4 

55.4 

57 

45.6 

134.6 

To  change  the  temperature  as  given 
by  the  centigrade  scale  into  the  same 
as  given  by  Fahrenheit,  multiply  the 
centigrade  degrees  by  9-5  and  add  32 
deg.  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 
the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit's  scale. 

To  change  from  Reaumur's  to  Fahr- 


enheit's scale,  multiply  the  degrees  on 
Reaumur's  scale  by  9-4  and  add  32 
deg.  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 
the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit's  scale. 
For  those  who  wish  to  save  them- 
selves the  trouble  we  have  calculated 
the  preceding  comparative  table. 


CHAPTER   II. 


ASTRONOMY  AND  TIME, 

Edited  by  A.  Russell  Bond. 


Astronomical  Symbols  and  Abbreviations. 


O      The  Sun. 
a       The  Moon. 

8  Mercury. 

9  Venus. 

I  or  5  The  Earth, 
cf      Mars. 
%      Jupiter. 
>l       Saturn. 
S       Uranus. 
V      Neptune. 
5      Conjunction. 
D      Quadrature. 
8       Opposition. 
Cl      Ascending 
Node. 
Descending 
Node. 
h  Hours. 

m  Minutes  of  Time, 
s    Seconds  of  Time. 


Degrees. 
Minutes  of  Arc. 
Seconds  of  Arc. 
North.      S.    South. 
East.        W.  West. 


15 


0.  T  Aries 0 

1.  8  Taurus 30 

II.  II  Gemini 60 

III.  23  Cancer 90 

IV.  Q,  Leo 120 

V.  iry  Virgo 150 

VI.  ^  Libra 180 

VII.  m  Scorpio 210 

VIII.  S  Sagittarius  .240 

IX.  V3=  Capricornus .  270 

X.  —  Aquarius.  .  .300 

XI.  K  Pisces 330 


The  Earth. 

The  Earth  rotates  at  a  velocity  of  15  degrees 
an  hour  (about  17.366  miles  a  minute  at  the 
Equator);  1°  is  therefore  equal  to  4  minutes. 
The  Circumference  of  the  Globe  is  about 
24,855  miles,  and  the  diameter  about  7,900 
miles.     More  exactly: 

miles. 

Earth's  Equatorial  Semi-diameter  =  3963.296 

"       Polar  "  "  =  3949.790 

"       Mean  "  "  =  3958.794 

"       Oblateness    =        gj-^ 

1°  of  latitude  at  pole =      69.407 

1°  "  equator =      68.704 

The  temperature  increases  on  an  average 
about  1°  F.  for  every.64  feet  descent.  But  this 
amount  is  variable  according  to  the  locaUty, 
geological  formation,  and  dip  of  strata.  In 
the  Calumet  and  Hecla  Mines,  observations 
show  an  increase  of  1°  in  about  every  125 
feet.  At  Bendigo  it  is  shown  to  be  1°  per  80 
feet  of  descent.  At  Ronchamp  Collieries,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  temperature  increases  1° 
F.  in  only  49  feet. 

The  mean  density  of  the  earth  is  5.53  times 
as  great  as  that  of  an  equal  bulk  of  water. 
Area  in  sq.  miles: 

Africa 11,514,000 

North  America 6,446,000 

South  America 6,837,000 

Asia 14,710,000 

Australasia 3,288,000 

Europe 3,555,000 

Polar  Regions 4,888,800 


Total  surface 196,971,984  sq.  miles 

Cubic  contents.  .    259,944,035,515  cubic  miles 

Feet. 

Greatest  depth  of  sea  (Pacific  O.) 30,000 

(Atlantic) 27,366 

Highest  mountain  (Himalaya) 29,002 

Highest  balloon  ascent  above  the  earth.  37,000 
(without man)..  95,280 


By  combining  a  large 
rocks  of  all  sorts,  F.  W. 
the  relative  amounts  of 
of  the  earth: 

Per  cent.  ! 

Oxygen 47.02 

Silicon 28.06 

Aluminium 8.16 

Iron 4.64 

Calcium 3.50 

Magnesium 2.62 

Sodium 2.63 


number  of  analyses  of 
Clarke  has  estimated 
elements  in  the  crust 


Potassium . 
Titanium . . .  . 

Hydrogen 

Carbon 

Phosphorus . , 


2.32 
.41 
.17 
.12 
.09 


Manganese . 

Sulphur 

Barium . . . . 
Strontium.. 
Chromium . 

Nickel 

Lithium . .  . 
Chlorine . . . 
Fluorine . . . 


Per  cent. 

07 

07 

...  .05 
...  .02 
...  .01 
...  .01 
...  .01 
...  .01 
...       .01 


100 

-Science  Year  Book. 


Total 51,238,800 


The  Earth  is  not  always  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  Sun.  In  the  Nautical  Almanac  the 
sun's  apparent  semi-diameter  is  given  for 
every  day  in  the  year.  The  apparent  semi-di- 
ameter was  16'  17".  89  on  January  1st,  1912, 
and  on  July  1st  of  the  same  year  it  was 
15'  45".  68.  This  proves  that  a  greater  distance 
separates  us  from  the  sun  in  summer  than  in 
winter. 

Perihelion  and  Aphelion. — When  the 
earth  is  nearest  to  the  sun  it  is  said  to  be  in 
Perihelion,  and  when  farthest  from  the  sun 
it  is  said  to  be  in  Aphelion. 

The  Earth  Moves  with  varying  Ve- 
locity IN  ITS  Orbit. — This  is  ascertained 
by  measuring  the  sun's  longitude  for  two 
successive  days  at  different  times  of  the  year, 
by  which  means  it  is  found  in  December  to 
move  over  Gl'lO.O"  within  a  period  of 
twenty-four  hours,  while  in  June  it  only 
moves  over  57' 10.8"  in  the  same  time. 

Kepler's  Law  of  Equal  Areas. — Kepler 
found  that  the  line  joining  the  center  of  the 
sun  with  the  center  of  the  earth  moved  over 
equal  areas  in  equal  times,  that  is,  the  greater 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  in  June 
compensated  for  the  smaller  arc  of  motion 
in  longitude,  so  that  lines  drawn  from  the 
sun  to  the  extremities  of  the  arcs  moved 
over  make  equal  triangles. 


463 


464 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Revolution  OP  the  Earth  in  its  Orbit. 
— The  stars  which  are  seen  nearest  to  the  sun 
after  sunset  at  different  times  of  the  year  are 
not  the  same,  but  belong  to  different  signs  of 
the  zodiac.  This  change  of  position  of  the 
sun  with  respect  to  the  stars  takes  place  at 
the  rate  of  about  1°  a  day,  so  that  the  whole 
heavens  appear  to  revolve  once  in  a  year  in- 
dependent of  their  diurnal  revolution.  This 
is  due  to  the  real  revolution  of  the  earth  in 
its  orbit.  The  stars  appear  to  describe  little 
ellipses  in  the  course  of  a  year,  but,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  it  is  the  light  coming  from  the 
stars  that  is  displaced  by  the  motion  of  the 
earth  in  its  orbit.  This  phenomenon  is  known 
as  the  aberration  of  light.  There  is  also  an 
apparent  displacement  of  the  nearer  stars  with 
respect  to  those  more  distant,  which  is  known 
as  annular  parallax  and  is  used  to  measure 
the  distance  of  stars;  for  the  greater  the  dis- 
placement the  nearer  must  be  the  star. 

The  Moon. 

The  moon,  our  only  satellite,  is  on  the  aver- 
age 238,850  miles  away,  measuring  from  cen- 
tre of  the  earth  to  the  centre  of  the  moon. 
Its  maximum  distance  is  252,830  and  mini- 
mum 221,520.  After  subtracting  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  earth,  and  the  semi-diameter 
of  the  moon  from  this  figure,  we  find  that  the 
minimum  possible  distance  between  the  sur- 
faces of  the  planets  is  216,476  miles.  The 
moon  is  only  2,162  miles  in  diameter,  and  its 
surface  area  is  14,685,000  miles,  or  a  little  less 
than  the  combined  areas  of  North  and  South 
America.  The  volume  of  the  earth  is  49  times 
that  of  the  moon  and  its  weight,  or  more 
strictly  speaking,  its  mass,  is  81  times  greater. 
A  man  weighing  140  pounds  on  earth  would 
weigh  but  21  pounds  on  the  moon.  The  surface 
of  the  moon  is  covered  with  tall  mountains 
reaching  20,000  feet  high,  with  deep  craters 
and  crevasses.  The  moon  has  no  atmosphere 
and  apparently  is  a  dead  world.  It  revolves 
about  the  earth  once  in  27d.,  7h.,  43m.,  11.55s. 
or  27.32166  days.  However,  as  the  earth  is 
also  revolving  about  the  sun  the  synodical 
period  or  the  time  from  new  moon  to  new 
moon  is  29d.,  12h.,  44m.,  2.86s.  or  29.53059 
days.  During  the  synodical  period  the  moon 
makes  one  complete  rotation  about  its  axis, 
and  hence  the  moon's  day  is  almost  a  month 
long.  During  this  period  it  keeps  the  same 
face  always  toward  the  earth.  However,  we 
can  see  more  than  half  of  the  moon  because 
the  moon's  axis  is  inclined  5°  8'4from  the  per- 
pendicular to  its  orbit,  so  that  we  can  see 
alternately  its  north  and  south  pole.  Also 
because  its  angular  velocity  about  its  orbit 
varies,  we  can  see  a  little  more  now  of  the 
western  side  and  now  of  the  eastern.  The 
moon  does  not  revolve  about  the  centre  of 
the  earth,  but  about  a  centre  of  gravity  com- 
mon to  both  earth  and  moon.  This  centre  is 
1,063  miles  below  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  earth's  revolutions  about  this  centre  are 
known  as  librations.  The  plane  of  the 
moon's  orbit  is  also  inclined  to  the  earth's 
orbit  5°  5'.  The  points  where  this  plane  crosses 
the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit  are  called  the 
nodes.  Eclipses  occur  only  when  the  moon 
is  at  or  near  the  nodes.  For  only  then  can 
its  shadow  fall  on  the  earth  or  the  earth's 
shadow  fall  on  the  moon.  The  nodes  are  not 
fixed,  but  move  at  the  rate  of  one  complete 
revolution  in  18y.,  218d.,  21h.,  22m.,  46s. 
This  period  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  a 
saros  for  it  was  noted  that  eclipses  repeated 
themselves  at  the  lapse  of  such  a  period. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


465 


The  Sun. 

— Solar  Parallax  (equatorial  horizontal), 
8.80" ±0.02".  Mean  distance  of  the  sun  from 
the  earth,  92,885,000  miles;  149,480,000  kil- 
ometers. Variation  of  the  distance  of  the 
sun  from  the  earth  between  January  and 
July,  3,100,000  miles;  4,950,000  kilometers. 
Linear  value  of  1"  on  the  sun's  surface,  450.3 
miles;  724.7  kilometers.  Mean  angular  semi- 
diameter  of  the  sun,  16'  02.0".  Sun's  linear 
diameter,  866,400  miles;  1,394,300  kilometers. 
(This  may,  perhaps,  be  variable  to  the  extent 
of  several  hundred  miles.)  Ratio  of  the  sun's 
diameter  to  the  earth's  109.3.  Surface  of  the 
sun  compared  with  the  earth,  11,940.  Vol- 
ume, or  cubic  contents,  of  the  sun  compared 
with  the  earth,  1,305,000.  Mass,  or  quantity 
of  matter,  of  the  sun  compared  with  the  earth, 
330,000±3000.  Mean  density  of  the  sun  com- 
pared with  the  earth,  0.253.  Mean  density  of 
the  sun  compared  with  water,  1.406,  Force 
of  gravity  on  the  sun's  surface  compared  with 
that  on  the  earth,  27.6.  Distance  a  body 
would  fall  in  one  second,  444.4  feet;  135.5 
meters.  Inclination  of  the  sun's  axis  to  the 
ecliptic,  70°  15'.  Longitude  of  its  ascending 
node  74°.  Date  when  the  sun  is  at  the  node, 
June  4,  5.  Mean  time  of  the  sun's  rotation 
(Carrington) ,  25.38  days.  Time  of  rotation  of 
the  sun's  equator,  25  days.  Time  of  rotation 
at  latitude  20°,  25.75  days.  Time  of  rotation 
at  latitude  30°.  26.5  days.  Time  of  rotation  at 
latitude  45°,  27.5  days.  (These  last  four 
numbers  are  somewhat  doubtful,  the  formulse 
of  various  authorities  giving  results  differing 
by  several  hours  in  some  cases.)  Linear 
velocity  of  the  sun's  rotation  at  its  equator, 
1.261  miles  per  second;  2.028  kilometers  per 
second.  Total  quantity  of  sunhght,  1,575,- 
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  candles.  In- 
tensity of  the  sunlight  at  the  surface  of  the 
sun,  190,000  times  that  of  a  candle  flame;  5300 
times  that  of  metal  in  a  Bessemer  converter; 
146  times  that  of  a  calcium  light;  3.4  times 
that  of  an  electric  arc.  Brightness  of  a  point  on 
the  sun's  limb  compared  with  that  of  a  point 
near  the  center  of  the  disk,  25  per  cent.  Heat 
received  per  minute  from  the  sun  upon  a 
square  meter,  perpendicularly  exposed  to  the 
solar  radiation,  at  the  upper  surface  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere  {the  solar  constant),  20 
calories.  Heat  radiation  at  the  surface  of 
the  sun,  per  square  meter  per  minute,  1,117,- 
000  calories.  Thickness  of  a  shell  of  ice 
which  would  be  melted  from  the  surface  of 
the  sun  per  minute,  48  }4  feet,  or  14  M  meters. 
Mechanical  equivalent  of  the  solar  radiation 
at  the  sun's  surface,  continuously  acting, 
109,000  horse  power  per  square  meter;  or, 
10,000  (nearly)  per  square  foot.  Effective 
temperature  of  the  solar  surface  about 
5,000°  C,  or  9,000°  F. 

Ecliptic. — If  the  brilliance  of  the  sun  did 
not  obscure  the  stars,  in  other  words,  if  we 
were  able  to  see  the  stars  by  day  as  we  do  at 
night,  we  should  note  that  the  sun  travels 
eastward  among  them,  making  a  complete 
revolution  in  a  year.  The  path  of  the  sun 
among  the  stars  is  known  as  the  "Ecliptic." 
The  angle  (23  H°)  between  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  and  that  of  the  celestial  equator  is 
known  as  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  The 
sun's  motion  is  only  apparent.  The  plane 
of  the  ecliptic  is  really  th^  plane  of  the  earth's 
revolution  about  the  sun,  while  the  plane  of 


the    celestial    equator   is    the   plane   of   the 
earth's  rotation  on  its  axis. 

Nodes. — The  two  points  where  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic  crosses  the  plane  of  the  celestial 
equator  or  equinoctial  are  called  nodes,  that 
point  at  which  the  sun  appears  to  come  up 
from  below  the  equator  being  called  the  as- 
cending node,  and  that  at  which  the  sun  ap- 
pears to  descend  from  above  the  same  plane 
being  called  the  descending  node. 

The  First  Point  of  Aries. — The  ascend- 
ing node  above  referred  to  is  the  first  point  of 
Aries.  It  is  universally  used  for  fixing  the 
right  ascension  of  celestial  bodies. 

Precession  and  Nutation. — The  .sun  and 
moon  attract  the  protuberant  portion  of  the 
earth's  equator  more  on  that  side  nearest  to 
them  than  on  that  side  farthest  away,  and  in 
this  way  the  differential  attraction  tends  to 
tilt  the  axis  a  little,  so  that  it  describes  a  cir- 
cle in  about  25,800  years.  The  moon's  differ- 
ential attraction  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
sun.  On  account  of  the  moon's  continually 
changing  its  relation  to  the  earth's  equator, 
it  causes  the  axis  of  the  earth  to  describe  a 
circle  with  a  wavy  circumference,  known  as 
nutation,  or  noddiiig  of  the  earth's  axis. 

Latitude,  Longitude,  Right  Ascension, 
AND  Declination. — Terrestrial  latitude  is 
measured  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  north 
and  south.  Terrestrial  longitude  is  commonly 
measured  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich, 
but  some  countries  use  their  own  meridians. 
Right  ascension  is  measured  from  the  first 
point  of  Aries.  Declination  is  measured  from 
the  celestial  equator.  Celestial  longitude  is 
measured  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  celestial 
latitude  from  the  ecliptic. 

SATELLITES  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM 


THE   EARTH 
238340  127    7  43  U; 


5^50  I        7  39  151  Asaph  HaH....l  Aug.  17.  1877 
14.650  I  1    0  17  541  Asaph  HaV....|  Aug.  U;  1877 


(Nameless). 

13 

113,500 

^i 

261,000 
.415,000 

Europa. . . , 

Ganymede . 

0 

664,000 

CallUto..;. 

1,167,000 

14 

7,000,000 

(Nameless. 

18 

7.300,000 

(Nameless). 

»7 

15,600.000 

Mimas 

Enceladus.. 

Tethys 

Dionc 

Rhea 

Titan 

Hyperion... 

lapetus 

Phoebo 

Themis 


117,000 
157,000 
186,000 
238,000 
332,000 
771,000 
934,000 
2,225,000 
8.000,000 


12 ,006,000 


120,000 
167,000 
273,000 
365,000 


11  57  23; 
1  18  27  33 

3  13  13  42 

7  3  42  33 
16  10  32  11 

250  d. 
265  d.      I 
789  d.      I 

SAT0Wr 
22  37    C; 
1     8  53    7| 

1  21   18  26 

2  17  41     9 

4  12  25  12 
15  22  41  23 
21  0  39  -27 
79    7  54  17 

546. 5d. 
20  20  24    0 

URABCsT 

2  12  29  211 
4    3  27  37 

8  16  58  29 
13  11     7    C! 


Sept: 9.  1892 

Jan.  7,  1610 

Jan.S.  1610 

Jan.  7,  1610 

Jan.  7,  1610 

Dec.  J904 

Jan.  1905 

Jan,  1908 


W.Herschel... 

July  18.  1789 

W.  Herschel... 

Aui.  29.  1789 

J.  D.Cassinl... 

Mar.  21,  1084 

J.D.Cassini... 

Mar.  21.  16S4 

J.D-Cassini... 

I3CC.23.  1072 

Huygens 

G.P.Bond.... 

Mar.  25,  r055 

Sept.  16,184» 

J.  D.Cassinl... 
W.H.Pickering 

Oct.  25,  1071 

1898 

W.H.PickeHng 

1903 

r.aasell........lOcl.24.  1851 

Lassell Oct- 24.  1851 

W.Herschel...  Jan.  II.  1787 

W.Uerschd..Jjan.  11.  1787 

KEPTUNE   ", 

1.  (N'anieless)  I  13  |      221.500  |  5  21     2  44i  La<L«ell [Oct.  10,  1.S48 


Observer's  Handbook. 


466 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

Name 

Mean  Distance' 
FftoM  Sun 

Sidereal  Period 

Mean 

Diam't'r 

Miles 

Mass 
©=1 

Dens- 
ity 

Water 

Volume 

0=1 

AxiAi. 

©  =  1 

Millions 
OF  Miles 

Mean 
Solar 
Days 

Years 

Rotation 

tJ    Mercury  . 

0  387 

36.(0 

87  97 

0  24 

3030 

0  476 

4.7(?) 

0  056 

8Sd 

9    Venus. 

0  723 

67.2 

224  70 

0  62 

7700 

0  82 

4. 94 

0.92 

225<1 

e    Earth  ... 

1  000 

92  9 

365  26 

1  00 

7917  G 

I  00 

5.55 

1  00 

23h  56"'  4» 

cf   Mars.   ... 

1  524 

141  5 

686.95 

1  88 

4230 

0  108 

3  92 

0  152 

24h  37"'  23» 

U   Jupiter,.. 

5  203 

483  3 

4332  58 

11  86 

86500 

317  7 

1  32 

1309 

9h  55"'  d: 

b    Saturn . 

9  539 

886  0 

10759  2 

29  46 

73000 

94  8 

0  72 

760 

10b  14m  j. 

6    Uranus  . . 

19  183 

1781  9 

30686  8 

84  02 

31900 

14  6 

1  22 

65 

? 

V   Neptune... 

30  055 

2971  6 

60181   1 

164  78 

34800 

17  0 

1  11 

85 

? 

O  Sun    .     . 

806400 

332000 

1.39 

1300000 

25<i  7"  4S"'  ± 

C   Moon 

Frome  238,840  mis 

27.32 

0.75 

2163 

1/81.5 

3  39  1     0  02C 

27C1  71'  43"* 

Observer's    Handbook. 


PERIODIC   COMETS. 


Name. 


Encke 

Tempel 

Barnard 

Tempel-Swift. 

Brorsen 

Winnecke  ... 

Tempel 

Biela 

D'Arrefst 

Faye 

Tuttle 

Pons-Brooks . 

Olbers 

Halley 


Perihelion 
Passage. 


1885, 
1883, 
1890, 
1886, 
1879, 
1886. 
1885, 
1882, 
1884, 
1881, 
1885, 
1884, 
1887, 
1910, 


Mar.  7 

Nov.  20 

Feb.  17 

May  9 

Mar.  30 

Sept.  4 

Sept.  25 

Sept.  23 

Jan.  13 

Jan.  22 

Sept.  11 

Jan.  25 

Oct.  8 

Apr.  19 


Period 

(Years.) 


3.3 

5.2 

5.4 

5.5 

5.5 

5.8 

6.5 

6.6 

6.7 

7.6 

13.8 

71.5 

72.6 

74.4 


Perihelion 

Dist. 

Earth's 

Orbit=l. 


0.34 
1.34 
1.28 
1.07 
0.59 
0.88 
2.07 
0.86 
1.33 
1.74 
1.02 
0.77 
1.20 
0.59 


Eccen- 
tricity. 


0.846 
0.553 
0.582 
0.656 
0.810 
0.727 
0.405 
0.755 
0.626 
0.549 
0.821 
0.955 
0.931 
0.967 


^  Shootino  Stars. — The  names  of  the  prin- 
cipal meteor  -swarms  and  the  dates  of  their 
appearance  are  as  follows : — 


Name. 

Date. 

Comet  having 
same  Orbit. 

Andromedes  . 

Lyrid.s 

Leonids 

Perseids 

23  November 

20  April 

15  November 
11  August.  .  . 

Biela's 

Comet  I.  1861 
Tempel's,  1866 
Comet  III.  1863 

Light  Year 

The  distance  that  light  can  travel  in  a  year 
is  called  a  "Light  Year"  and  is  used  bj' 
astronomers  as  a  unit  of  linear  measure. 

Light  travels  in 

1  second 186,330  miles 

1  minute 11,179,800      " 

1  hour 670,788,000      " 

1  day 16,098,912,000      " 

1  year 588,022,995,000      " 

The  earth's  meaji  distance  from  the  sun  is 
also  used  as  a  unit  of  linear  measure. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


467 


GREEK  ALPHABET. 

The  different  stars  of  the  several  constellations  are  usually  indicated  by  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet.     For  convenience  of  reference,  the  alphabet  is  here  given. 


A   a 
B   /3 

E  e 


Alpha. 

Beta. 

Gamma. 

Delta. 

Epsilon. ) 

Zeta. 


0  e 

1  I 

K  K 

A  \ 


Eta. 

Theta. 

Iota. 

Kappa. 

Lambda 

Mu. 


N  V 

H  f 

0  o 
II  n 

1  " 


^u. 

Xi. 

Omicron. 

Pi. 

Rho. 

Sigma. 


T  T 

Y  u 

*  i, 
X  X 

♦  «^ 
n  (1) 


Tau. 

Upsilon. 

Phi. 

Chi. 

Psi. 

Omega. 


NAMES   OF  THE   PRINCIPAL  STARS. 


The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  all  the  Stars  of  the  First  Three  Magnitudes  to 
which  Astronomers  have  given  names,  at  least  all  those  whose  names  are  in  common  use* 

Canis  Minoris — Little  Dog .  Procyon. 
"  '  •      ........     Gomeisa. 

Canum        Venaticorum  — 


a  Andromedae — Andromeda.. Alpheratz, 

S  "  Mirach  Mizar. 

•f  *'  Almach. 

a  Aquarii — Water  Bearer. .  .Sadalmelik. 

a        "      Sadalsund. 

S        *•      Skat. 

a  Aquilse — Eagle Altair. 

0       "      Alshain. 

Y  *',...  ...  .Tarazed. 

a  Arietis — Ram Hamal. 

0       "     Sheratan. 

Y  " Mesartim. 

a  Aurigae — Charioteer Capella. 

fi       "      Menkalinan. 

a  Bootis — Herdsman Arcturus. 

p      •  * Nekkar. 

(       *  •     Izar,  Mizar,  Mirach. 

ij       "     Muphrid. 

a  Canis  Majoris — Great  Dog. Si riua. 

0      **  **      Mirzam. 

••  •• .Adara. 

0  Cygni — Swan Albireo. 

a  Draconis — Dragon Thuban, 

/?         "        Alwaid. 

r         "        Etanin. 

0  Eridani — River  Eridanus.  .Cursa. 

r        "       Zaurac. 

o   Geminorum — Twins Castor. 

0  "  Pollux. 

r  "  Alhena. 

3  *• Wesat. 

c  "  . Mebsuta. 

Of  Herculis — Hercules Ras  Algethi. 

0         " Korneforos. 

a  Hydrae — Sea  Serpent .  .  Al  Fard,  Cor  Hydrae. 

«  Leonis — Lion Regulus,  Cor  Leonis. 

0       "     Deneb  Aleet.  Denedola,  Deneb. 

r       " Algeiba. 

d       "     Zosma. 

n  Leporis — Wolf Ameb. 

rt  Librae — Scales Zuben  el  Genubi. 

0      "     Zuben  el  Chamali. 

r      "     Zuben  Hakrabi. 

n  Lyrae— Lyre Vega. 

0      "    Sheliak. 

r      "    Sulaphat. 

«  Ophiuchi — Serpent  Beirer.Ras  Alhague. 

0         "        Cebalrai. 

o  Orionis — Orion Betelgeux. 

B       ;;     Rigel.  . 

r  Bellatnx. 


Hunting  Dogs .  Cor  Caroh. 

a2  Capricorni — Sea  Goat Secunda  Giedi. 

8  " . .   Deneb  Algiedi. 

Of  Cassiopeiae — Cassiopeia. .  .  .  Schedar. 

0  "         Chaph. 

Of  Cephei — Cepheus Alderamin. 

0       " Alphirk. 

r       "     Errai. 

a  Ceti — Whale Menkar. 

0     " Diphda. 

C     "  . .  Baten  Kaito5 

o     *  * Mira. 

a  Columbae — Dove Phact. 

a  Coronae  Borealis — Crown . .  Alphecca. 

a  Corvi — Crow Alchiba. 

S      *  *     Algores. 

a  Crateris — Cup Alkes. 

fl£  Cvteni — Swan Arided,  Deneb  Adige. 

8  Orionis — Orion Mintaka. 

t         "      Alnilam. 

a  Pegasi — Pegasus Markab. 

0       " Scheat. 

r       "     ;......-.  Algenib. 

£       "     Enif. 

C       "     : . . . .  Hpman. 

a.  Persei— Perseus Mirfak. 

0  "       Algol. 

a  Piscis  Australis — Southern 

Fish Fomalhaut. 

1  Sagittarii — Archer Kaus  Australis. 

a  Scorpionis — Scorpion Antares.      Cor 

Scorpionis. 

a  Sc-pentis — Serpent Unukalhai. 

a  Tauri — Bull Aldebaran. 

0      *  •    Nath. 

ij       ■" Alcyone  (PleiadX 

a  Ursae  Majoris — Great  Bear.Dubhe. 

0  "  "      Merak. 

r      "  "       < Phecda. 

£       "  " .-.Alioth. 

C      "  "       Mizar. 

r;      "  "      Alkaid,  Benetnasch. 

1  "  " Talitha. 

a   Ursae  Minoris — Little  Bear.Polarls. 
0      "  "       Kochab. 

a  Virginis — Virgin.  .  ..Spica  Azimech,  Spica. 

0        "       Zavijava. 

e        "      Vindemiatrix 


^  _  In  designating  a  star  instead  of  writing  a  of  Ursa  Major  or  a  of  Gemini  or  a  of  Cassiopeia, 
it  IS  customary  to  use  the  genitive  form  of  the  constellation  name.  Thus:  a  Ursae  Majoris, 
a  Geminorum,  a  Cassiopeise,  etc. 


468 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STARS  ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR  MAGNITUDE  DOWN 
TO  AND  INCLUDING  POLARIS 


NAME  OF  STAR 


Magnitude 


R.  A. 


Dec. 


Canis  Majoris — (Sirius) . . 

Argus — (Canopus) 

Centauri 

Lyrae —  Vega) 

Bootis — (Arcturus) 

Aurigae — (Capella) 

Ononis —  (Rigel) 

Canis  Minoris — (Procyon) 

Aquilsie—iAltair) 

Centauri 

Ononis — (Betelgeux) 

Eridani — (Achemar) 

Tauri — (Aldebaran) 

Geminorum — (Pollux) . . . 
Scorpionis — (Antares) . .  . 

Virgin  is— ((Spt'ca) 

Cygni— (Z)ene6) 

Leonis — (Regulus) 

Pise.  Aust. — (FomalhatU) 

Crucis 

Canis  Majoris 

Crucis 

Crucis 

Argus 

Orionis — (Bellatrix) 

Scorpionis 

Ursae  Majoris — {Alioth) . . 

Argfis 

Orionis — {Alnilam) 

Tauri 

Geminorum 

Persei — (Algenib) 

Triang.  Aust 

Ursae  Majoris — (Alkaid) . 

Argtjs .  . . 

Canis  Majoris 

Canis  Maj<>ris. 

Geminorum — (Castor) . .  .  . 

Orionis 

Sagittarii 

Ursae  Majoris — (Dubhe) . , 

Aurigae. 

Ophiuchi 

Pavonis 

Sagittarii. . 

Ursae  Minoris — (Polaris) . 


h      m 
6     41 


14 
5 
5 

7 
19     46 


4 

7 

16  24 
13  20 
20 
10 


5 
17 
12     50 

9     12 


13 


16 


6     22 
14     33     37 
18     33     58 

11     38 

10 


11 
10     18 
34     42 
29 
13     57     36 

5  50  24 
34  26 
30  52 
39     56 

1 
33 
20  38  26 
3  41 
22  52  47 
12  42  34 

6  55  10 
12  21  42 
12  26  17 


20  43 
20  25 

27  38 
10 


14 
5  31  45 

5  20  44 

6  32  38 
3  18   2 

16  39  20 


6  18  49 


4  49 

28  59 

36  19 

18  20 

58  18 


53  4 

17  30  51 
20  18  42 

18  49  59 
1  27  51 


-16 
-52 
-60 
+  38 
+  19 
+  45 

-8 

+  5 

+  8 
-59 

+  7 
-57 
+  16 
+  28 
-26 
-10 
+  44 
+  12 
-30 
-59 
-28 
-62 
-56 
-59 

+  6 
-37 
+  56 
-69 

-1 
+  28 
+  16 
+  49 
-68 
+  49 
-54 
-17 
-26 
+  32 

-1 
-34 
+  62 
+  44 
+  12 
-57 
-26 
+  88 


35  41 

38  50 

28  22 

42  4 

38  25 

54  34 

18  9 


56  56 

23  29 

41  1 

19  59 

14  22 


57  55 


12  28 
51  6 

36  41 

37  13 

13  34 
16  14 


15  26 
32  2 
28  31 


32  56 

52  3 

45  8 

23  9 

54  41 

15  10 


25  37 

13  36 

56  22 

37  24 

1  4 

24  25 

50  11 


DISTANCES  OF  THE  NEARER  STARS. 


o  Centauri 4.3  Light  years 

Lalande21,185 8.1 

a  Canis  Majoris  (Sirins) 8.7 

T  Ceti 9.8 

a  Canis  Minoris 10.1 

61  Cygni 10.5 

Groombridge  34 11.6 

a  Aquilae 13.7 

Lalande  21,258 16.1 

?Cassiopeiae 16.2 
Ursae  Majoris 18.2 

o  Eridani 18.8 

^  Herculis 22.9 

o  Ceti  (Mira) 22.9 

a  Pise.  Aust.  (FomalhaiU). . .  23.6 


p  liconis  (Denebola) 25.3  Light  years 

/3  Virginis 27.6  " 

fi  Cassiopeiae 29. 1  "  " 

y  Draconis 30.5  "  " 

fji  Herculis 30.8  " 

V  Cygni 30.8  " 

Groombridge  1830 32.0  " 

a  Lyrae  ( Vega) 34.7  "  " 

0  Ursae  Majoris 35.5  "  " 

a  Bootis  (Arcturus) 43.5  "  " 

/3  Cassiopeiae 44. 1  "  " 

a  Ophiuohi 44.1  "  " 

a  Tauri  (Aldebaran) 44.7  "  " 

a  Aurigae 49.4  "  " 

/3  Gemuii 50.9  " 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


469 


THE  NORTHERN  HEAVENS. 


The  maps  shown  on  the  following  pages 
represent  the  heavens  as  seen,  on  the  different 
dates  given,  from  stations  in  and  about  the 
latitude  of  New  York  (40°  N).  It  is  not  an 
easy  matter  to  recognize  the  stars  by  looking 
at  the  map.  A  certain  amount  of  study  is 
necessary;  for,  of  course,  the  different  stars  of 
a  constellation  are  not  linked  together  by  lines 
as  they  are  in  the  map  and  furthermore  their 
magnitude  is  very  much  exaggerated.  The 
best  plan  for  the  novice  is  to  start  with  a  well 
known  constellation,  such  as  .that  of  the 
Great  Bear.  The  "Dipper"  which  is  a  part 
of  the  Great  Bear  is  so  conspicuous  a  group 
in  the  northern  skies  that  anyone  can  point 
it  out.  Knowing  the  Dipper,  the  Pole  Star 
may  readily  be  discovered  by  tracing  a  line 
from  ^  through  a  of  the  Dipper  and  about 
five  times  as  far.  Around  the  Pole  Star 
(Polaris)  which  is  of  the  second  magnitude, 
the  entire  northern  heavens  appear  to  revolve 
once  a  day.  Having  found  the  Pole  Star  the 
constellation  of  Cassiopeia  may  be  found  by 
extending  a  line  from  e  of  the  Dipper  through 
the  Pole  Star  and  as  far  again  to  the  other 
side,  where  a  cluster  of  stars  in  the  form  of  a 
large  ragged  W  will  be  found.  If  we  run  a 
line  diagonally  from  a  of  the  Dipper  through 
y  and  about  eight  or  nine  times  as  far  again, 
we  shall  come  to  the  first  magnitude  star 
Spica,  in  the  constellation  of  the  Virgin, 
while  a  line  extended  from  a  through  j3  and 
about  eight  times  as  far  again  will  bring  us 
in  the  midst  of  the  constellation  of  the  Lion. 
At  the  eastern  end  of  this  constellation,  is 
the  second  magnitude  star  Denebola,  and 
the  distance  from  this  star  to  Spica  is  about 
the  same  as  that  from  Spica  to  Arcturus,  the 
first  magnitude  star  in  the  constellation  of 
Bootes.  Thus  we  may  proceed  building  up 
our  knowledge  of  various  groups  and  using 
these  groups  as  reference  poiuts  to  find  new 
constellations. 

Contrary  to  custom  in  geographical  maps, 
our  star  maps  are  drawn  with  the  east  on  the 
lefthand  side  and  the  west  on  the  righthand 


THE  "dipper        as    AN    INDEX    TO    THE 
HEAVENS. 

side,  while  north  is  at  the  top  of  the  page  and 
south  at  the  bottom.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  heavens  are  viewed  looking  upward, 
while  the  geographical  map  is  viewed  looking 
downward.  In  locating  stars  and  con- 
stellations, it  is  best  to  hold  the  map  over- 
head when  the  actual  points  of  the  compass 
and  those  marked  on  the  map  will  bear  the 
true  relation  to  each  other. 


NIGHT  SKY:  JANUARY  AND  FEBRUARY. 


If  one  views  the  heavens  on  the  hours 
specified  vmder  our  map  of  January,  he  will 
find  almost  directly  overhead  a  bright  star 
with  a  triangle  of  lesser  stars  beside  it.  The 
bright  star  is  Capella  or  the  Little  She  Goat 
which  is  held  on  the  arm  of  Auriga,  the 
Charioteer,  whose  left  hand  is  represented  by 
the  triangle  of  stars,  rj,  e,  ^.  The  constellation 
bears  no  resemblance  whatever  to  a  charioteer 
or  a  goat.  In  fact,  very  few  constellations 
bear  any  resemblance  to  the  objects  the 
ancients  supposed  them  to  represent.  Half- 
way between  Capella  and  the  southern  horizon 
are  the  three  bright  stars  forming  the  belt  of 
Orion.  They  are  indicated  in  the  map  ^,  «,  8, 
and  they  are  centered  in  the  square  formed 
by  the  stars,  Betelgeux,  Bellatrix,  Rigel  and 
the  star  noted  by  the  letter  k.  The  little 
triangle  of  stars  at  A.  mark  the  head  of  Orion, 
while  the  line  of  faint  stars  at  n  represents  a 
lion  skin  that  Orion  is  holding  forth  towards 
the  constellation  of  Taurus,  the  Bull.  The 
principal  star  of  this  constellation  is  Alde- 
baran,  a  bright  red  star,  marking  the  left  eye 


of  the  bull,  "while  his  two  horns  are  indicated 
by  the  stars  ^  and  ^.  The.  star  e  is  at  the 
right  eye  of  the  bull,  and  y  at  his  nose.  They 
form  with  Aldebaran  a  triangle  that  is  easily 
recognizable.  A  little  to  the  west  of  this 
group  is  the  interesting  star  cluster  of  the 
Pleiades.  In  this  cluster,  there  are  six  stars 
easily  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  many  can 
see  seven  stars,  while  observers  with  ex- 
ceptionally good  eyesight  have  been  able  to 
see  as  many  as  fourteen  stars.  A  small  spy- 
glass will  reveal  large  numbers. 

The  stars  forming  the  belt  of  Orion  point 
in  the  general  direction  of  the  first  magnitude 
star  Sirius  in  the  constellation  of  Canis  Major, 
the  Great  Dog.  Sirius  is  by  far  the  brightest 
object  in  the  heavens  if  we  exclude  the  sun, 
moon  and  planets.  It  is  one  of  the  nearest 
suns  outside  our  solar  system,  yet  it  is  so  far 
off  that  it  takes  nearly  nine  years  for  its  light 
to  reach  us.  The  diameter  of  Sirius  is  about 
twenty  times  that  of  the  sun  and  its  volume 
is  about  seven  thousand  times  greater.  In 
the   constellation  of   Canis  Major  there   are 


470 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


At  9     o'clock:   Feb. 
8 


At   9:30  o'clock:   January   29 


NIGHT  SKY:  JANUARY  AND  FEBRUARY. 


two  other  first  magnitude  stars,  but  Sinus  so 
far  outshines  them  that  they  look  no  brighter 
than  second  magnitude  stars.  If  we  follow 
the  line  from  Aldebaran  eastward  beyond  ^ 
we  come  to  the  constellation  of  Gemini,  the 
Twins,  marked  by  the  two  bright  stars, 
Castor  and  Pollux;  while  south  of  this  con- 
stellation is  the  first  magnitude  star  Procyon 
in  the  constellation  of  Canis  Minor,  the  Little 
Dog.  It  will  be  noticed  that  most  of  the 
constellations  so  far  referred  to  lie  adjacent  to 
the  Milky  Way.  If  we  follow  the  Galaxy 
northward,  we  find  just  beyond  the  con- 
stellation of  Auriga,  the  constellation  of 
Perseus,  whose  most  interesting  star  is  marked 
P  and  is  known  as  Algol,  the  Demon  Star  or 
the     Winking     Demon.     Every     two     days, 


twenty  hours  and  forty-nine  minutes,  this 
star  begins  to  fade  until,  in  the  course  of  three 
or  four  hours,  it  loses  four-fifths  of  its  light. 
Then  it  begins  to  become  brighter  until 
eventually,  after  three  or  four  hours  more, 
it  reaches  its  normal  brilliancy.  The  star 
marks  the  head  of  Medusa,  which  according 
to  the  Greek  legend  Perseus  was  carrying 
when  he  came  across  Andromeda  chained  to 
the  rock.  Further  north  along  the  Milky 
Way  we  come  to  Cassiopeia. 

In  the  northeast  is  the  great  dipper  forming 
part  of  Ursa  Major,  the  Great  Bear;  far  in 
the  east  is  the  constellation  of  Leo,  the  Lion, 
in  which  are  the  prominent  stars  Regulus, 
Denebola.  The  curved  lin::!  of  stars  ending 
with  Regulus  is  known  as  the  Sickle. 


(The   Star  Maps  are  all  copyrighted  by   Munn  &  Co.,   Inc.) 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


471 


At 


1 1       o'clock  Mar. 
10:30       "  "       16 

10  "  "       23 


9       o'clock  Apr.     7 
8:30       "  "        14 

8  "         "       22 


At   9:30    o'clock:    March   30 


NIGHT  SKY:   MARCH  AND  APRIL. 


Our  map  for  March  and  April  shows  most 
of  the  constellations  along  the  Milky  Way 
low  in  the  western  sky.  The  great  dipper  is 
well  up  near  the  zenith  with  its  pointer  stars 
j(3  and  a  indicating  the  position  of  the  Pole  Star, 
Polaris.  Oddly  enough  the  ancients  repre- 
sented the  great  bear  as  having  a  long  tail, 
indicated  by  the  stars  e,  ^,  t;.  These  are  the 
only  stars  that  follow  the  outline  of  the  beast. 
The  star  0  is  at  the  bear's  mouth,  while  the 
stars  <,  I,  and  m,  ^,  and  v,  $  represent  three 
of  his  feet.  The  star  ^  is  interesting  because  it 
has  a  small  companion,  called  by  the  Arabs  as 
''Alcor."  A  little  to  the  south  of  the  zenith 
is  the  constellation,  of  Leo,  referred  to  in  the 


previous  paragraph.  Below  Leo  are  two 
small  groups  known  as  Corvus,  the  Crow,  and 
Crater,  the  Cup.  They  are  not  very  con- 
spicuous; neither  is  Hydra,  the  Sea  Serpent, 
which  stretches  its  long  length  across  the 
southern  sky.  Its  brightest  star  is  Alphard 
which  is  of  the  second  magnitude.  Above 
the  head  of  the  serpent  is  the  inconspicuous 
constellation  of  Cancer,  the  Crab.  An 
interesting  feature  of  this  constellation  is  a 
faint  star  cluster,  just  visible  to  the  naked  eve 
and  marked  on  the  map  Praesepe,  the 
"Beehive."  In  the  telescope  this  is  seen 
to  be  made  up  of  a  myriad  of  small  bright 
stars. 


472 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


At  II  o'clock:  May  •j 
"  10:30  "  "  15 
"    10  "         "       22 


At  9:30  o'clock:  May  30 

THE  NIGHT  SKY  OF  MAY  AND  JUNE. 


The  constellation  nearest  the  zenith  in 
May  and  June  is  that  of  Bootes,  or  the 
Herdsman.  A  bright  red  star,  Arcturus,  may 
be  found  in  this  constellation.  It  is  known 
as  the  Wandering  Star  for  the  reason  that  it 
is  slowly  drifting  with  respect  to  the  other 
stars  in  the  Heavens.  Since  the  time  of 
Christ  it  has  moved  in  a  southwesterly 
direction,  fully  one  degree,  or  through  a 
distance  equal  to  twice  the  diameter  of  the 
moon.  Its  yearly  displacement  is  two 
seconds  of  arc.  South  of  Bootes  is  the  con- 
stellation of  Virgo,  whose  brightest  star  is 
Spica.  Between  Virgo  and  Ursa  Major  are 
two  faint  constellations  known  as  Coma 
Berenicis,  Berenice's  Hair,  and  Canes 
Venatici,  the  Himting  Dogs.  Close  to  the 
southern  horizon  is  the  constellation  of 
Centaurus.  the  Centaur.     Not  very  much  of 


this  constellation  can  be  seen  from  our 
latitude.  Its  brightest  stars  lie  below  the 
horizon.  They  mclude  a.  Centauri,  the 
nearest  body  outside  the  solar  system.  This 
star  is  only  255,000  times  as  far  from  us  as  we 
are  from  the  sun.  It  takes  its  light  4J  years 
to  come  to  us.  In  the  southeast,  low  down 
near  the  horizon  may  be  seen  the  constella- 
tion of  Scorpio,  the  Scorpion.  This  con- 
stellation is  made  up  of  a  very  easily  recog- 
nizable group  of  stars.  It  contains  the 
brilliant  first  magnitude  star,  Antares,  at 
each  side  of  which  are  the  lesser  stars  <r  and  t. 
A  line  of  stars  traces  the  form  of  the  Scorpion 
as  shown  to  better  advantage  in  the  next 
map.  The  Scorpion  embraces  in  its  claws 
the  constellation  Libra,  or  the  Scales.  In 
the  north  above  the  Polar  Star,  we  may  see 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


473 


the  body  of  the  Little  Bear,  Ursa  Minor, 
Most  of  the  stars  of  this  constellation  are  faint 
with  the  exception  of  Polaris  and  two  stars 
/3  and  y  which  have  been  called  the  guards. 
Between  Ursa  Minor  and  the  Zenith,  the 
constellation  Draco,  or  the  Dragon,  twines  its 


long  form.  The  stars  v.  /3  and  ^  mark  the 
head  of  the  dragon.  To  the  eastward  of  the 
constellation  Bootes  is  a  partial  ring  of  stars 
known  as  Corona,  or  the  Crown.  This  is  one 
of  the  few  groups  actually  outlining  the 
object  it  is  supposed  to  represent. 


At  II     o'clock:  July     7 
'      10:30       "  "        14 

"     ID  "         "       22 


At  9:30   o'clock:   July   30 

NIGHT  SKY:  JULY  AND  AUGUST. 


At  9     o'clock:  Aug. 
8:30       " 
8 


The  Zenith  constellation  for  July  and 
August  is  Lyra,  the  Lyre,  with  its  bright  blue- 
white  star,  Vega,  nearly  directly  overhead. 
Just  west  of  the  Zenith  is  the  constellation 
Harcules  whose  stars  form  a  ragged-looking  H. 
Below  this  constellation  is  Ophiuchus  who 
has  in  his  grasp  the  constellation  Serpens  or 
the  Serpent.  Low  down  in  the  south  the 
constellation  of  Scorpio  has  dragged  its  full 
length  above  the  horizon  and  it  is  easy  to 
trace  its  body  and  tail  ending  with  the  stars 


A  and  v.  The  opposite  side  of  the  Milky  Way 
now  stretches  its  length  across  the  sky,  con- 
taining in  its  extent  many  brilliant  con- 
stellations. Just  east  of  Scorpio  is  the 
constellation  of  Sagittarius,  the  Archer. 
Well  up  in  the  southeast  is  the  star  Altair  of 
the  constellation  Aquila,  the  Eagle,  and 
just  above  Altair  is  the  tiny  constellation, 
Sagitta  or  the  Arrow.  To  the  east  may  be 
seen  Delphinus,  the  Dolphin.while  to  the  east  of 
Lyra  is  the  constellation  of  Cygnus,  the  Swan. 


474 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


At  II     o'clock;   Sept 
"     10:30       " 


At  9     o'clock:  June     7 
"    8:30       "  "         14 


At   9:30    o'clock:    September   29 


NIGHT  SKY:  SEPTEMBER  AND  OCTOBER. 


Our  map  for  these  two  months  shows  no 
constellation  immediately  overhead.  Half- 
way between  the  Zenith  and  the  Pole  Star 
is  the  constellation  of  Cephus,  a  badly  formed 
W  made  up  of  stars  that  are  not  very  bright, 
with  the  exception  of  a  which  is  of  second 
magnitude.  The  Milky  Way  now  stretches 
overhead  and  makes  a  beautiful  sight  on  a 
moonless  night.  About  thirty  degrees  south 
of  the  Zenith  is  the  constellation  Pegasus. 
Its  three  stars,  y,  a,  and  /3  form  with  the  star  a 
of  the  constellation  Andromeda,  a  large  square 


known  as  the  "Square  of  Pegasus."  Below 
the  constellation  Pegasus  is  that  of  Aquarius, 
the  Water  Bearer,  while  to  the  southwest  is 
the  zodiacal  constellation  of  Capricornus,  the 
Sea  Goat.  This  constellation  is  marked  by  a 
very  pretty  naked  ej^e  double  at  a.  The 
most  conspicuous  star  in  the  south  is  Fomal- 
haut,  of  the  Southern  Fish.  This  brilliant 
star  can  hardly  be  appreciated  in  northern 
latitudes  because  it  is  not  very  favorably 
placed  for  observation.  Below  Fomalhaut  is  a 
bright  little  group"  known  as  Grus,  the  Crane. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


475 


At  II  o'clock 
"  10:30  " 
"     10  " 


At    9:30    o'clock:    November    30 

NIGHT  SKY:  NOVEMBER  AND  DECEMBER. 


Rmming  westward  from  the  zenith  stretches 
the  constellation  of  Andromeda,  the  chained 
lady  who  was  rescued  by  Perseus.  In  this 
constellation  rnay  be  seen  a  faint  nebula  which 
in  a  telescope  is  shown  to  cover  an  enormous 
extent,  a  great  whirl  of  nebulous  material. 
Probably  it  represents  a  star  in  the  making. 
The  great  square  of  Pegfisus  lies  just  to  the 
south  of  the  zenith.  The  southern  sky  is 
filled  by  the  constellation  of  Cetus,  the  Whale. 
The  most  interesting  star  in  this  group  is  that 
of  Mira,   which  on  the  average  of  once  in 


eleven  months,  blazes  forth  with  a  brilliance, 
sometimes  exceeding  the  second  magnitude. 
Generally,  however,  it  does  not  exceed  the 
third  magnitude,  while  its  normal  brightness 
is  such  that  it  is  barely  visible  to  the  naked 
eye.  Between  Cetus  and  the  zenith  are  three 
small  constellations,  i.  e.,  Pisces,  the  Fishes, 
Aries,  the  Ram,  and  Triangulus,  the  Triangle. 
In' the  southeast  sky  is  the  wandering  river,  Eri- 
danus,  while  the  eastern  sky  is  filled  with  bril- 
liant winter  constellations  described  in  the 
paragraph  on  the  January  .and  February  map. 


THE  SOUTHERN  HEAVENS. 


The  accompanying  map  shows  all  the  stars 
clearly  visible  to  the  naked  eye  within  60 
degrees  of  the  south  pole.  Only  parts  of  this 
region  may  be  seen  from  stations  north  of  the 
Equator  and  even  south  of  the  Equator  the 


entire  region  cannot  be  seen  at  one  time, 
except  from  stations  below  the  sixtieth 
latitude.  To  adjust  the  map  so  as  to  show 
just  what  southern  stars  are  in  sight,  from 
any   given    station    at   any    day    and   hour, 


476 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MAP  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  HEAVENS. 


proceed  as  follows:  Add  to  the  time  as  given 
by  the  clock  (if  the  clock  gives  standard  time 
greater  accuracy  may  be  obtained  by  correct- 
ing it  to  give  the  local  time)  the  quantity 
given  in  the  accompanying  table  for  the 
current  month,  and  add  to  this  sum,  four 
minutes  for  each  day  of  the  date.  The  result 
will  be  Sidereal  time. 

h.         m. 

January 18         39 

February 20         41 

March 22         32 

April 0         34 

May 2         32 

June 4         34 

July 6         31 

August 8         35 

September 10         37 

October 12         35 

November 14         38 

December 16         36 


Midnight  should  be  counted  as  12  hours, 
1  A.M.  as  13  hours,  and  so  on,  and,  if  the 
sum  exceeds  24  hours,  this  amount  should  be 
subtracted  from  it.  For  example,  for  1:15 
A.M.  on  October  25th,  we  have: 


Clock  time 

From  table,  for  October. 
4  X25=  100  minutes,  or. 


h. 

m. 

13 

15 

12 

35 

1 

40 

27 

30 

24 

0 

3 

30 

Sum 

Subtract  24  hours 24 

Sidereal  time 

The  results  of  this  calculation  will  be  correct 
within  four  or  five  minutes  at  the  most,  if  the 
observer's  clock  keeps  local  time.  If  it  keeps 
standard  time,  the  result  should  be  corrected 
by  the  amount  by  which  standard  time  is  fast 
or  slow  of  local  time.  For  our  present  purpose 
this  correction  is  usually  hardly  necessary. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


477 


Find  now  the  point  on  the  margin  of  the 
map  corresponding  to  the  sidereal  time. 
Turn  the  map  until  the  corresponding  time  on 
the  margin  is  at  the  top.  Then  lay  a  straight 
edge  across  the  map  so  that  it  passes  above 
the  center  at  a  distance  equal  to  the  ob- 
server's latitude,  (if  north  of  the  Equator). 
As  the  white  circles  on  the  map  are  10  degrees, 


20  degrees,  etc.,  from  the  center  this  can 
be  done  very  easily.  The  part  of  the  map 
above  the  straight  edge  then  represents  the 
southern  sky  as  it  appears  above  the  ob- 
server's horizon.  For  stations  south  of  the 
Equator,  the  straight  edge  should  be  held 
below  the  center  of  the  map,  at  a  distance 
equal  to  the  latitude. 


THE  LARGE  REFRACTORS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


INSTITUTION. 


Aperture 
in  Inches. 


Focal 

Length  in 

Feet. 


Date  of 
Erection. 


I 


Yerkes  Observatory,  Wisconsin,  U.  S.  A 

Lick  Observatory,  Cahfornia,  U.  S.  A 

National  Observatory,  Meudon,  France 

Astrophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam,  Germany 

Bischoffsheim  Observatory,  Nice,  France 

Imperial  Observatory,  Poulkova,  Russia 

National  Observatory,  Paris,  France 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  England 

Imperial  Observatory,  Vienna,  Austria 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  England 

Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  U.  S.  A 

Leander  McCormick  Observatory,  Virginia,  U.  S.  A 

Cambridge  University  Observatory,  England 

National  University,  Meudon,  France 

Harvard  College,  Cambridge,  U.  S.A 

Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Africa 

LoweU  Observatory,  Flagstaff,  Arizona,  U.  S.  A 

National  Observatory,  Paris,  France 

Halstead  Observatory,  Princeton,  U.  S.  A 

City  Observatory,  Edinburgh,  Scotland 

Etna,  Italy 

Buckingham  Observatory,  England 

M.  Porro,  Private  Observatory,  Italy 

Chamberlin  Observatory,  Colorado,  U.  S.  A 

Manila  Observatory,  PhiUppines 

Astrophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam,  Germany. . . . 

Imperial  Observatory,  Strassburg,  Germany 

Milan  Observatory,  Italy 

Dearborn  Observatory,  Illinois,  U.S.A. 

National  Observatory,  La  Plata,  Argentina 

Lowell  Observatory,  Flagstaff,  Arizona,  U.  S.  A.  .  . 

Flower  Observatory,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A 

Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Africa 


40.0 
36.0 
32.5 
31.1 
30.3 
30.0 
28.9 
28.0 
27.0 
26.0 
26.0 
26.0 
25.0 
24.4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 
23.6 
23.0 
22.0 
21.8 
21.2 
20.5 
20.0 
20.0 
19.7 
19.1 
19.1 
18.5 
18.1 
18.0 
18.0 
18.0 


62.0 
57.8 
53.0 
39.4 
52.6 
42.0 


28.0 
34.0 
26.0 
32.5 
32.5 


52.2 
11.3 
22.6 
31.0 
59.0 
32.0 
30.0 


28.0 


41.2 
23.0 
23.0 
27.0 
29.5 
26.3 


22.6 


1897 
1888 
1891 


1889 
1882 


1894 
1894 
1897 
1871 
1874 
1868 
1891 
1894 
1897 
1895 
1889 
1881 


1891 
1892 


1880 


1863 
1890 
1894 
1896 
1897 


-Knowledge  Diary  and  Scientific  Handbook. 


37,000feet  a  second. 


flies  offindeflnitaly. 


Raton  oftht  gullet  of  26,1 00  ft 
after. 


SHOOTING  A  BULLET  OFF  THE  EARTH. 

When  a  bullet  is  fired  from  a  horizontal  gim,  the  curve  of  the  path  that  it  pursues  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  horizontal  velocity  of  the  bullet  and  gravity.     The  higher  the  horizontal 

velocity  the  flatter  wifl  be  the  curve  and 
the  further  will  the  bullet  travel  before  it 
strikes  the  earth.  If  the  velocity  of  the 
bullet  were  26,100  feet  per  second  the 
curve  of  its  path  would  be  parallel  to  the 
circumference  of  the  earth.  Accordingly 
the  bullet  would  pass  around  the  earm 
without   touching   it,    and    return    to   its 

starting  point  in  one  hour  and  twenty- 

„^,        ,      _,  ^,  .,         ,  ,         ,     .  V^^^^  minutes.     It  would  contmue  to  re- 

volve about  the  earth  as  long  as  the  velocity  was  mamtained.  At  the  same  time  it  would  be 
constantly  attracted  by  the  earth  and  would  be  forever  falling  away  from  a  straight  line 
towards  the  earth  without  ever  reaching  it.  If  the  speed  of  the  bullet  were  37,000  feet  per 
second  it  would  fly  off  never  to  return  to  the  earth. 


478 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


479 


TIME. 


All  calculations  of  time  are  based  on  the 
sun— not  the  real  sun  that,  we  see,  but  a 
fictitious  sun  that  keeps  better  time  than  the 
real  sun.  The  time  that  is  indicated  by  a  sun 
dial  is  actual  sun  time  or  Apparent  Solar  Time; 
but  this  is  not  accurate  enough  for  the  civilized 
world  because  the  day  from  noon  to  noon  as 
marked  by  the  real  sun  is  longer  at  certain 
times  of  the  year  than  at  others.  However, 
astronomers  have  constructed  a  fictitious  sun 
that  gives  us  days  of  uniform  length,  and  the 
time  it  marks  off  is  called  Mean  Solar  Time. 
But  this  does  not  fully  solve  the  problem  of 
time.  We  have  still  to  contend  with  the  fact 
that  the  sun  reaches  the  meridian  successively 
later  as  it  progresses  westward,  so  that  noon 
in  Chicago,  for  instance,  will  be  much  later 
than  noon  in  New  York.  In  fact,  noon  on  the 
west  side  of  New  York  would  come  a  few 
seconds  later  than  noon  on  the  cast  side. 
If  each  town  in  the  country  used  local  mean 
solar  time,  or  Local  Time  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  the  utmost  confusion  would  prevail, 
particularly  on  railroads  connecting  the  towns. 
To  avoid  this  confusion  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  establish  certain  zones  in  which 
uniform  time  is  observed.  It  takes  the  sun 
twenty-four  hours  to  circle  the  earth  (to  be 
sure  it  is  the  earth  that  moves,  but  for  con- 
venience we  will  consider  that  the  earth  is 
stationary  and  that  the  sun  is  moving  around 
it).  The  earth  is  divided  into  360  degrees 
of  longitude.  Therefore,  it  takes  the  sun  one 
hour  to  traverse  15  degrees  of  longitude. 
The  United  States  and  the  majority  of  the 
European  countries  have  established  time 
zones  approximately  15  degrees  wide,  so  that 
the  time  of  one  zone  will  differ  from  the  next 
adjacent  zones  by  an  even  hour.  The  degrees 
of  longitude  are  measured  from  Greenwich, 
and  at  15  degrees  east  of  Greenwich  the 
Standard  Time  used  by  the  surrounding 
country  will  be  just  one  hour  ahead  of  Green- 
wich Time.  Regions  in  the  neighborhood  30 
degrees  east  of  Greenwich  will  use  time  two 
hours  faster  than  the  standard  time  of 
Greenwich.  The  same  is  true  in  the  west- 
ward direction,  except  that  here  the  clocks 
will  be  set  slower  than  Greenwich  Time  in  even 
hours  at  intervals  of  15  degrees. 

Eastern  Time  is  taken  from  the  75th 
meridian,  which  being  five  times  15  degrees 
west  of  Greenwich,  makes  the  time  in  this 
zone  five  hours  slower  than  Greenwich  Time. 
Central  Time  is  taken  from  the  90th  meridian 
and  is  one  hour  slower  than  Eastern  Time  and 
six  hours  slower  than  Greenwich  Time. 
Mountain  Time  is  taken  from  the  105th 
meridian,  and  Pacific  Time  from  the  120th 
meridian.  The  zones  are  somev/bat  distorted, 
mainly  to  suit  the  convenience  of  railroads. 

The  movement  which  resulted  in  the  adop- 
tion of  the  present  time  system  may  be  said 
to  have  originated  in  a  report  on  the  subject 
by  the  American  Meteorological  Society 
which  was  submitted  at  a  meeting  of  the 
General  Time  Convention  held  on  October 
13,  1881,  proposing  a  single  standard  for  the 
whole  country  and  suggesting  the  hour  theory 
as  an  alternative  proposition.  The  proposal 
to  fix  one  standard  of  time  for  the  whole 
country  had  much  to  recommend  it  from  a 
scientific  point  of  view.  But  it  was  found  to 
be  impracticable  on  account  of  the  many 


discrepancies  which  would  occur  between 
time  by  the  clock  and  solar  time.  Accord- 
ingly the  hour  system  was  adopted  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Convention  held  in  April, 
1883.  At  noon,  on  November  8,  1883,  time 
signals  were  sent  out  from  Washington  in 
accordance  with  the  new  hour  standard  time. 
In  Europe  each  country  is  small  enough  to 
be  included  in  a  single  zone.  Greenwich  Time 
is  used  in  Belgium,  France,  Great  Britain, 
Holland  (railways  and  telegraph),  Portugal, 
and  Spain.  Central  European  Time,  which  is 
one  hour  faster  than  Greenwich  Time,  is  used 
,  by  Austria-Hungary,  Denmark,  Germany, 
Italy,  Norway,'  Servia,  Sweden  and  Switzer- 
land. Eastern  European  Time,  two  hours 
faster  than  Greenwich,  is  used  by  Bulgaria  and 
Egypt,  and,  by  Europeans,  in  Turkey,  the 
native  time  in  the  last-named  country  being 
based  on  sunset,  which  being  the  end  of  the 
Turkish  day,  marks  the  hour  of  12. 

In  Belgiurn,  France,  Italy  and  Spain  rail- 
road clock  dials  are  divided  into  twenty-four 
hours,  beginning  with  0  at  midnight  and  thus 
doing  away  with  A.  M.  and  P.  M.  In  France 
and  Portugal,  clocks  on  the  exterior  of  railroad 
stations  are  true,  while  those  within  are  set 
five  minutes  slow. 


TWENTY-FOUR  AND    TWELVE  HOUR 
TIME  COMPARED. 

Were  it  possible  for  a  person  to  trnvel  west- 
ward around  the  world  as  fast  as  the  sun, 
time  would  to  him  appear  to  be  at  a  standstill. 
If  he  started,  say  at  noon  Monday,  it  would 
always  be  noon  Monday  to  him,  and  ai3- 
parently  there  would  be  no  change  in  his 
calendar.  Yet  somewhere  along  his  course 
around  the  world  Monday  must  have  ended 
and  Tuesday  must  have  begun.  Were  the 
traveler  proceeding  eastward  he  would  in  12 
hours  meet  and  pass  the  sun  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  earth  and  would  apparently  have 
reached  the  hour  of  noon  Tuesday.  At  the 
end  of  12  hours  more  he  would  meet  the  sun  a 
second  time  and  would  have  to  tear  off  another 
leaf  from  his  calendar  and  call  the  time  noon, 
Wednesday.  In  other  words,  his  journey 
around  the  globe  would  have  taken  him  two 
days  longer  than  the  man  who  traveled  with 
the  sun  and  made  the  trip  in  no  time.  It  is 
a  fact  that  a  trip  around  the  earth  in  a  west- 


480 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ward  direction  can  actually  be  made  in  two 
days  less  than  a  trip  in  the  eastward  direction,* 
although  the  same  rate  of  speed  is  preserved; 
but  the  days  of  the  east-bound  traveler 
would  be  shorter  than  those  of  the  west-bound 
traveler.  In  both  cases  the  travelers  would 
arrive  with  their  calendars  one  day  wrong; 
but  a  line  has  been  established  running  norfli 
and  south  at  which  travelers  are  obliged  to 


add  a  day  if  they  cross  it  going  westward  or 
subtract  a  day  if  they  cross  it  traveling  east- 
ward. In  other  words,  the  day  is  supposed  to 
start  and  end  along  this  line,  which  is  called 
the  International  Date  Line.  It  follows  the 
180th  meridian  except  for  a  few  digressions,  as 
indicated  in  the  map  on  the  opposite  page, 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  inhabitants  of 
islands  lying  nearby. 


TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  TIME. 

(To  the  nearest  second.) 


PLACE. 

Earlier  (  - 

)orLater(  +  )than, 

East'n 

Stand'd. 

Greenwich. 

United  States— 
From  Maine  to  South  Carolina  .               .             

h 

0 

-1 

-2 

-3 

-4 

-5 

-6 

-1-14 

-hl3 

-hi 

0 

-H5 

-FO 

-hl3 

-t-14 

+  15 

+  6 

-1-13 

+  2 

-3 

0 

ll 

-hl3 
-f-12 
-1-0 
-0 
-0 
-1-6 
-0 
-f-7 

-hl6 

+  5 

+  6 

+  5 

+  6 

+  5 

-1 

+  13 

+  10 

+  4 

+  6 

-0 

+  14 

+  12 

+  13 

+  14 

+  8 

+  6 

+  8 

-1 

+  1 

+  16 

-0 

+  6 

m 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

30 

30 

30 

0 

0 

0 

9 

43 

0 

30 

0 

0 

0 

0 

7 

0 

0 

0 

17 

5 

6 

3 

36 

29 

0 

14 

0 

0 

53 

0 

0 

0 

34 

0 

0 

0 

30 

34 

0 

7 

0 

7 

0 

0 

10 

0 

50 

36 

29 

30 

45 

0 

s 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

21 

12 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

19 

0 

0 

0 

14 

43 

49 

6 

17 

26 

0 

7 

0 

0 

44 

0 

0 

0 

53 

0 

0 

0 

00 

39 

0 

11 

0 

14 

0 

0 

7 

0 

13 

27 

16 

0 

10 

0 

h 
-5 
-6 
—  7 
-8 
-9 

-10 

-11 
+  9 
+  8 
-4 
-5 
+  0 
-4 
+  8 
+  9 

+  10 
+  1 
0 
+  8 
-2 
-8 
-5 
+  6 
-4 
+  8 
+  7 
-4 
-5 
-5 
+  1 
-5 
+  2 
0 

+  11 

+  0 

+  1 

0 

+  1 

0 
-6 
+  8 
+  5 
-0 
+  1 
-5 
+  9 
+  7 
+  8 
+  9 
+  3 
+  1 
+  3 
-6 
-3 
+  11 
-5 
+  1 

m      s 
0       0 

From  Dakota  and  Michigan  to  Texas  and  Florida 

0       0 

From  Montana  to  Arizona  and  New  Mexico 

0       0 

Pacific  Coast  States  and  Nevada  .         ...             .        .    . 

0       0 

Sitka,  Alaska 

0       0 

Hawaiian  Islands 

30       0 

Tutuila,  Samoa 

30       0 

Guam 

30       0 

Philippine  Islands .        

0       0 

Porto  Rico 

0       0 

Panama  Canal  Zone 

0       0 

9     21 

Argentina 

16     48 

0       0 

Australia,  central . 

30       0 

Australia,  eastern 

0       0 

Austria-Hungary .             

0       0 

Belgium 

0       0 

Borneo  (British  North)  and  Labuan 

0       0 

Brazil  (Rio  Janeiro) .    . 

52     41 

British  Columbia 

0       0 

0       0 

Canada,  central. ... 

0       0 

Chile 

42  46 

China  (Shanghai) ... 

5     43 

China  (Saigon) 

6     49 

56     54 

Costa  Rica 

36     17 

Cuba 

29     26 

Denmark .                         

0       0 

Ecuador 

14       7 

Egypt 

0       0 

0       0 

Fiji  Islands  (Suva) 

53     44 

France 

0       0 

Germany .                                                  

0       0 

Gibraltar. . . 

0       0 

Greece 

34     53 

Holland 

0       0 

Honduras  . . 

0       0 

0       0 

India  (Madras) .... 

30     00 

Ireland 

25     21 

Italy 

0       0 

Jamaica  (Kingston)           .                                                      

7     11 

Japan 

0       0 

7     14 

Xiaochau .                                                    

0       0 

Korea. . . . 

0       0 

Madagascar  (Tananarivo) 

10       7 

Malta 

0       0 

Mauritius 

50     13 

36     27 

Newfoundland  (St.  Johns) 

30     44 

30       0 

Nicaragua .        .        ...          

45     10 

Norway 

0       0 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


481 


TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  TIME— Continued. 
(To  the  nearest  second.) 


Earlier  (-)  or  Later  (  +  )  than, 


East'n  Stand'd.      Greenwich. 


Nova  Scotia 

Panama  (Colon) 

Peru 

Portugal 

Russia  (Pulkowa) .... 

Russia  (Irkutsk) 

Russia  (Vladivostok) . 

Salvador 

Servia 

Singapore 

South  Africa  (British) 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Tunis 

Turkey 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


+  1 
-0 
-0 
+  5 
+  7 
fll 
+-13 
-0 


0       0 
19     39 


47     31 
56     32 


+  11 

55 

25 

+  7 

0 

0 

+  5 

0 

0 

+  4 

0 

0 

+  6 

0 

0 

+  5 

9 

21 

+  7 

0 

0 

+  1 

15 

11 

+  0 

32 

IG 

-4 

-5 

-5 

0 

+  2 


0 

+  1 
+  1 
+  0 
+  2 


0       0 
19     39 


3 

0 

19 

5 

31 

-5  56  32 
+  10  0 
+  6     55     25 

+  2       0       0 


+  6     57 

+  8     47 


-3     44     4q 
-4     27     4| 


MAP  SHOWING  INTERNATIONAL  DATE  LINE 


482 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


4S3 


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S'S. 


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■M     0< 


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u»      *      ro      N 


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S  1 \R 


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II 

1   -dvari  jo;  wo^obj 

0    m-  mo    M    '♦-'ON    «oo    fo<o 

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fel-S 
o 


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°  -< 

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^?:,  :  :  :  :  : 

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NO    t-..oo    On  0    >-"    N 
w     MM    M    N    N    N 
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Jo  ;  :  ;  ;  ;  : 

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f^oo   On  0  M  M   ro 

M      M      M     W      N     d     N 

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fO  •*  iDvo  t-^oo  On 
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rf^S^^^5:,33 

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whitaker's  almanack,  1913. 


484 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


i   1 

500  310 


mim 


300 


186 


Geocoronium- 
sphere 


WEGENER'S  "PROFILE  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE." 

The  lowest  dotted  line  (about  7  miles  above  the  ground)  is  "where  the  air  stops  growing 
colder."  It  is  the  upper  limit  of  ordinary  clouds,  of  storms,  and  of  balloon  ascensions  by 
human  beings.  Nearly  all  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  lies  below  this  level.  Above  this 
line  comes  the  second  layer  of  the  atmosphere,  the  stratosphere  (also  called  the  "isothermal 
layer,"  because  a  thermometer  carried  up  through  it  would  show  little  change  of  temperature 
with  change  of  elevation).  This  layer  has  been  penetrated  by  sounding-balloons,  carrying 
meteorological  apparatus  but  no  human  aeronaut,  as  far  as  20  miles  above  the  earth.  At  about 
50  miles — the  upper  limit  of  twilight — begins  a  region  in  which  the  atmosphere  consists  chiefly 
of  hydrogen.  Near  the  lower  border  of  this  region  clouds  of  fine  dust  have  sometimes  been 
observed,  shining  by  reflected  sunlight  on  summer  nights.  These  "noctilucent  clouds"  are  com- 
monly explained  as  the  product  of  volcanic  eruptions  on  the  earth  (they  were  frequently  seen 
after  the  eruption   of  Krakatoa),    but  may  be  of   cosmical  origin. 

Concerning  the  uppermost  regions  of  the  atmosphere  we  have  little  positive  knowledge. 
Above  about  130  miles  from  the  earth,  Dr.  Alfred  Wegener,  the  author  of  this  diagram,  believes 
that  a  gas  ("geocoronium"),  much  lighter  than  hydrogen  prevails,  to  which  he  attributes  the 
characteristic  green  line  In  the  spectrum  of  the  higher  auroras.  This  is  hardly  more  than  a 
guess  at  present. 


CHAPTER  III. 


METEOROLOGY.* 

By  C.  Fitzhugh  Talman. 


COMPOSITION,   PRESSURE     AND     HEIGHT 
OF   THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

Up  to  a  height  of  eight  or  ten  miles 
above  the  earth  the  composition  of 
the  atmosphere  is  remarkably  uniform, 
as  to  its  principal  constituents.  Pure 
dry  air  is  a  mixture  (not  a  chemical 
compound)  of  gases  in  the  following 
proportions,  by  volume :  Nitrogen, 
78.03%;  oxygen,  20.99%;  argon, 
0.94%  ;  carbon  dioxide,  0.03%  ;  hydro- 
gen, 0.01%  ;  together  with  minute 
quantities  of  neon,  krypton,  xenon, 
helium,  and  possibly  other  gases.  At 
the  levels  habitable  by  man  the  air 
always  contains  invisible  water  vapor 
(from  a  small  trace  to  about  5%), 
and  usually  small  and  variable 
amounts  of  ozone,  ammonia,  nitric 
acid,  and  other  gases,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  their  irregular  occurrence, 
are  not  classed  among  the  normal 
constituents  of  the  atmosphere.  Lastly, 
the  lower  air  always  contains  solid 
impurities,  in  endless  variety,  gen- 
erically  known   as   dust. 

The  pressure  of  the  air  at  sea- 
level  averages  about  14.7  pounds  to 
the  square  inch,  which  corresponds 
to  a  reading  of  29.92  inches  of  the 
barometer.  The  density  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  decrease  rapidly  as  we 
ascend.  At  an  altitude  of  3.6  miles 
above  sea-level  they  are  reduced  one- 
half  ;  i.  e.,  half  the  whole  mass  of 
the  atmosphere  lies  below  this  eleva- 
tion ;  yet  the  atmosphere  extends  at 
least  300  miles  above  the  earth.  At 
great  altitudes  the  tenuity  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  comparable  to  that  of  the 
best  "vacuums"  attainable  in  the 
laboratory. 

THE   UPPER  ATMOSPHERE. 

The  investigation  of  the  upper  at- 
mosphere, which  has  been  prosecuted 
most  actively  since  the  beginning  of 
the  twentieth  century,  constitutes  a 
special  branch   of  research  known  as 

♦Copyright,    1912,    by   Munn    &   Co.,    Inc. 


aerology.  It  has  made  meteorology  a 
"science  of  three  dimensions." 

The  atmosphere  is  "sounded"  by 
means  of  meteorological  instruments 
attached  to  kites  and  balloons.  The 
greatest  height  ever  attained  by  a 
kite  was  4.51  miles  above  sea-level, 
at  Mount  Weather,  Va.,  May  5,  1910; 
by  a  balloon,  20.14  miles,  at  Uccle, 
Belgium,  June  9, 1911.  Above  the  levels 
attainable  by  these  means,  the  atmos- 
phere is  studied  by  observations  of  the 
aurora,  meteor  trains,  and  optical 
phenomena,  and  by  computation  of  the 
distribution  of  the  atmospheric  gases, 
as  determined  by  their  atomic  weights. 

Since  the  year  1902  it  has  been 
known  that  the  atmosphere  is  divided 
into  at  least  two  layers,  or  shells, 
having  quite  different  properties.  If 
we  could  travel  in  a  balloon  to  the 
top  of  the  atmosphere  we  should  find 
the  air  rapidly  growing  colder  as  we 
ascended,  until,  at  a  height  of  about 
7  miles,  this  fall  in  temperature  sud- 
denly ceased,  as  we  entered  the  iso- 
thermal layer,  or  stratosphere.  The 
air  below  this  level — the  troposphere — 
contains  practically  all  the  moisture 
of  the  atmosphere ;  hence  all  clouds 
(except  possibly  dust  clouds  of  vol- 
canic or  cosmical  origin).  All  storms, 
also,  are  confined  to  the  troposphere. 

During  our  ascent  through  the  stra- 
tosphere we  should  find  ourselves  in  a 
region  of  comparatively  gentle  winds 
and  of  uniform  temperature  in  a 
vertical  direction.  We  should  find 
the  atmosphere  gradually  ceasing  to 
be  "air,"  and  becoming  mainly  nitro- 
gen. Later  we  should  reach  a  region 
in  which  nitrogen  was  replaced  by 
the  lighter  gas  hydrogen. 

Possibly  a  gas  even  lighter  than 
hydrogen  exists  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  if  so  it  must  be  most  abundant  at 
the  highest  levels.  Its  existence  is 
conjectured  on  the  evidence  of  the 
spectrum  of  a  certain  type  of  aurora, 


486 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


and   it   has  been  named  provisionally 
"geocoronium." 

Wegener's  profile  of  the  atmosphere 
represents  these  facts  graphically.^ 

THE     METEaROLOGTCAL    ELEMENTS     AND 
INSTRUMENTS. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  is  meas- 
ured with  the  thermometer,  or  con- 
tinuously with  the  thermograph.  Ex- 
tremes of  temperature  are  automatic- 
ally recorded  with  the  maximum  and 
the  minimum,  thermometer.  The  tem- 
perature underground  is  measured 
with   the  soil  thermometer. 

The  total  solar  radiation  or  inso- 
lation is  measured  with  the  actino- 
meter  or  the  pyrheliometer.  The  in- 
tensity of  the  shorter  wave-lengths, 
including  the  ultra-violet,  is  measured 
with  several  forms  of  photometer.  The 
distribution  of  energy  throughout  the 
solar  spectrum  is  measured  with 
Langley's  bolometer.  The  duration  of 
sunshine  is  measured  with  the  sun- 
shine-recorder. 

The  pressure  of  the  air  is  measured 
with  the  barometer  (mercurial  or 
aneroid),  or  continuously  with  the 
barograph.  Minute  fluctuations  of 
pressure  are  measured  with  the  stato- 
scope,  the  microbarograph,  the  pres- 
sure-variometer, or  the  variograph. 
Altitude,  as  affecting  barometric  pres- 
sure, is  measured  with  the  hypsometer. 

The  humidity  of  the  air  (relative 
or  absolute)  is  measured  with  the 
hygrometer  or  the  psychrometcr ;  or 
continuously    with    the    hygrograph. 

The  rainfall  is  measured  with  the 
rain-gage — probably  the  oldest  of 
meteorological  instruments.  Rain- 
gages  were  used  in  India  in  the  4th 
century  B.C.  The  self-recording  rain- 
gage  makes  a  continuous  record  of  the 
amount  of  rainfall ;  the  ombroscope 
of  its  duration  only,  including  the 
lightest  showers.  Snoivfall  is  usually 
measured  as  rainfall ;  i.  e.,  the  ob- 
server melts  the  snow  before  measur- 
ing it,  or  else  computes  its  "water 
equivalent."  There  are,  however, 
snow-gages  of  various  forms.  The 
drosometer,  for  measuring  dew,  is  lit- 
tle used. 


^Wegener's  "geocoroniumsphere"  Is 
still  a  matter  of  speculation,  but  has  at- 
tained considerable  prominence  in  the 
current  literature  of  meteorology.  His 
"hydrogensphere"  is,  in  current  termi- 
nology, usually  included  in  the  strato- 
sphere. 


Evaporation  is  measured  with  the 
atmometer  {atmidometer,  evapori- 
meter)  ;  continuously  with  the  atmo- 
graph. 

The  direction  of  the  wind  is  ob- 
served with  the  wind-vane,  which  may 
be  arranged  to  make  a  continuous 
record.  The  velocity  or  the  force  of 
the  wind  is  measured  with  the  ane- 
mometer (continuously  with  the  anem- 
ograph) ^  or  estimated  by  the  ob- 
server in  terms  of  a  simple  wind- 
scale.  (See  Beaufort  Scale  at  the  end 
of  the  chapter.)  The  vertical  compo- 
nent of  the  wind  is  measured  with 
the  vertical  anemometer. 

The  state  of  the  weather,  as  clear, 
partly  cloudy,  cloudy,  raining,  foggy, 
etc.,  is  observed  non-instrumentally. 
The  degree  of  cloudiness  is  the  num- 
ber of  tenths  of  the  sky  covered  with 
clouds,  from  0  =r  cloudless  to  10  = 
completely  overcast.  Exact  measure- 
ments of  cloudiness  may  be  made  with 
Besson's  nephometer.  The  duration 
of  cloudiness  at  night  is  sometimes 
measured  with  the  pole-star  recorder. 

Clouds  are  observed  as  to  their 
form,  and  as  to  direction  and  speed 
of  movement,  as  measured  with  the 
nephoscope.  Photographic  measure- 
ments of  clouds  are  made  with  the 
photonephograph. 

The  normal  electrical  phenomena  of 
the  atmosphere  include  the  vertical 
potential  gradient,  measured  with  col- 
lectors  and  electrometers  (some  self- 
recording)  ;  also  ionization  and  its 
effects,  observed  with  dissipation-ap- 
paratus, conductivity-apparatus,  ion- 
counters,  etc. 

Lightning  flashes  set  up  Hertzian 
waves  (known  to  wireless  operators 
as  "atmospherics,"  "strays,"  "statics," 
"X's,"  etc.)  and  these  are  recorded  at 
a  distance  by  the  ceraunograph,  or 
thunderstorm-recorder,  or  audibly  in 
the  ceraunophone. 

Aerological  observations,  now  form- 
ing part  of  the  routine  of  many  ob- 
servatories, have  been  referred  to  in 
the  preceding  section.  The  apparatus 
employed  includes  the  kite  and  the 
kite-reel  (usually  a  power-driven 
winch)  ;  the  captive  balloon;  the. 
pilot-balloon  (sent  aloft  without  at- 
tached instruments,  merely  for  ob- 
serving the  drift  of  the  upper  air, 
and  usually  followed  with  a  theodo- 
lite) ;  the  sounding-balloon  (which 
bursts  at  a  great  altitude,  and  is 
wafted  gently  to  the  ground,  with  its 
attached  instruments,  by  a  parachute 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


487 


or  an  auxiliary  balloon)  ;  the  inflat- 
ing-halance^  for  securing  the  proper 
ascensional  force  of  balloons ;  and 
special  light  forms  of  meteorograph, 
which  are  attached  to  kites  and  bal- 
loons and  continuously  record  the  tem- 
perature, pressure,  humidity,  etc.,  dur- 
ing a  flight. . 

Various    accidental    constituents    of 
the  atmosphere  are   measured  at  cer- 


tain observatories;  especially  ozone, 
with  the  ozonometer,  and  dust,  with 
the  dust-counter,  the  koniscope,  or  the 
aeroscope. 

The  periodical  phenomena  of  ani- 
mals and  plants  form  a  most  valuable 
gage  of  weather  and  climate.  Their 
observation  constitutes  a  borderland 
between  meteorology  and  biology, 
known  as  phenology. 


I 


METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     (Pages  488-497.) 

I.     Temperature  and  Radiation. 

I.  Maximum  and  minimum  thermometers.  2.  Thermograph.  3.  Thermometer  screen.  4, 
Earth-  thermometer  (section).  5.  "Black  bulb  in  vacuo."  6.  Pyrheliometer  (Marvin).  7.  Ther- 
mometric  sunshine  recorder  (Marvin).  8.  Photographic  sunshine  recorder  (Jordan).  9.  Burning- 
glass    sunshine   recorder    (Campbell-Stokes).     10.  Terrestrial    radiation    thermometer. 

II.     Atmospheric  Pressure. 

II.  Mercurial  barometer  (Fortin  type).  12.  Aneroid  barometer.  13.  Statoscope.  14.  Barograph. 
15.  Microbarograph    (Shaw-Dines).     16.  Pressure-variometer    (Bestelmeyer). 

Nos.  13  and  16  are  for  aeronautical   use. 

III.     Humidity. 

17.  Aspiration  psychrometer  (Assmann).  18.  Hair  hygrometer.  19.  Psychrometer.  20.  Poly- 
meter    (Lambrecht).    21.  Whirl    psychrometer. 

IV.     Precipitation. 

22.  Tipping-bucket  rain-gage.  23.  Tube,  density  bucket,  and  scale  for  weighing  samples  of 
snow  (Marvin).  24.  Rain-gage  and  measuring-glass  (Snowdon  pattern).  25.  Details  of  standard 
rain-gage    (U.    S.    Weather    Bureau).     26.  Vertical    snow    scale    (Marvin). 

V.     Evaporation. 
27.  Evaporation-pan   and   still-well    (Marvin).     28.  Evaporimeter    (Piche).     29.  Porous   cup   atmo- 
meter    (Livingston).    .30.  Balance-evaporimeter    (Wild).     31.  Atmograph    (Houdaille). 

VI.     Wind. 

32  and  33.  Pressure-tube  anemometer  (Dines).  34.  Arrow  wind-vane,  Robinson  anemometer, 
and  support  (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  patterns).  35.  (To  the  left)  Lind's  pressure-anemometer. 
(To  the  right)  Windmill  vane  of  the  anemoclnemograph  (Richard).  36.  Pressure-plate  anemometer 
(Fuess).  37.  Pendulum  anemometer.  38.  Recording  dial  of  No.  36.  39.  Photographic  vertical 
anemometer  (Ludewig).     40.  Vertical   anemometer   (Wiechert). 

Nos.    39  and  40  are   chiefly  of  aeronautical   use. 

VII.     Clouds. 
41.  Reflecting    nephoscope    (Fineman).     42.     Nephometer    (Besson).     43.  Direct-vision    nephoscope 
(Besson).     44.  Reflecting    nephoscope    (Marvin). 

VIII.     Atmospheric  Electricty. 
45.  Self-registering     electrometer    (Benndorf).        46.  Dissipation    apparatus     (Elster    &    Geitel). 
47.     Conductivity     apparatus     (Gerdien).     48.  Ceraunograph,     or    thunderstorm    recorder,     combined 
with    a    barograph    (Turpain). 

IX.     Aerology. 
49-52.     Meteorographs  ffcr  kites  and  balloons  (49,   German;  50,    U.    S. ;  51,    French;  52,   English). 
53.     Balloon    theodolite.     54.     Inflating    balance.     55.  Meteorological    kite. 

X.     Miscellaneous. 
56.     Meteorograph,    or   electrical    recording   apparatus    for    wind-vane,    anemometer,    rain-gage, 
and   sunshine  recorder  (U.    S.   Weather  Bureau  pattern).     57.  Dust-counter  (Aitken).     58.  Aeroscope 
(Miquel). 


The  foregoing  list  of  the  meteoro- 
logical elements  and  instruments  is  by 
no  means   exhaustive. 

HEATING   AND   COOLING   OF    THE   ATMO- 
SPHERE. 

The  amount  of  heat  received  by 
the  atmosphere  from  the  moon,  the 
planets  and  the  stars  is  infinitesimal, 


and  these  bodies  have  no  influence 
whatever  on  terrestrial  weather  and 
climate.  The  atmosphere  is  very 
slightly  warmed  by  the  internal  heat 
of  the  earth ;  its  mean  temperature 
is  probably  raised  less  than  three- 
tenths  of  a  degree  Fahrenheit  by  this 
agency — a  negligible  amount. 


488 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


mW-miPTeii'S- 


»j-:=»^ 


Copyright  1912,  by  Munn  &  Co.,   Inc. 
METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     I.    TEMPERATURE  AND  RADIATION 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


489 


Copyright  1912,    by   Munn   &   Co.,    Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     II.     ATMOSPHERIC  PRESSURE. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,    1912,   by  Munn  &  Co.,   Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL   INSTRUMENTS.     III.     HUMIDITY. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


491 


,'^^i* 


l^JL  ^~.,^ 


Copyright,   1912,   by  Munn   &  Co.,   Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     IV.     PRECIPITATION. 


492 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright.    1912,    by   Munn   &   Co.,    Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     V.     EVAPORATION. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


493 


Copyright,   1912,    by  Munn   &  Co.,   Inc 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     VI.     WIND. 


494 


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Copyright  1912,    by   Munn  &   Co.,   lac. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     VII.     CLOUDS. 


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METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     VIII.     ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY. 


496 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,   1912,  by  Munn   &  Co.,  Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     IX.     AEROLOGY. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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Copyright,  1912,  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.    X.    MISCELLANEOUS. 


498 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


KITE  FLYING  FROM  A  MOVING  BOAT 
ON  LAKE  CONSTANCE. 

The  sun  is  the  one  great  source 
from  which  the  atmosphere  is  heated. 
At  its  outer  limit  the  atmosphere  re- 
ceives vertically  from  the  sun,  on  an 
average,  1.92  calories  of  heat  per 
square  centimeter  per  minute  (Abbot, 
Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc,  1911).  This 
datum  is  knou'n  as  the  solar  constant 
— a  misnomer,  as  the  actual  amount 
fluctuates  by  several  per  cent ;  i.  e., 
the  sun  is  not  actually  a  constant 
source   of  heat. 

The  atmosphere  is  mainly  heated 
from  below,  although  the  heat  origin- 
ally comes  from  above.  This  paradox 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  but  a 
small  part  of  the  solar  heat  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  atmosphere  when  pass- 
ing through  it  on  its  way  to  the  earth. 
Several  processes  are  involved  in  the 
disposal  of  solar  heat  (more  accurate- 
ly, radiation)  by  the  earth  and  its  at- 
mosphere, and  different  wave-lengths 
undergo  different  effects.  This  com- 
plex subject,  involving  the  study  of 
solar  radiation  with  the  aid  of  the 
pyrheliometer,  bolometer,  photometer, 
polarimeter,  etc.,  forms  a  border 
science  between  meteorology  and  solar 
physics,  with  important  applications 
to  biology.  It  is  engaging  the  atten- 
tion of  a  numerous  body  of  investiga- 
tors, but  has  not  yet  received  a  dis- 
tinct name. 

For  the  present  purpose  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  earth,  heated  by  the 
sun's  rays,  imparts  its  heat  by  con- 
duction to  a  shallow  layer  of  air  im- 
mediately above  it.  Conversely,  por- 
tions of  the  earth's  surface  withdrawn 
from  the  sun's  rays  lose  their  heat  by 
radiation  into  space,  and  the  air  ad- 
jacent to  them  is  cooled  by  conduction. 


Inequalities  of  temperature  plus  the 
force  of  gravity  set  up  air  currents, 
which  distribute  heat  through  the  at- 
mosphere. The  latter  process  is  called 
convection.  As  between  a  land  sur- 
face and  a  water  surface,  the  former 
undergoes  much  wider  fluctuations  of 
temperature  from  day  to  night,  and 
from  summer  to  winter,  causing  cor- 
respondingly wider  fluctuations  in  the 
temperature  of  the  overlying  atmo- 
sphere. Hence  a  continental  climate 
is  much  less  equable  than  a  marine 
climate.  Lastly,  rising  and  falling 
air-masses  are  adiahatically  cooled 
and  heated,  respectively,  at  the  rate 
of  1.6°  Fahrenheit  per  300  feet  of 
vertical  motion.  (The  cooling  process 
is  less  rapid  than  this  when  con- 
densation of  moisture  is  in  progress.) 

DISTRIBUTION   OF   TEMPERATUBE. 

The  earth  revolves  around  the  sun, 
and  its  axis,  which  always  remains 
parallel  to  itself,  is  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit.  These  facts  explain 
the  march  of  the  seasons  and  their  op- 
position in  the  two  hemispheres.  The 
amount  of  heat  (insolation)  received 
at  any  place  at  a  given  moment  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  the  altitude  of  the 
sun.  The  aggregate  amount  received  at 
any  period  of  the  year  depends  also 
upon  the  length  of  the  day,  which 
varies  with  latitude,  except  at  the 
equinoxes.  At  the  summer  solstice,  the 
north  pole,  where  the  day  is  then  24 
hours  long,  actually  receives  a  greater 
daily  amount  of  insolation  than  any 
other  part  of  the  globe;  but  this  is  in- 
effective in  raising  the  temperature 
on  account  of  the  long  oblique  path  of 
the  solar  rays  through  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  large  amount  of  snow  and  ice 
that  must  be  melted  before  the  over- 
lying air  can  be  warmed.  At  the  win- 
ter solstice  a  still  greater  amount  of 
insolation  is  received  at  the  south 
pole,  as  the  earth  is  then  in  perihelion. 

If  the  earth  had  a  smooth  homoge- 
neous surface  and  no  atmosphere  the 
horizontal  distribution  of  temperature 
at  any  time  would  depend  entirely 
upon  latitude.  The  theoretical  climate 
resulting  from  such  conditions  is  called 
solar  climate.  Actually,  however,  this 
simple  distribution  is  profoundly  modi- 
fied by  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  air 
through  which  the  sun's  rays  pass  (de- 
pending upon  the  sun's  altitude),  the 
different  thermal  properties  of  land  and 
water,  the  presence  or  absence  of  snow 
and  ice,  the  configuration  of  the  earth's 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


499 


ANNUAL  ISOTHERMS  OF  THE  GLOBE  (BUCHAN.) 


surface,  the  prevailing  winds,  the  dis- 
tribution of  water  vapor,  etc. 

How  widely  the  actual  distribution 
of  temperature  differs  from  that  of 
the  solar  climate  may  be  seen  from 
an  annual  isothermal  chart  of  the 
globe.  An  isotherm  is  a  line  on  such 
a  chart  drawn  through  places  hav- 
ing the  same  temperature.  The  first 
isotherms  of  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  the  whole  world  were 
drawn  by  Humboldt  in  1817,  and  in- 
troduced into  meteorology  the  valu- 
able idea  of  the  isogram — i.  e., 
a  line  on  a  chart  connecting  places 
at  which  equality  of  some  phys- 
ical condition  exists.  An  isogram  of 
barometric  pressure  is  called  an  iso- 
bar; of  rainfall,  an  isohyet;  of  cloud- 
iness, an  isoneph;  of  duration  of  sun- 
shine, an  isohel;  etc.  Upwards  of 
eighty  meteorological  isograms  have 
been  given  special  names.^ 

The  lowest  temperatures  on  the 
earth  occur  in  winter  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Siberia,  the  somewhat 
indefinite  center  of  greatest  cold  being 
known  as  ^  the  "cold  pole."  At  Ver- 
khoyansk, in  this  region,  a  temperature 
of  90.4°  below  zero  Fahrenheit  was 
recorded  on  Jan.  15,  1885 — the  lowest 
ever  reported  at  a  regular  meteorolog- 

"See  "The  Meteorological  Isograms," 
Scientific  American  Supplement,  Nov.  12. 
1910. 


ical  station.  The  highest  tempera- 
tures occur  in  the  deserts  of  both  the 
temperate  and  the  torrid  zones.  At 
Wargla  (French  Ouargla) ,  in  the  Al- 
gerian Sahara,  a  temperature  of 
127.4°  Fahrenheit  was  recorded  on 
July  17,  187U.  Much  higher  temper- 
atures have  been  reported — as  high  as 
167°  in  the  desert  of  Gobi — but  the 
records  in  these  cases  are  not  entirely 
trustworthy.  Of  course  these  are  all 
shade  temperatures. 

In  the  upper  atmosphere  the  lowest 
temperatures  occur  at  great  heights 
over  the  equatorial  regions,  where  the 
troposphere  is  thicker  than  in  higher 
latitudes,  and  hence  the  ordinary  fall 
of  temperature  with  ascent  proceeds  to> 
a  greater  height  before  the  isothermal 
layer  is  reached.  The  lowest  tem- 
perature ever  registered  by  a  sound- 
ing-balloon was  119°  below  zero 
Fahrenheit,  over  Victoria  Nyanza,  in 
the  heart  of  Africa. 

GENERAL   CIRCULATION   OF   THE  ATMOS- 
PHERE. 

^  In  the  equatorial  regions  the  surface 
air  is  heated  more  than  elsewhere,  and 
tends  to  rise  and  overflow  at  high 
levels,  toward  the  poles ;  while  the 
relatively  cold  air  of  the  polar  regions 
tends  to  flow  equatorward,  near  the 
earth's  surface,  to  replace  it.  A  simple 
circulation    between    the    equator    and 


500 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


the  poles  could,  however,  only  occur 
if  the  earth  did  not  rotate  on  its  axis. 

The  deflective  force  of  the  earth's  ro- 
tation causes  a  particle  of  air  mov- 
ing in  any  direction  over  the  earth's 
surface  to  deviate  to  the  right  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  and  to  the  left  in 
the  southern. 

At  about  latitude  30°  the  winds 
coming  from  the  equator  have  been  so 
much  deflected  that  they  move  almost 
due  eastwardly.  The  result  is  a  great 
whirl  around  the  pole,  occupying  most 
of  the  temperate  zone  in  each  hemis- 
phere, with  prevailing  winds  from 
west  to  east  at  all  levels.  The  centrif- 
ugal force  of  this  whirl  causes  the 
air  to  bank  up  at  about  latitude  30°, 
producing  a  belt  of  high  pressure  in 
that  region,  which  is  known  as  the 
horse  latitudes.  Between  this  belt 
and  the  equator  there  is  a  regular  cir- 
culation of  air  equatorward  below  (the 
trade  winds)  and  poleward  above  (the 
antitrades)  ;  both  systems  being  given 
an  oblique  direction  by  the  earth's  ro- 
tation. Near  the  equator,  between  the 
two  trade  wind  systems,  is  a  region  of 
calms  or  variable  winds,  with  abund- 
ant clouds  and  rains,  known  as  the 
doldrums.  Trades  and  doldrums  shift 
north  and  south  ii^  the  course  of  the 
year,  following  the  sun,  and  give  to 
regions  which  come  alternately  under 
their  control  successive  dry  and  rainy 
seasons. 

The  prevailing  westerly  winds  of 
middle  latitudes  are  stronger  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  where  they  blow 
mainly  over  the  ocean  and  are  little 
impeded  by  friction,  than  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere ;  hence  the  violence  of 
the  winds  known  to  mariners  as  the 
"brave  west  winds"  in  the  region 
called  the  "roaring  forties"  (about 
40°  south  latitude). 

Within  the  polar  circles  the  low 
temperatures  increase  the  density  of 
the  air,  which  flows  radially  away 
from  the  poles  near  the  earth's  sur- 
face ;  an  effect  that  appears  to  be  re- 
enforced  by  the  drainage  of  air  down 
the  glacier  slopes  of  the  two  polar 
continents  (Greenland  and  Antarc- 
tica). 

From  north  to  south  the  main  wind 
systems  of  the  globe  run  in  the  fol- 
lowing sequence  : 

1.  Arctic  calms  and  outflowing 
winds,  deflected  westwardly  (with 
poleward  winds  overhead). 

2.  Westerly  (i.  e.,  eastwardly) 
winds  of  middle  latitudes. 


3.  Horse  latitudes  ("calms  of  Can- 
cer"). 

4.  Northeast  trade  winds  (with 
southwest  antitrades  overhead). 

5.  Doldrums  or  equatorial  calms 
(with  east  winds  overhead). 

6.  Southeast  trade  winds  (with 
northwest  antitrades  overhead). 

7.  Horse  latitudes  ("calms  of  Cap- 
ricorn"). 

8.  Westerly  (i.  e.,  eastwardly) 
winds  of  middle  latitudes. 

9.  Antarctic  calms  and  outflowing 
winds,  deflected  westwardly  (with 
poleward  winds  overhead). 

These  prevailing  wind  systems  are, 
however,  greatly  disturbed  by  the  peri- 
odic winds  due  to  the  different  ther- 
mal effects  of  land  and  water  sur- 
faces ;  by  the  surface  configuration  of 
the  land;  and,  in  middle  latitudes,  by 
the  continual  passage  of  cyclonic  and 
anticyclonic  areas. 

PERIODIC   WINDS. 

Comparing  day  and  night,  summer 
and  winter,  the  land  is  alternately 
warmer  and  colder  than  the  ocean. 
Hence  there  is  an  annual  seesaw  of 
the  winds  on  a  vast  scale  between  land 
and  sea  (the  monsoons) ,  and  a-  daily 
seesaw  on  a  smaller  scale  between 
coasts  and  the  adjacent  waters  (land 
and  sea  breezes;  land  and  lake 
hreezes ) . 

Another  class  of  alternating  winds 
occurs  in  valleys,  where  warm  air 
flows  up  the  slopes  by  day,  and  cold 
air  drains  downward  by  night  (moun- 
tain and  valley  breezes).  This  phe- 
nomenon has  always  strongly  im- 
pressed the  popular  imagination ;  and 
scores  of  winds  of  this  class  have  been 
given  individual  local  names.  Such 
are  the  pontias,  vesine  and  solore  of 
the  French  Alps ;  the  joran  of  Lake 
Geneva ;-  the  hreva  and  the  tivano  of 
Lake  Como,  etc. 

CYCLONES    AND    RELATED    PHENOMENA. 

A  cyclone,  barometric  depression,  or 
loto  is  a  system  of  winds  blowing 
around  a  center  of  low  barometric 
pressure.  Near  the  earth's  surface  the 
wind  is  drawn  spirally  inward  toward 
the  center  of  the  system,  the  direction 
of  rotation  being  always  counterclock- 
wise in  the  northern  hemisphere  and 
clockwise  in  the  southern.  Hence  we 
have  Buys  Ballot's  law :  Stand  with 
your  back  to  the  wind  and  the  barom- 
eter will  be  lowest  on  your  left  hand 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  on 
your  right  hand  in  the  southern.    The 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


501 


air  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  the  sys- 
tem rises  and  tends  to  flow  spirally 
outward,  though  its  actual  direction  is 
much  modified  by  the  prevailing  drift 
of  the  atmosphere  (west-east  in  mid- 
dle latitudes).  Besides  its  rotary  mo- 
tion, the  cyclone  as  a  whole  has  usually 
a  more  or  less  rapid  translatory  mo- 
tion. The  two  motions  may  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  earth,  which 
rotates  on  its  axis  and  at  the  same 
time  revolves  in  its  orbit  around  the 
sun. 

Extratropical  cycloneSy  which  are 
responsible  for  the  very  changeable 
weather  of  the  temperate  zones,  coyer 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  square  miles 
and  have  a  translatory  movement  aver- 
aging 600  or  700  miles  a  day,  usually 
in  an  eastwardly  direction.  They  ap- 
pear to  be  carried  around  the  globe 
in  the  general  circumpolar  whirl  de- 
scribed above.  They  are  typically 
accompanied  by  cloudy  weather,  with 
rain  or  snow  and  rising  temperature 
on  their  east  and  equatorward  sides ; 
and  by  clearing  weather,  with  falling 
temperature,  on  their  west  and  pole- 
ward sides. 

The  term  anticyclone,  or  high,  is 
somewhat  loosely  applied  to  any  region 
of  high  barometric  pressure.  The  typ- 
ical anticyclone  has  a  system  of  winds 
just  the  reverse  of  that  found  in  the 
cyclone,  outflowing  below  and  inflow- 
ing above ;  and  such  a  system  is  com- 
monly assumed  to  be  characterized  by 
clear,  cool  and  settled  weather.  In 
fact,  however,  all  kinds  of  weather 
occur  in  anticyclones,  which  appear  to 
be  essentially  somewhat  inert  masses 
of  air  which  are  not  partaking  of  the 
circulation  going  on  around  them. 

The  tropical  cyclone  {hurricane  of 
the  West  Indies ;  typhoon  of  the 
China  Sea  ;  baguio  of  the  Philippines), 
is  a  relatively  violent  whirl,  which 
originates  in  the  stagnant  air  of  the 
doldrums,  and  usually  moves  in  an 
oblique  and  curved  path  toward  higher 
latitudes,  sometimes  passing  into  the 
temperate  zone  and  becoming  an  ex- 
tratropical cyclone.  These  disturb- 
ances (which  are  always  "storms," 
while  extratropical  cyclones  frequent- 
ly are  not)  are  confined  to  certain 
relatively  small  regions  of  the  globe, 
and  to  certain  seasons.  West  India 
hurricanes  are  most  common  from 
July  to  October  (the  "hurricane  sea- 
son"). They  frequently  cause  fright- 
ful devastation  in  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on  the 
southeastern    coasts    of    the    United 


States  (as  at  Galveston,  Sept.  8,  1900, 
when  6,000  lives  and  $30,000,000  in 
property  were  destroyed).  The 
amount  of  shipping  exposed  to  these 
storms  will  be  much  increased  with 
the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
Their  movements  are  now  closely 
watched  by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bu- 
reau, which  maintains  observing  sta- 
tions in  the  West  Indies  during  the 
hurricane  season,  and  receives  regular 
wireless  weather  reports  from  vessels 
plying  in  that  region. 

The  spout  is  a  vortex  in  the  atmos- 
phere, usually  not  over  a  few  hundred 
feet  in  diameter,  which  begins  in  the 
upper  air  and  is  propagated  down- 
ward. Its  position  is  marked  by  a 
funnel-shaped  cloud.  Spouts  are  dis- 
tinguished, according  to  their  place  of 
occurrence,  as  landspouts  and  water- 
spouts, and  the  more  violent  land- 
spouts are  called  tornadoes.  The  tor- 
nado is  popularly  miscalled  a  "cy- 
clone." These  disturbances  appear  to 
be  secondary  phenomena  of  the  true 
cyclone,  and  (in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere) occur  chiefly  in  a  region  south- 
east of  the  cyclone  center. 

Thunderstorms  are  sometimes  scat- 
tered phenomena,  of  local  origin,  and 
sometimes  occur  in  a  long  line  extend- 
ing radially  from  center  to  border  of 
a  cyclone.  In  the  latter  case  they  con- 
stitute a  line-squall.  Their  winds  tend 
to  rotate  about  a  horizontal  axis. 
Their  electrical  phenomena  are  proba- 
bly the  result,  not  the  cause,  of  the 
atmospheric  movements. 

A  wind  blowing  from  a  warm  re- 
gion toward  a  cyclonic  center  is  called 
a  sirocco,  and  its  attendant  weather 
is  often  called,  in  the  United  States, 
a  warm  wave.  Winds  blowing  in  win- 
ter from  a  cold  region  toward  such  a 
center  bring  us  cold  waves,  or  bliz- 
zards (the  latter  term  implying  the 
presence  of  driving  snow  as  well  as  a 
low  temperature). 

A  wind  of  cyclonic  origin  blowing 
down  a  mountain  slope  constitutes  a 
falhvind.  Such  a  wind,  dried  by  the 
precipitation  of  its  moisture  on  the 
windward  slope,  and  further  dried  and 
heated  by  compression  in  its  descent, 
is  called  a  foehn  (chinook  in  the  north- 
western United  States)  ;  its  effects 
are  most  striking  in  winter,  when  it 
sometimes  raises  the  temperature  on 
the  lee  side  of  the  mountains  30°  or 
40°  in  a  few  minutes,  causing  the 
snow  to  disappear  with  astonishing 
rapidity.  The  bora  of  the  Adriatic 
and  the  mistral  of  the  French  Riviera 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


differ  from  the  foehn  in  the  fact  that 
they  blow  from  a  cold  mountainous 
interior  to  a  warm  coastland,  and 
therefore,  though  heated  in  their  de- 
scent, produce  the  impression  of  a  cold 
wind. 

MOISTURE     IN     THE     ATMOSPHERE. 

For  any  temperature  of  the  air 
there  is  a  maximum  amount  of  mois- 
ture that  can  be  present  in  an  invis- 
ible form  (water  vapor)  ;  when  the 
air  is  charged  to  the  limit  it  is  said 
to  be  "saturated."  Absolute  humidity 
is  the  weight  of  water  vapor  present, 
per  unit  volume,  or  the  tension  of  this 
vapor ;  relative  humidity,  the  ratio  of 
the  amount  present  to  the  amount 
necessary  for  saturation,  expressed  in 
percentage.  Cooling  of  saturated  air 
causes  condensation,  in  the  form  of 
cloud,  fog,  mist,  rain,  snow,  hail,  dew, 
or  hoarfrost.  The  temperature  at 
which  condensation  occurs  is  called 
the  dew-point. 

The  cooling  of  the  air  leading  to 
the  formation  of  clouds  occurs  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  One  of  the  most 
common  is  the  adiahatic  cooling  of  a 


THE      INTERNATIONAL      CLASSIFICATION 

OF  clouds! 

[Nearly  all  classifications  of  clouds  are 
based  upon  that  of  Luke  Howard,  pub- 
lished in  1803,  Howard  defined  seven 
types  of  cloud,  which  he  named  cirrus, 
cumulus,  stratus,  cirro-cumulus,  cirro- 
stratus,  cumulo-stratus,  and  cumulo-cirro- 
stratus  or  nimhus. 

A  score  or  more  of  other  classifica- 
tions, some  of  them  very  elaborate,  have 
since  been  introduced ;  but  the  Inter- 
national Classification,  illustrated  here- 
with, is  the  only  one  now  in  general 
use. 

The  photographs  numbered  ],  2,  5, 
8  and  9  are  from  Loisel's  "Atlas  photo- 
graphique  des  Nuages"  ;  all  the  others 
are  by  Commander  D.  Wilson- [iarker, 
R.N.R. 


A  cloud  at  the  earth's  surface  con- 
stitutes mist  or  fog  (nearly  synony- 
mous terms,  the  latter  being  usually 
preferable  for  technical  use).  Haze 
is  a  turbid  state  of  the  atmosphere ; 
sometimes  purely  optical,  sometimes 
mechanical.     In   the   latter  case   it   is 


1.  Cirrus — Detached  clouds  of  delicate  or  fibrous  appearance  often  showing  a 
featherlike  structure,  generally  of  a  white  color.  Occasionally  cirrus  clouds  are 
arranged  in  parallel  belts  which  cross  a  portion  of  the  sky  in  great  circles,  and  by 
an  effect  of  perspective  appear  to  converge  towards  a  point  on  the  horizon,  or  if 
sufficiently  extended  towards  the  opposite  point  also.  (Cirro-stratus  and  Cirro- 
cumulus  are  also  sometimes  arranged   in   similar  bands.) 


body  of  air  rising  and  expanding  under 
diminished  pressure.  The  upper 
clouds,  cirrus,  cirro-stratus,  cirro- 
cumulus,  consist  of  ice  crystals ; 
all  others  of  water  drops,  though 
the  latter  often  occur  when  the  tem- 
perature is  far  below  the  freezing 
point,  the  water  being  "supercooled." 


often  due  to  the  presence  of  dust  and 
smoke,  rather  than  moisture,  and  is 
then  called  dry  fog  or  dust  haze. 

Moisture  deposited  from  the  atmos- 
phere upon  the  earth  is  called  precip- 
itation. In  the  cold  season  this  usual- 
ly takes  the  form  of  snow;  i.  e;,  tiny 
ice    crystals,    in    a    great    variety    of 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


503 


2.  Cirro-stratus. — A  thin  whitish  sheet  of  cloud,  sometimes  covering  the  sky 
completely  and  giving  it  a  milky  appearance  (it  Is  then  called  cirro-nebula),  at 
other  times  presenting  more  or  less  distinctly  a  formation  like  a  tangled  web. 
This  sheet  often  produces  halos  around  the  sun  or  moon. 


3.     Cirro-Cumiilus  (Mackerel  Sky). — Small  globular  masses  or  white  flakes  without 
shadows,  or  showing  very  slight  shadows,  arranged  in  groups  and  often  In  lines. 


shapes;  in  the  warm  season,  ot  rain. 
Hail,  properly  so  called,  falls  chiefly 
i-n  summer  thundershowers.  It  con- 
sists of  ice  and  compact  snow,  often 
in  concentric  layers.  The  destruction 
wrought  by  hail  throughout  the  world 
averages  at  least  $200,000,000  a  year. 
Many  expedients  have  been  tried  to 
avert  hailstorms ;  e.  g.,  the  discharge 
of  cannon,  bombs,  and  rockets  at  the 
clouds,  and  the  erection  of  paragreles, 
or  "hail  rods"  (essentially  lightning 
rods)  ;  but  the  resulting  benefits  are 
entirely  illusory.     The  term  soft  hail 


is  applied  to  little  pellets  of  snow 
that  fall  in  spring ;  winter  hail,  or 
sleet,  to  pellets  of  clear  ice  that  fall 
in  winter. 

Fog  drifting  against  terrestrial  ob- 
jects in  cold  weather  leaves  a  rough 
deposit  of  ice  known  as  rime.  Rain, 
in  cold  weather,  may  coat  such  objects 
with  a  smooth  sheet  of  ice,  known  as 
glazed  frost.  Sometimes  this  deposit 
is  so  heavy  as  to  break  down  the 
branches  of  trees,  telegraph  wires, 
etc.,    constituting   an   ice   storm. 

Moisture    condensed    directly    upon 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


4.  Alto-Stratus. — A  thick  sheet  of  a  grey  or  bluish  color,  sometimes  forming  a 
compact  mass  of  dark  grey  color  and  fibrous  structure.  At  other  times  the  sheet 
is  thin,  resembling  thick  cirro-stratus,  and  through  it  the  sun  or'  the  moon  may  be 
seen  dimly  gleaming  as  through  ground  glass.  (In  this  picture  patches  of  cumulus 
are  seen  in  the  foreground.) 


5.  Alto-Cumulus. — Largish  globular  masses,  white  or  greyish,  partially  shaded, 
arranged  in  groups  or  'lines,  and  often  so  closely  packed  that  their  edges  appear 
confused. 


objects  that  have  been  cooled  by  noc- 
turnal radiation  is  called  dew  when 
liquid,  hoarfrost  when  frozen. 

Rainfall,  as  an  element  of  climate, 
includes  all  forms  of  aqueous  precipi- 
tation (the  frozen  forms  being  ex- 
pressed in  their  water  equivalent). 
Measurements  of  rainfall  refer  to  the 
depth  of  water  that  would  lie  upon 
the  ground  if  none  of  it  ran  off,  soaked 
in,  or  evaporated.  Annual  rainfalls 
may  be  classified,  especially  with  ref- 
erence   to    agriculture,    as    excessive 


when  over  75  inches ;  copious,  50-75 
inches ;  moderate,  25-50  inches  ;  light, 
10-25  inches ;  desert,  under  10  inches. 
The  heaviest  rainfall  occurs  within 
or  near  the  tropics.  The  rainiest  me- 
teorological station  in  the  world  is 
Cherrapunji,  India,  with  an  annual 
mean  of  457.80  inches.  Remarkable 
showers  include  one  of  101.84  inches 
in  four  days,  June  12-15,  1876,  at 
Cherrapunji ;  and  one  of  135  inches  in 
eight  days  in  November,  1909,  at  Sil- 
ver   Hill,    Jamaica    (of    this    amount 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


505 


6.  Strato-Cumulus. — Large  globular  masses  or  rolls  of  dark  clouds,  frequently 
covering  the  whole  "sky,  especially  in  winter.  Generally  it  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  grey  layer  irregularly  broken  up  into  masses  of  which  the  edge  is  often  formed 
of  smaller  masses,  often  of  wavy  appearance.  Sometimes  this  cloud  form  presents 
the  characteristic  appearance  of  great  rolls  arranged  in  parallel  lines  and  pressed 
close   up  to  one  another    (roll-cumulus). 


7.  Nimbus. — A  thick  layer  of  dark  clouds,  without  shape  and  with  ragged 
edges  from  which  steady  rain  or  snow  usually  falls.  Through  the  openings  in  these 
clouds  an  upper  layer  of  cirro-stratus  or  alto-stratus  may  be  seen  almost  invariably. 
If  a  layer  of  nimbus  separates  up  in  a  strong  wind  into  shreds,  or  if  small  loose 
clouds  are  visible  floating  underneath  a  large  nimbus,  they  may  be  described  as 
fracto-nimhus    ("scud,"  of  sailors). 


114.50  inches  fell  in  five  days).  The 
heaviest  mean  annual  rainfall  in  the 
United  States  (not  including  Alaska) 
is  about  136  inches  in  Tillamook 
County,  Oregon. 

No  part  of  the  world  is  absolutely 
rainless,  though  there  are  parts  of 
the  Sahara  and  other  deserts  in  which 
whole  years  go  by  without  a  drop  of 
rain. 


ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY. 

The  surface  of  the  earth  has  nor- 
mally a  charge  of  negative  electricity ; 
hence,  with  respect  to  the  earth,  any 
point  in  the  atmosphere  has  normally 
a  positive  potential.  The  potential 
gradient  of  the  atmosphere  at  any  time 
and  place  is  the  difference  of  potential 
per  meter  of  vertical  distance.  It  is 
subject  to  a  simple  yearly  and  a  less 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


8.  Cumulus  (Wool-pack  Cloud). — Thick  cloud  of  which  the  upper  surface  is 
dome-shaped  and  exhibits  protuberances  while  the  base  is  horizontal.  These  clouds 
appear  to  be  formed  by  a  diurnal  ascensional  movement  which  is  almost  always 
noticeable.  True  cumulus  has  well  defined  upper  and  lower  limits.  In  strong 
winds  a  broken  cloud  resembling  cumulus  is  often  seen  in  which  detached  portions 
undergo  continual  changes.     This  form  is  distinguished  by  the  name  Jracto-cumulus. 


9.  Cumulo-Nimbus  (Thunder  Cloud). — Heavy  masses  of  cloud  rising  in  the  form 
of  mountains  or  turrets  or  anvils  generally  surmounted  by  a  sheet  or  screen  of 
fibrous  appearance  (false  cirrus),  and  having  at  its  base  a  mass  similar  to  nimbus. 
From  the  base  local  showers  of  rain  or  of  snow  (occasionally  of  hail  or  soft  hail) 
usually  fall.  Sometimes  the  upper  edges  assume  the  compact  form  of  cumulus,  and 
form  massive  peaks  round  which  the  delicate  "false  cirrus"  floats.  At  other  times 
the  edges  themselves  separate  into  a  fringe  of  filaments  similar  to  cirrus  clouds. 


simple  daily  variation.  In  disturbed 
weather,  especially  during  thunder- 
storms, it  fluctuates  widely  and  rapid- 
ly, frequently  changing  its  sign. 

The  ionization  of  the  atmosphere, 
together  with  its  effects  and  possible 
causes,  forms  one  of  the  important 
new  branches  of  meteorological  re- 
search.    Owing  to  the  presence  of  ions 


in  the  atmosphere,  an  electrically 
charged  body  loses  its  charge  by  con- 
duction to  the  surrounding  air.  _  This 
process,  known  as  dissipation,  is  af- 
fected by  various  meteorological  con- 
ditions. 

An  excessive  difference  of  potential 
between  a  point  in  the  atmosphere  and 
the   earth,   or   between   two   points   in 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


507 


10.  stratus. — A  uniform  layer  of  cloud  which  resembles  a  fog  but  does  not  rest 
on  the  ground.  If  the  cloud  layer  is  broken  up  into  irregular  shreds  in  a  wind 
or  by  mountains,  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  name  fracto-stratus. 


(a)  (b) 

Lightning    flashes    photographed    with    (a)    stationary    camera,    and    (6)     moving 
camera.      (Dr.   B.  Walter,    Hamburg). 


the  atmosphere,  may  result  in  a  dis- 
ruptive discharge  along  a  narrow 
path,  known  as  lightning;  or,  more 
specifically,  linear  lightning,  from 
which  is  distinguished  the  more  gentle 
diffuse     discharge     known     as     sheet 


lightning.  Apparent  sheet  lightning 
is  often  merely  the  reflection  on  the 
clouds  of  distant  linear  lightning;  it 
is  then  distinguished  as  heat  light- 
ning. St.  Elmo's  fire  (also  called  by 
a   score   of  other  names)    is   a   brush 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NEWSPAPER  WEATHER  MAP 


discharge  from  the  points  of  terres- 
trial objects,  and  is  most  common  on 
mountain  summits.  Ball  lightning, 
which  takes  the  form  of  a  ball  of  fire 
moving  slowly  through  the  air,  has 
never  been   satisfactorily   explained. 

Photographs  made  with  a  camera 
turning  on  a  vertical  axis  have  proved 
that  linear  lightning  often  consists  of 
several  discharges  in  rapid  succession 
along  an  identical  path  in  the  atmos- 
phere. 

An  apparently  hroad  stream  of 
lightning  is  called  ribhon  lightning. 
Beaded  or  pearl  lightning  assumes 
the  appearance  of  a  string  of  brilliant 
beads.  It  is  very  rare.  Still  rarer  is 
rocket  lightning,  which  shoots  up  into 
the  air  at  the  apparent  speed  of  a  sky- 
rocket. 

The  utility  of  lightning-rods  has 
often  been  questioned.  The  consensus 
of  scientific  opinion  is  that  they  are 
very  useful  if  properly  constructed ; 
otherwise  they  are  worse  than  useless. 

The  aurora  polaris  is  now  most 
commonly  attributed  to  the  passage 
of  cathode  rays  through  the  atmos- 
phere, under  the  effects  of  some  kind 
of  radiation  or  emissio"li  from  the  sun. 


Its  variations  are  generally  synchro- 
nous with  those  of  solar  activity  and 
terrestrial  magnetism.  The  aurora  is 
best  studied  by  means  of  simultaneous 
photographs  from  two  stations,  and 
with  the  spectroscope.  There  appear 
to  be  two  principal  forms;  (1)  the 
tranquil,  homogeneous  arc  (part  of  a 
great  circumpolar  ring),  occurring 
only  at  great  altitudes;  and  (2) 
shifting  beams  and  draperies,  occur- 
ring mainly  at  lower  levels.  There  is 
some  evidence  that  a  feeble  auroral 
glow  commonly  extends  over  the  whole 
nocturnal  sky,  in  all  latitudes  (earth- 
light). 

ATMOSPHERIC  OPTICS. 

The  optical  phenomena  of  the  at- 
mosphere (photometeors)  include  as- 
tronomical refraction,  the  colors  of 
the  sky,  twilight  phenomena,  polari- 
zation of  skylight,  scintillation,  mi- 
rage, the  transparency  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  various  luminous  appear- 
ances, including  rainbows,  coronas, 
glories  and  halos. 

The  rainbow  is  due  to  the  refrac- 
tion and  reflection  of  light  in  water 
drops    (usually  raindrops).     Primary 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


509 


Copyright,    1912,    by   Munn    &   Co.,    Inc. 

LAND  AREAS  EMBRACED  IN  THE  PUBLISHED  DAILY  WEATHER  MAPS 
OF  THE  WORLD. 


and  secondary  hows  (often  bordered 
with  supernumerary  or  spurious 
bows)  are  seen  opposite  the  sun;  the 
higher  the  sun,  the  lower  the  system 
of  bows,  and  vice  versa.  Bows  of 
higher  order  (tertiary,  quaternary, 
etc.)  are  of  theoretical  interest  only; 
they  are  rarely,  if  ever,  seen.  The  re- 
flected image  of  the  sun  in  a  sheet  of 
water  may  give  rise  to  intersecting 
rainbows.  Lunar  rainbows  are  some- 
times seen  ;  they  are,  as  a  rule,  nearly 
colorless,  owing  to  feeble  illumination. 

The  corona  is  a  small  ring,  or 
series  of  rings,  of  prismatic  colors,  sur- 
rounding the  sun  or  moon  ;  it  is  due 
to  the  diffraction  of  light  by  water 
drops,  ice  crystals  or  dust.  Fine 
dust  in  the  atmosphere  (as  after 
the  eruption  of  Krakatoa)  gives  rise 
to  a  large  corona  known  as  Bishop's 
ring. 

From  a  mountain  top  or  other  ele- 
vation a  person  sometimes  sees  his 
shadow  cast  on  a  bank  of  fog  or  cloud. 
(The  shadow  seems  "gigantic"  owing 
to  overestimation  of  its  distance.)  The 
head  is  often  surrounded  by  a  glory  of 
colored  light,  due  to  diffraction.  The 
whole  phenomenon  is  called  the  spec- 


ter   of    the    Brocken.      Very    striking 
examples    are    seen    from    balloons. 

Halos  are  due  to  the  refraction  or 
reflection  (or  both)  of  light  by  ice 
crystals  in  the  atmosphere.  These 
may  take  the  form  of  rings  of  definite 
angular  size  (the  commonest  has  a 
radius  of  22°)  surrounding  the  sun 
or  moon ;  also  of  rings  or  arcs  in 
various  other  positions,  and  discs  of 
light  (parhelia,  or  paraselenes ;  in 
popular  language,  "sundogs"  or 
moondogs").  Some  halos  are  dis- 
tinctly colored,  others  are  not.  Com- 
plete descriptions  and  discussions 
©f  halo  phenomena,  scores  of  which 
have  been  classified,  are  found  only  in 
certain    French    and    German    works.* 

CLIMATE. 

Climate  is  often  defined  as  average 
weather ;  and  climatic  statistics  refer 
mainly  to  average  conditions.  It 
would  be  better,  however,  to  define 
it    as    "the    sum    total    of    weather," 


^Ou  the  descriptive  side  the  best  ac- 
count is  L.  Besson's  "Les  difffirentes 
formes  de  halo  et  leur  observation,"  pub- 
lished in  L'Astronomie,  Paris,  March- 
May,    1911. 


510 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,   1912,   by  Munn   &  Co.,   Inc. 

Daily  synoptic  weather  chart  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  (Chart  of  Jan.  13, 
1911.)  It  is  prepared  daily,  in  manuscript,  at  Washington  from  telegraphic  reports, 
but  is  not  published.  The  curved  lines  are  isobars,  or  lines  of  equal  barometric 
pressure. 


since  occasional  departures  from  the 
average,  in  the  shape  of  hot  and 
cold  waves,  droughts  and  excessive 
rain,  severe  storms,  etc.,  aid  in  giving 
character  to  the  climate  of  the  places 
where    they    occur. 

Climatology  is  the  science  of  cli- 
mate in  general ;  climatography  is  de- 
voted to  the  description  of  particular 
climates. 

That  "the  climate  has  changed" 
within  a  generation  or  so  is  a  stub- 
born popular  delusion,  which  prevails 
all  over  the  world,  and  has  probably 
prevailed  in  every  age.  It  arises  from 
the  fact  that  exceptional  weather  im- 
presses itself  more  lastingly  upon  the 
memory  than  normal  weather. 

METEOROLOGICAL    SERVICES    AND    THEIB 
WORK  ;     WEATHER     PREDICTION. 

The  central  organization  is  the  In- 
ternational Meteorological  Committee, 
which  meets  triennially ;  president, 
Dr.  W.  N.  Shaw,  director  of  the  Brit- 
ish Meteorological  OflBce,  London ; 
secretary,  Dr.  G.  Hellmann,  director  of 
the  Royal  Prussian  Meteorological  In- 
stitute, Berlin.  Under  this  committee 
are  several  international  "commis- 
sions" on  special  subjects.  Occasional- 
ly an  International  Meteorological 
Conference  is  held,  comprising  the 
directors  of  all  meteorological  services. 

Practically  every  civilized  country 
has  an  official  weather  service ;  some 


have  more  than  one.  These  services 
issue  weather  maps  and  weather  fore- 
casts, and  compile  climatic  statistics. 
The  national  weather  service  of  the 
United  States  is  the  Weather  Bureau 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
with  headquarters  in  Washington  ;  its 
chief  is  Prof.  Willis  L.  Moore. 

A  weather  service  consists  of  a  cen- 
tral station  or  observatory,  and  a 
"reseau"  of  subordinate  stations  scat- 
tered over  the  country.  The  stations 
are  of  two  principal  classes:  (1)  Tele^ 
graphic  stations,  at  which  meteorolog- 
ical observations  are  made  simulta- 
neously at  fixed  hours  (in  the  United 
States,  8  a.  m.  and  8  p.  m.,  eastern 
standard  time),  and  immediately  tele- 
graphed to  headquarters,  where  they 
are  charted  to  form  the  weather  map 
which  is  the  basis  of  the  weather  fore- 
cast. (2)  Vlimatological  stations, 
largely  manned  by  volunteer  observers. 
Their    reports    are    sent    in    by    post, 

BEAUFORT  WIND  SCALE. 


o  Calm 
t  Light  Air 

2  Light  Breeze 

3  Gentle      „ 

4  Moderate,, 

5  Fresh       „ 

6  Strong     „ 

7  High  Wind  (Moderate 

8  Gale 

9  Strong  Gale 

10  Whole     „ 

11  Storm      . 

12  Hurricane 


Gale) 


EquU 


'alent  velocity  o  miles  ] 

«-3 
4-7 

8-12 

«3i8 

I9'24     , 

25-3' 

3*-38 
..     39-46     „ 

47-54 

55-63 

64-75 
„   above  75     „ 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


511 


and  are  utilized  especially  in  compil- 
ing climatic  statistics.  Certain  coun- 
tries, including  the  United  States,  re- 
ceive reports  from  observers  on  ship- 
board, and  compile  meteorological  sta- 
tistics for  the  oceans.  Many  marine 
observers  now  send  reports  by  wireless 
telegraphy. 

The  cardinal  principle  of  forecasting 
from  the  weather  map  is  the  fact  that 
the  weather  depends  mainly  upon  the 
movement  of  cyclones  and  anticy- 
clones. The  distribution  of  weather 
in  these  systems  has  been  described 
above.  Broadly  speaking,  the  weather, 
in  the  temperate  zones,  moves  from 
west  to  east. 

The  prediction  of  ordinary  weather 
changes,  from  day  to  day,  is  the  least 
successful  and  the  least  important  part 
of  forecasting.  On  the  other  hand, 
such  phenomena  as  severe  storms, 
cold  waves,  heavy  snowfall  disas- 
trous night  frosts,  and  other  occur- 
rences of  far-reaching  importance  are 
predicted  with  great  accuracy. 

The  latest  development  of  weather 
forecasting  in  the  United  States  is  the 
daily  iceather  map  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  It  has  proved  the  im- 
portance of  certain  quasi-permanent 
areas  of  high  and  low  pressure  (for 
example,  the  great  "high"  that  pre- 
vails over  Siberia  in  winter)  in  de- 
termining the  movements  of  the  subor- 
dinate "highs"  and  "lows"  that  directly 
control  the  weather. 


River  stage  prediction  has  reached 
a  high  degree  of  accuracy,  especially 
in  the  United  States,  where  numerous 
river-gages  and  rainfall  stations  are 
maintained  in  every  important  river 
basin,  and  it  is  possible  to  predict  the 
stage  of  a  river,  at  a  given  point,  from 
three  or  four  days  to  three  weeks  in 
advance,  within  a  limit  of  error  of  a 
few  inches. 

METEOROLOGY  AND  AERONAUTICS. 

Meteorological  investigations  have 
received  a  great  impetus  through  the 
development  of  aeronautics.  The  re- 
quirements of  this  art  have  given  a 
practical  raison  d'etre  to  the  world- 
wide campaign  of  upper  air,  or  free 
air,  research  that  has  been  carried  on 
by  meteorologists  since  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century.    • 

In  the  year  1911  was  published  the 
first  general  textbook  of  aeronautical 
meteorology  (by  Linke),  a  practical 
science  that  aims  to  do  for  the  aero- 
naut what  marine  meteorology  and 
hydrography  combined  do  for  the  ma- 
riner. 

Special  weather  predictions  for 
aeronauts  have  been  undertaken  ex- 
perimentally in  Germany ;  where  an 
"aeronautical  weather  bureau"  has  its 
headquarters  at  Lindenberg  and  a  net- 
work of  telegraphic  reporting  stations 
throughout  the  country  at  which  daily 
observations  of  the  upper  air  currents 
are  made  with  pilot  balloons. 


SENDING  UP  A  PILOT  BALLOON 
to  determine  the  speed  and  direction  of  the  air 
currents  at  various   levels.     The   movement  of 
the  balloon   is  observed  with  a  theodolite. 


512 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SMALL  CRAFT,  STORM  AND  HURRICANE  WARNINGS.     (U.  S.) 
Sniflll  Craft  5torm  Hurricane 


N.W.  WIND5 


N.E.WIN05 


S.E.  WINDS 


MO.l 


N0.2. 


NO. 3. 


NO. 4 


NO.  5 


FAIR  WEATHfR 


RAIN  OR  SNOW 


LOCAL   RAIN 
OR    SNOW 


K 


TEMPERATURE 


COLO   WAVE 


EXPLANATION  OF  WEATHER  FLAGS.    (U.  S.) 


EXPLANATION    OF    SMALL     CRAFT, 

STORM    AND    HURRICANE 

WARNINGS. 

Small  craft  warning. — A  red  pennant  indi- 
cates that  moderate  winds  are   expected. 

Storm  warning. — A  red  flag  with  a  black 
center  indicates  that  a  storm  of  marked  vio- 
lence   is   expected. 

The  pennants  displayed  with  the  flags  indi- 
cate the  direction  of  the  wind:  white,  westerly 
(from  southwest  to  north);  red,  easterly  (from 
northeast  to  south).  The  pennant  above  the 
flag  indicates  that  the  wind  is  expected  to  blow 
from  the  northerly  quadrants4  below,  from  the 
southerly    quadrants. 

By  night  a  red  light  indicates  easterly 
winds,  and  a  white  light  below  a  red  light, 
westerly    winds 

Hurricane  warning.— Two  red  flags  with 
black  centers,  displayed  one  above  the  other, 
indicate  the  expected  approach  of  a  tropical 
hurricane,  or  one  of  those  extremely  severe 
and  dangerous  storms  which  occasionally  move 
across   the  Lakes  and   northern   Atlantic   coast. 

No  night  small  craft  or  hurricane  warnings 
are    displayed.  

INTERPRETATION  OF  DISPLAYS 

No.  1,  alone,  indicates  fair  weather,  station- 
ary temperature. 

No.  2,  alone,  indicates  rain  or  snow,  station- 
ary temperature. 

No.  3,  alone,  indicates  local  rain  or  snow, 
stationary  temperature. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  fair 
weather,   warmer. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  fair 
weather,    colder. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  rain  or 
snow,    warmer. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  rain  or 
snow,    colder. 


No.    3,    with  No.    4  above   it,    indicates   local 

rain   or  snow,  warmer. 

No.    3,    with  No.    4   below   it,    indicates   local 

rain    or   snow,  colder. 


INTERNATIONAL  STORM  SIGNALS. 


For  a  jrale  coinniencing  with 
wind  in  the  NW.  qnadniut. 


For  a  «:ale  coninieiicing  witli 
wiDfl  in  the  SW.  quadrant. 


For  a  {jalo  coninicneing  with 
wind  ill  tlic  NE.  quadrant. 


For  a  gaU'  coinnjcncing  with 
wind  in  the  SE.  quadrant. 


''oi-  a  hurricane. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


513 


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514 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LOWEST  TEMPERATURE:  RECORD  TO  DECEMBER  31, 
BY  MONTHS,  AT  SPECIFIED  STATIONS. 

(Souroe:  The  Weather  Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


1911 


station. 

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25 
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36 
32 
40 
38 
32 
38 
38 
38 
32 
36 
37 
38 
37 
32 
23 
39 
24 
22 
19 
30 
29 
37 
39 
23 
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38 
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29 
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38 
36 
33 
39 
37 
22 
17 
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29 
31 
23 
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38 
25 
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-  5 
-24 

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5 

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15 

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-16 

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15 

-  6 
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0 

-11 

12 

-15 

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-37 

18 

-22 

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-  6 
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7 
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33 
29 
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42 
33 
35 
39 
35 
44 
44 
36 
33 
53 
46 
33 
32 
42 
53 
34 
40 
46 
64 
62 
4Q 
43 
30 
51 
29 

"F. 
54 
48 
•51 
58 
32 
40 
46 
47 
55 
50 
46 
42 
48 
46 
40 
44 
45 
56 
50 
66 
43 
50 
31 
36 
41 
48 
66 
68 
54 
52 
34 
60 
49 
54 
53 
61 
66 
50 
34 
42 
56 
50 
45 
60 
48 
46 
42 
43 
37 
63 
55 
45 
43 
58 
47 
43 
39 
48 
62 
41 
49 
53 
65 
62 
45 
52 
36 
58 
33 

"F. 
55 
45 
49 
55 
32 
32 
47 
44 
53 
47 
46 
40 
40 
45 
41 
40 
44 
52 
51 
68 
40 
49 
27 
29 
33 
46 
64 
08 
40 
50 
23 
52 
49 
50 
47 
58 
63 
51 
31 
36 
49 
44 
44 
54 
45 
49 
41 
43 
36 
52 
52 
40 
44 
57 
47 
40 
37 
46 
54 
38 
48 
44 
66 
64 
41 
49 
32 
56 
25 

"F. 
40 
32 
36 
43 
10 
28 
34 
35 
38 
32 
36 
21 

.  26 
30 
24 
28 
30 
42 
42 
54 
25 
36 
18 
20 
18 
30 
49 
61 
35 
35 
7 
41 
44 
30 
35 
45 
55 
36 
23 
21 
36 
30 
35 
43 
33 
39 
30 
35 
23 
45 
37 
28 
29 
46 
47 
21 
28 
30 
44 
20 
31 
35 
54 
42 
30 
30 
13 
42 
10 

°F. 
30 
23 
23 
30 

-  2 
10 
25 
24 
28 
14 
24 

1 
14 
10 
15 

8 
23 
20 
36 
44 

8 
28 

-  7 
3 
3 

22 
40 
48 
26 
25 

2 
31 
40 
26 
27 
31 
40 
31 
12 

9 
27 
15 
24 
31 
20 
34 
19 
31 
10 
32 
24 
12 
22 
36 
45 
13 
16 
31 
31 
.12" 
20 
21 
44 
34 
24 
26 

-  3 
32 
10 

"F. 

13 

-10 

4 

16 

-28 

-10 

-  2 
2 

18 

-  2 
0 

-18 

-10 

-13 

-12 

-29 

-13 

11 

27 

29 

-12 

11 

-33 

-22 

-28 

-  5 
20 
30 

4 

12 

-31 

10 

42 

4 

13 

21 

29 

7 

-14 

-25 

9 

-14 

-  1 
20 
15 
24 

-  6 
11 

-  9 
20 

5 
-24 

-  2 
21 
38 

-11 

-  7 
15 
18 

-13 

2 

6 

32 

22 

-  9 
12 

-29 
20 

-  9 

"F. 

1 

-17 

-  1 
1 

-38 

-  7 
-12 

-  9 

-  5 
-23 
-12 
-25 
-20 
-15 
-24 
-34 

II 

23 

18 

-'\ 

-43 
-40 
-34 
-15 
14 
24 
-13 

-  5 
-30 

6 
30 

-  7 

-  5 
8 

20 

-  6 
-27 
-30 

-  2 
-17 
-18 

8 

-  5 
18 

-14 

3 

-25 

25 

-17 

-39 

-10 

10 

34 

-13 

-19 

25 

10 

-18 

-14 

-11 

19 

12 

-  2 
-13 
-46 

10 
-20 

°F. 

AIbany,N.  Y 

24 

Amarillo,  Tex...  . 

16 

Atlanta,  Ga.. 

-  8 

-44 

28 

Bismarck,  N.  Dak 

Boise,  Idaiio . 

13 

Buffalo,  N.Y.. 

14 

Charlotte,  N.  C 

5 

Chicago,  111 

23 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

—  17 

Denver,  Colo 

29 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

Dodge  Kans    . 

-30 
^8 

—32 

Dnlnth,  Minn... 

41 

Eastport,  Me 

—21 

El  Paso,  Tex 

-  5 

Fresno,  Cal 

20 

Galveston,  Tex ..  . 

8 

Green  Bay,  Wis 

-36 

-13 

Havre,  Mont 

-48 

Helena,  Mont... 

-42 

Huron,  S.  Dak  

-43 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

Jupiter,  F la.. 

-25 
10 
24 

Kansas  City.  Mo 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

Lander,  Wyo 

-22 
-16 
-35 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Louisville,  Ky.   . 

-12 

28 

-20 

Lynchburg,  Va 

-  6 

Montgomery,  Ala 

New  Orleans,  La 

NewYork,  N.  Y 

Northfield,Vt 

-  5 

7 

-  6 
-35 

North  Platte,  Nebr 

Oklahoma,  Okla 

Omaha,  Nebr...  . 

-25 

-i; 

-32 

Oswego,  N.  Y '  . 

-23 

Palestine,  Tex 

-  6 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va 

Phoenix,  Ariz  . . 

-27 
12 

Port  Huron,  Mich 

Portland,  Oreg. 

-25 
-  2 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 

-40 
18 

St.  Louis,  Mo  . 

-22 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

-41 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.... 

San  Antonio,  Tex 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex 

SaultSte.  Marie,  Mich.. 
Seattle,  Wash    . 

-20 
4 

29 
-13 
-28 

11 

Shreveport,  La. .  . . 

-  5 

Spokane,  Wash 

-30 

Springfield,  111... 

-24 

Springfield,  Mo 

-29 

Tampa,  Fla 

19 

Vicksburg,  Miss 

-  1 

Walla  Walla,  Wash 

Washington,  D.  C 

Williston,  N.  Dak 

Wilmington,  N.C....... 

Winnemucca,  Nev 

-17 
-15 
-49 
5 
-28 

SCIENtlFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


515 


HIGHEST  TEMPERATURE:  RECORD  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1911, 
BY  MONTHS,  AT  SPECIFIED  STATIONS. 

[Source:  The  Weather  Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Station. 


Abilene,  Tex 

Albany,  N.Y 

Amarillo,  Tex 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Bismarck,  N.  Dak... 

Boise,  Idaho 

Boston,  Mass 

Buffalo,  N.Y 

Charlotte,  N.  C 

Chicago,  111 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Denver,  Colo 

Des  Moines,  Iowa .... 

Dodge,  Kans: 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Duluth,  Minn 

Eastport,  Me 

El  Paso,  Tex 

Fresno,  Cal 

Galveston,  Tex 

Green  Bay,  Wis. . 

Harrisburg,  Pa 

Havre,  Mont 

Helena,  Mont 

Huron,  S.  Dak , 

Indianapolis,  Ind ..... 

Jacksonville,  Fla. . 

Jupiter,  Fla 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

Lander.  Wyo 

Little  Rock,  Ark. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Louisville;  Ky 

Lynchburg,  Va 

Montgomery,  Ala 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  York,  N.Y 

Northfield,Vt 

North  Platte, Nebr.... 

Oklahoma,  Okla 

Omaha,  Nebr 

Oswego,  N.Y 

Palestine,  Tex .... 

Parkersburg.  W.  Va, . 

Phoenix,  Anz 

Port  Huron,  Mich..... 

Portland ,  Oreg 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak. . . 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Bait  Lake  City,  Utah.. 

Ban  Antonio,  Tex 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich 

Seattle,  Wash' 

Shreveport,  La 

Spokane,  Wash 

Springfield,  HI 

Springfield,  Mo 

Tampa,  Fla 

Vicksburg,  Miss 

Walla  Walla,  Wash... 

Washington,  D.  C 

Williston,  N.  Dak 

Wilmington,  N.  C 

Winnemucca,  Nev [ 


3  ;^o 


99 
88 
90 
89 
90 
92 
85 
84 
94 
88 
87 
86 
92 
95 
88 
82 
72 
98 

101 
85 
84 
92 
94 
86 
94 
87 
92 
90 
95 
90 
82 
94 

100 
91 
95 
92 
89 
90 
85 
95 
■95 
94 
85 
92 
93 

105 
84 
90 
90 
96 
91 
87 
85 


M 


516 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NORMAL  TEMPERATURE:   MONTHLY  AND  ANNUAL  MEANS 
AT  SPECIFIED  STATIONS.^ 

[Source:  The  Weather  Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Station. 


Abilene,  Tex 

Albany,  N.Y 

Atoarillo,  Tex 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Bismaxck,  N.  Dak 

Boise,  Idaho 

Boston,  Mass 

Buffalo,N.Y 

Charlotte,  N.  C 

Chicago,  111 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Denver,  Colo 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

Dodge,  Kans 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Duluth,  Minn 

Eastport,  Me 

El  Paso,  Tex 

Fresno,  Cal 

Galveston,  Tex 

Green  Bay,  Wis 

Harrisburg,  Pa 

Havre,  Mont 

Helena,  Mont 

Huron,  S  Dak 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

Jupiter,  Fla ; 

Kansas  City,  Mo  . . 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

Lander,  Wyo 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Louisville,  Ky 

Lynchburg,  Va 

Montgomery,  Ala 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  York,  N.Y 

Northfleld,  Vt 

North  Platte,  Nebr. . . . 

Oklahoma,  Okla 

Omaha,  Nebr 

Oswego,  N.Y 

Palestine,  Tex 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va ... 

Phoenix,  Ariz 

Port  Huron,'Mich 

Portland,  Oreg 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak  . . . 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 

8t.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  .. 

San  Antonio,  Tex 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich. 

Seattle,  Wash 

Shreveport,  La 

Spokane,  Wash 

Springfield,  HI 

Springfield.-Mo 

Tampa,  Fla 

Vicksburg,  Miss 

Walla  Walla,  Wash... 

Washington.  D.  C 

Williston,  N.  Dak..... 

Wilmington,"  N.  C 

Winnemucca,  Nev 


15 
21 
35 
20 
24 
46 
31 
60 
22 
39 
22 
45 
31 
12 
29 
61 
60 
28 
13 
39 
46 


67 


The  flgiires  cover  the  33-year  periodj  1873  to  1905,  inclusive.    Those  for  stations  not  having  that  length 
dhav«  ' 


'  ine  ngures  cover  me  jj-year  periou,  loi 
of  record  have  been  corrected  accordingly. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


517 


PRECIPITATION:  NORMAL  MONTHLY  AND  ANNUAL 
AT  SPECIFIED  STATIONS.^ 

[Saurce:  The  Weather.  Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Station. 


Abilene,  Tex 

Albany,N.  Y 

Amarillo,  Tex 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Bismarck,  N.  Dak 

Boise,  Idaho  . . ., 

Boston,  Mass 

Bufifalo,  N.  Y 

Charlotte,  N.  C 

Chicago,Ill 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Denver,  Colo 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

Dodge,  Kans 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Duluth,  Minn 

Eastport,  Me 

El  Paso,  Tex 

Fresno,  Cal 

Galveston,  Tex 

Green  Bay,  Wis 

Harrisburg,  Pa 

Havre,  Mont 

Helena,  Mont 

Huron,  S.  Dak 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

Jupiter,  Fla 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

Lander,  Wyo 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Louisville,  Ky 

Lynchburg,  Va 

Montgomery,  Ala 

New  Orleans,  La 

New  York,  N.Y 

Northfield,  Vt 

North  Platte,  Nebr 

Oklahoma,  Okla 

Omaha,  Nebr 

Oswego,  N.Y 

Palestine,  Tex 

Parke rsburg.  W.  Va 

Phoenix,  Ariz 

Port  Huron,  Mich 

Portland,  Oreg 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

San  Antonio,  Tex 

San  Francisco,  Cal 

Santa  Fe,N.  Mex 

SaultSte.  Marie,  Mich 

Seattle,  Wash ;.:.... 

Shreveport,  La 

Spokane,  Wash 

Springfield,  111 

Springfield,  Mo 

Tampa,  Fla 

Vicksburg,  Miss 

Walla  Walla,  Wash 

Washington,  D.  C 

Williston,  N.  Dak 

Wilmington,  N.  C 

Winnemucca,  Nev 


*  J  Tl^^  figures  represent  Inches  and  cover  the  36-year  period,  1871  to  1906,  inclusive.    Stations  not  having 
that  length  of  record  have  been  corrected  accordingly. 
*  Indicates  trace  of  precipitation. 


518 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WHEN  STARS  ARE  ADDED  TO  OUR  FLAG. 


We  have  met  the  opinion  that  a  star  was 
added  immediately  upon  the  proclamation  of 
the  President  that  a  State  was  admitted  to 
the  Union.  To  niake  certain  of  the  fact  we 
referred  the  question  to  the  Librarian  of  the 
War  Department  and  have  received  from  him 
a  reference  to  the  law  upon  the  subject.  It 
is  found  in  U.  S.  Statutes  at  Large,  3:415, 
act  of  April  4,  1818,  and  enacts  that  the  star 
for  a  new  state  shall  be  added  to  the  flag  upon 
the  fourth  of  July  succeeding  the  admission  of 


the  state.  In  accordance  with  this  law  two 
stars  have  been  added  to  the  flag  on  July  4, 
1912,  making  48  stars.  They  have  been  placed 
in  six  rows  of  eight  stars  each.  The  last  states 
to  be  admitted  to  the  Union  were  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  Their  Statehood  bill  was  signed 
by  the  President  on  August  21,  1911,  subject 
to  certain  changes  in  their  constitutions.  The 
proclamation  of  the  President  has  been  made 
admitting  these  states  and  their  stars  became 
part  of  the  flag  on  July  4,  1912. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  PRINCIPAL  DOMES. 


Diameter.      Height. 
Pantheon,  Rome,  Italy.    142       ft.     143       ft. 

Cathedral,  Florence 139        "      310 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 139        "      330 

Capitol,       Washington, 

TT.  S.  A 124?^    "      307  r     " 


Diameter.     Height. 

St.    Sophia,    Constanti- 
nople     115 

Baths    of    Caracalla, 

(Ancient  Rome) 112        "       116 

St.  Paul's.  London 112        "      216 


ft.     201       ft. 


BOILER  OF  MOST  POWERFUL  LOCOMOTIVE  IN  THE  WORLD. 
This  locomotive  can  haul  155  loaded  50-ton  capacity  freight  cars  at   10  miles  per  hour. 
It  has  16  driving  wheels.      Locomotive  and  tender  weigh  752,000  pounds.    The  firebox  is  large 
enough  to  hold  a  Dinkey  switching  locomotive.     Built  for  the  Virginian  Ry.  Co. 


Copyright,    1912,    by    Munn    &   Co.,    Inc. 

THE  ROOSEVELT  DAM, 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MACHINE   ELEMENTS   AND 
MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS 


MACHINE  ELEMENTS 


The  Machine  Elements  or  Powers  are  the 
Lever  and  the  Inclined  Plane.  Every  ma- 
chine when  analyzed  is  found  to  be  made  up 
of  these  elements,  either  singly  or  in  com- 
bination; for  example,  pulleys,  gear  wheels, 
etc.,  are  forms  of  levers,  while  screws,  cams, 
etc.,  are  forms  of  inclined  planes. 

There  are  four  distinct  types  of  levers,  as 
shown  in  our  illustration. 

1st.  The  Common  Lever,  consisting  of  a 
straight  inflexible  bar  movable  on  a  fulcrum. 
The  section  of  the  bar  extending  from  the 
fulcrum  to  the  point  where  the  power  is  ap- 
plied is  called  the  Power  Arm,  and  the  section 
extending  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  point 
where  the  weight  is  applied  is  called  the 
Weight  Arm. 

2d.  The  Angular  or  Bell  Crank  Lever.  This 
is  distinguished  from  the  Common  Lever  in 
having  its  power  arms  disposed  at  an  angle 
to  the  weight  arms. 

3d.  The  Wheel  and  Axle,  or  Revolving 
Lever.  A  wheel  and  axle  or  two  concentric 
wheels  take  the  place  of  the  power  and  weight 
arms.  The  weight  is  attached  to  a  rope  coiled 
on  one  of  the  wheels,  and  the  power  is  at- 
tached to  a  rope  coiled  on  the  other  wheel. 
The  relation  of  this  lever  to  the  common  lever 
is  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  it  will  be 
evident  that  this  relation  remains  constant 
even  when  the  wheels  are  revolving. 

4th.  The  Pulley..  Another  type  of  revolv- 
ing lever,  but  differing  from  the  wheel  and 
axle  type  in  that  a  single  wheel  is  used  and . 
the  fulcrum  is  not  necessarily  always  at  the 
center  of  the. wheel. 

Each  of  these  types  of  the  simple  lever  is 
capable  of  three  diflferent  arrangements  usu- 
ally termed  "Orders."  In  the  First  Order 
the  fulcrum  lies  between  the  weight  and  the 
power.  In  the  Second  Order  the  weight  lies 
between  £he  fulcrum  and  t^e  power.  In  the 
Third  Order  the  power  lies  between  the  ful- 
crum and  the  weight.  The  second  order  gives 
the  longest  power  arm  relative  to  the  weight 
arm,  and  consequently  is  the  most  powerful 
lever  of  the  three.  The  forrhulse  for  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  power  required  to  bal- 
ance a  given  weight,  are  given  at  the  bottom 
of  the  illustration.  In  measuring  the  arms 
of  the  angular  levers  the  measurements 
should  not  be  taken  along  the  length  of  the 
arms,  but  in  the  horizontal  plane  as  shown, 
because  this  measurement  represents  the  true 
theoretical  length  of  the  lever  arm.  As  the 
lever  is  moved  about  the  fulcrum,  the  ratio 
of  the  power  arm  to  the  weight  arm  changes 
as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  in  the  first  order 
of  angular  levers,  because  the  arm  that  is  ap- 
proaching the  horizontal  plane  is  increasing 
m  length,  while  the  other  which  is  moving 
toward  the  vertical  plane  is  decreasing  in 


length.  The  same  is  true  m  a  modified  form 
of  -the  second  and  third  orders  of  angular 
levers. 

In  the  case  of  the  pulleys  the  power  and 
weight  arms  bear  a  definite  relation  to  each 
other.  No  matter  what  their  size  may  be, 
the  power  arm  will  always  be  of  the  same  length 
as  the  weight  arm  in  pulleys  of  the  first  order, 
consequently  the  power  must  be  equal  to  the 
weight  in  order  to  keep  the  lever  m  equilib- 
rium. In  pulleys  of  the  second  order  the 
power  arm  will  be  twice  the  length  of  the 
weight  arm,  consequently  the  power  must  be 
equal  to  half  of  the  weight  in  order  to  keep 
the  lever  in  equilibrium;  and  in  puUeys  of 
the  third  order  the  power  arrh  will  be  half  the 
length  of  the  weight  arm,  consequently  the 
power  must  equal  twice  the  weight  in  order 
to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  leVer. 

The  compound  levers  consist  of  two  or  more 
simple  levers  bf  the  same  or  diflferent  orders 
coupled  together,  either  for  the  purposes  of 
convenience  or  to  increase  the  power. 

Of  the  two  compound  common  levers  illus- 
trated, Figure  1  shows  two  common  levers 
of  the  first  order  coupled  together,  and  Fig- 
ure 2  represents  a  common  lever  of  the  first 
order  coupled  to  a  common  lever  of  the  sec- 
ond order. 

The  compoimd  revolving  lever  illustrated 
is  a  combination  of  a  wheel  and  axle  of  the 
second  order,  operating  a  pulley  of  the  second 
order.  This  compound  lever  is  also  called  a 
"Chinese  windlass,"  owing  to  its  early  use 
by  the  Chinese  for  lifting  heavy  weights,  such 
as  draw-bridges,  etc. 

The.  compound  pulleys  or  tackle  shown  are 
various  combinations  of  pulleys  of  the  same 
or  different  orders.  As  in  the  case  of  the  sim- 
ple pulleys,  the  weight  and  power  arms  bear 
a  constant  relation  to  each  other,  and  it  is 
therefore  possible  to  give  the  numerical  value" 
of  the  power  in  terms  of  the  weight,  or  vice 
versa,  afforded  by  the  diflferent  types  of  tackle, 
regardless  of  the  size  of  the  individual  pulleys 
they  comprise.  The  following  simple  formula 
is  applicable  to  all  tackle  in  which  a  continu- 
ous length  of  rope  is  used,  as  in  Figures  1,  2, 
and  3:  Power  equals  weight  divided  by  the 
number  of  rope  -parts  supporting  the  weight. 
In  Figure  3,  for  instance,  there  are  five  such 
parts,  not  counting  of  course  the  part  on 
which  the  power  is  applied.  Figures  4  to  9 
are  all  rather  complex,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  power  is  transmitted  to  the  weight  through 
one  or  more  movable  pulley  blocks  connected 
by  separate  ropes.  Figures  4  and  5  show 
tackle  arrangements  called  Spanish  burtons. 
A  general  formula,  applicable  to  any  number 

W 
of  pulleys  arranged  as  in  Fig.  6,  is  P^-orTl 


2a. 


519 


520 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


or! 

iijiii 


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UIQHO    puZ 


HIQHO  puG 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


521 


522 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


in  which  P  represents  the  power,  W  the 
weight,  and  n  the  number  of  ropes  used.  The 
general  formula  for  the  arrangement  shown 

W 
in  Figure  7  is  P  =  -^.     The  general  formula 

for  the  arrangement   shown   in   Figure   8   is 

W 
P=  -rj.     The  general  formula  for  the  arrange- 

W 
ment  shown  in  Figure  9  is  P  =  -^^ — ;• 

There  are  three  general  classes  of  inclined 
planes,  the  simple  inclined  plane,  the  wedge 
or  movable  inclined  plane,  and  the  screw  or 
revolving  inclined  plane.  There  are  three 
general  types  of  simple  inclined  planes,  as 
illustrated.  1st.  That  in  which  the  power 
acts  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  inclined 
face    of    the    inclined    plane.       2d.  That    in 


which  the  power  acts  parallel  with  the  base 
of  the  inclined  plane.  3d,  That  in  which  the 
power  acts  at  an  angle  both  to  the  face  and  to 
the  base  of  the  inclined  plane.  The  formulae 
for  determining  the  mechanical  advantage 
secured  by  the  different  forms  of  inclined 
planes  are  given  in  the  illustration.  In  the 
third  type  of  inclined^  plane  the  relation  of 
power  to  weight  changes  as  the  weight  is 
drawn  up  the  plane,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  angle  B  becomes  gradually  larger. 

There  are  two  types  of  wedges,  the  single 
wedge  and  the  double  wedge.  The  latter  ijj 
the  more  common  type. 

Under  revolving  inclined  planes  we  have 
the  screw  together  with  the  cam  (not  illus- 
trated here),  which  are  more  commonly  usfed 
in  machinery  than  any  other  type  of  inclined 
plane. 


*%3MWS»' 


MALLKT  AKTICULATED  LOCOMOTIVJ':  FOII  TilK  MKCilNIAN   RY.  CO. 

This  is  a  fine  type  of  locomotive.  It  develops  a  tractive  force  of  97,200  pounds,  and  is 
capable  of  hauling  a  train  of  twenty  cars,  weighing  78  tons  each,  with  a  caboose,  up  a  com- 
pensated grade  of  two  and  seven  hundredths  per  cent.  The  boiler  is  of  the  separable  type 
with  a  feed-water  heater  in  the  front  section.  This  locomotive  Is  capable  of  traversing  23° 
curves. 


PIPING  ARRANGEMENT  OF  BALDWIN  MALLET  LOCUM UTIVE. 
Note   flue   leading  through   feed-water  heater. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


523 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS 


TOOTHED     GEAR. 

1.  Shur  Gears. — The  ordinary  form  of 
toothed-wheel.  The  smaller  of  two  inter- 
meshing  gear-wheels  whether  a  spur-  or  bevel- 
wheel  is  called  a  Pinion. 

2.  Gear  with  Mortised  Teeth. — This  is 
what  is  ordinarily  known  as  a  Cog-wheel 
among  machinists.  The  wheel  is  ordinarily 
made  of  iron  and  the  teeth  of  wood. 

3.  Step  Gear. — The  face  of  this  gear  is 
divided  into  sections  with  the  teeth  of  the 
different  sections  arranged  in  steps;  that  is, 
one  in  advance  of  the  other.  Step  gear- 
wheels are  useful  ••  in  heavy  machinery,  as 
they  give  a  practically  continuous  bearing 
between  the  intermeshuig  teeth  of  the  gear- 
wheels. 

4.  Oblique  Toothed  Gear. — The  teeth 
are  cut  diagonally  across  the  working  face  of 
the  wheel  so  as  to  give  the  gear-wheel  a  side 
thrust.  In  a  double  oblique  toothed-gear,  usu- 
ally called  a  V-toothed  jgear,  the  thrust  in 
one  direction^  is  neutralized  by  an  equal 
thrust  in  the  opposite  direction.  As  in  the 
stepped-gear  it  gives  a  continuous  bearing 
of  the  teeth. 

5.  Internai,.  or  Annclar  Gear. — The 
teeth  are  formed  on  the  inner  periphery  of  a 
ring.  This  type  of  gear  is  used  in  heavy 
machinery,  because  it  offers  a  greater  hold 
for  the  teeth  of  the  driving  pinion.  There  is 
less  sliding  friction  between  the  teeth  than  in 
the  usual  outside  spur-gear  and  pinion. 

6.  Star  Wheel  Gears.— The  teeth  are  so 
formed  as  to  permit  an  appreciable  separation 
of  the  gear-wheels  without  preventing  them 
from  properly  meshing  one  with  the  other. 
These  gears  are  used  on  wringing  machines,  etc. 

7.  Elliptical  Gears. — Due -to  their  ellip- 
tical form,  while  the  driving-gear  rotates  at 
constant  speed,  the  other  gear  will  be  rotated 
at  a  variable  speed.  That  is,  its  motion  will 
first  be  accelerated  and  then  retarded.  They 
are  used  in  some  machines  to  produce  a  slow 
powerful  stroke  followed  by  a  quick  return. 

8.  Angular  Gears. — These  gears  have  a 
rectangular  form  and,  as  in  the  elliptical 
gears,  they  serve  to  transform  uniform  rotary 
movement  into  variable  rotary  movement. 
However,  this  movement  is  more  jerky  than 
that  produced  by  elliptical  gears.  Angular 
gears  are  very  seldom  used. 

9.  Lantern  Gear. — The  teeth  C9nsist  of 
pins  which  lie  parallel  with  the  axis,  of  the 
gear-wheel,  and  are  secured  at  their  ends  in 
two  disks  or  gear  heads.  The  pins  are  so 
spaced  as  to  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  a  spur- 
gear.  The  lantern^gear  permits  limited  slid- 
ing movement  of  the  spur-gear  along  its  axis. 
It  can  be  very  cheaply  made,  but  is  used  chiefly 
for  light  work,  such  as  clock  mechanism,  etc. 


10.  Crown  Gear. — The  teeth  project  per- 
pendicularly from  a  side  face  of  the  wheel 
instead  of  lying  in  the  plane  of  the  wheel. 
When  in  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  a  spur-gear 
or  a  lantern-gear,  it  forms  a  cheap  method  of 
transmitting  power  from  one  shaft  to  another 
lying  at  right  angles  thereto.  Crown  gears 
are  useful  ,for  light  work,  and  were  common 
in  old  clock  mechanisms.  They  used  to  be 
known  as  Contrate  wheels. 

11.  Bevel  Gears. — The  ordinary  gear  for 
transmitting  power  from  one  shaft  to  an- 
other at  an  angle  thereto.  When  the  wheels 
are  of  the  same  size  and  or^erate  on  shafts, 
lying  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  one  with  the 
other,  they  are  called  Miter  gears. 

12.  Worm  or  Screw  Gear. — An  endless 
screw  engages  a  spur-gear  with  spirally 
disposed  teeth.  The  screw  is  called  a  worm, 
and  the  spur-gear  a  worm-wheel.  A  much 
diminished  but  very  powerful  motion  is  com- 
municated from  the  worm  to  the  worm-wheel. 
It  is  used  in  heavy  machinery. 

13.  Chrved  Worm  Gear. — The  working 
face  of  the  worm  is  curved  so  that  a  number 
of  teeth  will  be  in  mesh  with  the  worm- 
wheel,  thus  giving  greater  strength.  It  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  cut  the  thread  of  thitJ* 
worm  correctly  owing  to  its  varying  pitch. 
The  gear  is  called  the  saw-tooth  gear  when 
the  teeth  and  thread  arp  V-shaped,  as  illus- 
trated. 

14.  Spiral  or  Helical  Gears. — The 
teeth  are  spirally  disposed  on  the  working 
faces  of  the  wheels  so  that  they  will  transmit 
motion  to  shafts  lying  at  right  angles  one 
with  the  other. 

15.  Skew  Gears. — The  gears  rotate  on 
shafts  which  lie  in  different  planes  and  at  an 
angle  with  each  other.  The  drawing  shows 
a  skeff  spur-gear  meshing  with  a  bevel-gear. 
The.  same  term  would  apply  to  two  bevel 
gears  lying  in  different  planes  and  at  angles 
to  each  other. 

16.  Rack  and  Pinion. — A  spur-gear  en- 
gages a  toothed  bar.  Rectilinear  motion  is 
by  this  mechanism  transformed  to  rotary 
motion  or  vice  versa.  It  is  quite  cominon 
in  heavy  machinery  to  find  a  worm,  meshing 
with  and  driving  a  rack. 

17.  Spherical  or  Globoid  Gear. — A 
spiral  thread  is  cut  on  a  spherical  body  and 
meshes  with  the  spiral  teeth  of  the  spur  pin- 
ion. The  latter  is  so  mounted  that  it  may  be 
swung  to  different  positions  on  the  spherical 
gear,  without  varymg  its  speed  of  rotation. 

18.  Gear  with  Roller  Teeth. — The 
teeth  project  from  the  flat  face  of  the  wheel, 
and  consist  of  pins  carrying  rollers.  This 
construction  is  used  to  reduce  friction. 

19.  Pin  Wheel.— The  flat  face  of  the  gear 
is  studded  with  pins  which  are  adapted  to 


524 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


mesh  with  slots  formed  in  the  edge  of  a 
pinion.  The  pinion  is  so  mounted  that  it  can 
be  moved  toward  or  from  the  center  of  the 
pin  wheel  to  vary  its  speed  of  rotation.  When 
the  pinion  is  moved  past  the  center  of  the 
pin  wheel  its  direction  of  rotation  is  reversed. 

20.  Spiral  Hoop  Gear. — A  spiral  thread  is 
formed  on  the  flat  face  of  the  wheel  and  this 
meshes  with  a  worm-wheel.  The  latter  is 
moved  forward  one  tooth  at  each  complete 
rotation  of  the  spiral  hoop.  This  gives  a 
powerful  drive,  though,  of  course,  at  a  greatly 
diminished  speed. 

21.  Intermittent  Gear  or  Geneva  Stop. 
— The  driving-wheel  is  provided  with  a  single 
tooth  adapted  to  engage  one  of  a  series  of 
notches  in  the  other  wheel.  At  each  com- 
plete rotation  of  the  driving-wheel  the  other 
wheel  is  moved  forward  one  notch  but  no 
more,  due  to  the  concave  space  between  the 
notches  which  fits  closely  against  the  circum- 
ference of  the  other  wheel.  In  the  Geneva 
stop  one  of  these  spaces  is  formed  with  a 
convex  outline, 'as  illustrated.  When  this 
space  is  reached  both  wheels  a;re  prevented 
from  further  rotation  forward.  The  Geneva 
stop  is  used  on  watches  to  prevent  winding 
up  the  main  spring  too  tightly. 

22.  Intermittent  Bevel  Gear  or  Ml  ti- 
LATED  Gear. — The  teeth  are  formed  only  at 
intervals  on  the  face  of  the  gears.  The 
space  between  the  teeth  in  the  driving-gear  is 
convex,  and  that  between  the  teeth  in  the 
other  gear  is  concave,  so  that  when  the  teeth 
are  not  in  mesh  with  each  other  these 
convex  and  concave  portions  fit-  into  each 
other  and  prevent  the  driven  gear  from  mov- 
ing forward  under  its  own  momentum. 

23.  Variable  Gears. — The  gear  wheels 
are  made  up  of  gear  sectors  of  different  radial 
length,  which  produce  suddenly  varying  mo- 
tions of  the  driven  gear  due  to  the  varying 
leverage  between  the  wheels.  The  segments 
are  arranged  on  different  planes  so  as  not  to 
interfere  one  with  the  other. 

24.  Scroll  Gears. — The  gears  have  a 
scroll  form  which  produces  a  gradually  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  speed  during  each 
rotation.  These  gears  are  also  called  cam 
gears. 

25.  Elliptical  Bevel  Gears. — They  pro- 
duce variable  motion  of  a  shaft  lying  at  right 
angles  to  the  driving  shaft.  This  gear  is 
used  on  bicycles  to  give  increased  power  on 
the  downstroke  of  the  pedal  and  a  quick 
movement  on  the  return. 

26.  Variable  Pin  Wheel. — A  cone  is  pro- 
vided with  pins  arranged  spirally  thereon,  and 
these  mesh  with  teeth  formed  on  the  other 
cone.  When  one  cone  is  rotated  at  a  con- 
stant speed  the  other  moves  with  a  gradually 
increasing  or  decreasing  speed  during  each 
rotation. 

27.  Cam-toothed  Pinion. — The  pinion 
consists  of  two  oppositely  disposed  heart- 
shaped  teeth,  mounted  side  by  side,  on  a 
shaft.  Th6  gear-wheel  with  which  they 
mesh  has  teeth  alternately  arranged  on  oppo- 
site side  faces.  Due  to  the  form  of  the 
pinion  teeth,  the  gear-wheel  is  locked  after 
being  moved  forward  by  one  tooth  until  the 
other  tooth  comes  into  mesh  with  a  tooth 
on  the  other  face  of  the  wheel. 

28.  Bevel  Scroll  Gear. — The  gear-wheel 
consists  of  a  bevel  spiral  scroll  which  meshes 
with  a  bevel   pinion.     As.  the  spiral  scroll 


rotates  it  causes  the  pinion  to  slide  forward 
on  its  shaft,  and  thus  varies  its  speed. 

FRICTION  GEAR. 

29.  Flat-faced  Friction  Gear. — A  com- 
mon type  of  friction  gear.  The  wheels  are 
usually  faced  with  rubber  or  leather  to  in- 
crease the  frictional  hold  between  the  wheels. 
One  of  the  wheels  is  journaled  in  bearings 
which  can  be  adjusted  toward  the  other 
wheel  so  as  to  increase  the  frictional  engage- 
ment. 

30.  Grooved  Friction  Gear. — The  faces 
of  the  wheels  are  grooved  so  as  to  increase  the 
bearing  surface.  The  best  results  are  ob- 
tained by  pressing  the  wheels  but  slightly  into 
engagement  with  each  other,  as  this  produces 
little  loss  of  power  by  friction. 

31.  Adjustable  Friction  Pinion. — The 
pinion  is  formed  of  a  disk  of  rubber  or  other 
flexible  material  held  between  two  washers. 
When  these  washers  are  tightened  together 
they  press  out  the  rubber  between  them, 
crowding  it  into  closer  contact  with  the  V- 
groove  of  the  gear  with  which  it  engages. 

32.  Beveled  Friction  Gear. — Two  cone 
frustums  are  used  to  convey  motion  from  one 
shaft  to  another  at  right  angles  thereto. 

33.  Friction  Drums. — The  drums  have 
concave  faces  which  permit  them  to  transmit 
motion  one  to  the  other  while  lying  at  an. 
acute  angle  with  each  other. 

34  to  40.  Variable  Speed  Friction 
Gear. — 34,  a  pinion,  engages  the  flat  face  of 
the  friction  disk.  Variable  motion  is  pro- 
duced by  moving  the  pinion  across  the  face 
of  the  disk.  When  the  center  of  the  disk  is 
reached  no  motion  is  transmitted.  Beyond 
the  center  the  direction  of  motion  transmitted 
is  reversed.  35.  Motion  is  transmitted  from 
one  friction  disk  to  another  lying  parallel,  but 
not  in  alignment  therewith,  through  an  inter- 
mediarj/  pinion.  This  pinion  can  be  moved 
vertically  to  engage  different  points  on  the 
friction  disks,  and  thus  produce  any  desired 
variation  in  the  speed  transmitted.  36.  Two 
convex  friction  disks  are  so  arranged  that  one 
may  be  swung  through  an  angle  bringing  dif- 
ferent points  on  its  surface  into  contact  with 
the  face  of  the  other  disk.  In  this  manner 
the  speed  of  the  motion  transmitted  is  varied. 
This  gear  is  used  on  sewing-machines.  37. 
Two  parallel  friction  disks  are  each  provided 
with  an  annular  concavity.  Motion  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  disk  to  the  other  by  a  friction 
pinion  mounted  between  the  disks,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  can  be  rotated  to  engage  differ- 
ent points  on  the  surfaces  of  the  concavities, 
thereby  varying  the  speed  transmitted. 
38.  A  cone  with  concave  face  is  engaged  by  a 
pinion  which  may  be  swung  about  a  center 
to  engage  different  points  on  the  face  of  the 
cone.  39.  Two  cones  with  concave  faces  are 
mounted  on  shafts  running  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  Motion  is  transmitted  from  one 
cone  to  the  other  through  a  friction  pinion 
mounted  to  swivel  so  as  to  engage  different 
points  on  the  faces  of  the  cones.  40.  Two 
friction  cones  are  mounted  on  parallel  shafts, 
and  between  them  runs  a  friction  pinion  hav- 
ing two  faces,  one  engaging  the  upper  cone 
and  the  other  engaging  the  lower  cone.  This 
provides  a  broad  bearing  surface.  The 
pinion  may  be  moved  to  different  positions 
along  the  faces  of  the  cones,  and  thereby  pro- 
duce changes  in  the  speed. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.  525 


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Copyright,  190i,  by  Muuu  &  Co. 


526 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CHAIN    GEAR. 

41.  Sprocket  Wheel. — The  wheel  is  pro- 
vided with  teeth  adapted  to  fit  in  between  the 
links  of  a  chain.  The  chain  may  be  of  the 
ordinary  oval  welded  link  type  or  of  the  flat 
riveted  type  used  on  bicycles. 

42.  Link-belt  Wheel. — The  chain  is 
made  up  of  square  links  which  are  engaged 
by  ratchet-shaped  teeth  on  the  chain  wheel. 

43.  Pocket  Wheel. — The  wheel  is  formed 
with  pockets  into  which  the  links  of  the  chain 
are  adapted  to  fit. 

44.  Side-toothed  Wheel. — The  wheel  is 
formed  with  two  sets  of  teeth  between  which 
the  chain  travels.  The  teeth  bear  against 
the  ends  of  the  outer  links  of  the  chain. 

45.  Side  and  Center  Toothed  Chain 
Wheel. — This  wheel  is  similar  to  that  shqwn 
in  Fig.  44,  but  has  in  addition  a  row  of  teeth 
along  the  center  which  bear  against  the  cen- 
ter link  of  the  chain. 

46.  Toothed-link  Chain  and  Wheel. — 
The  links  are  formed  with  projecting  teeth 
which  fit  into  notches  on  the  rim  of  the  chain 
wheel. 

47.  "Silent"  Chain  and  Wheel. — This  is 
a  special  type  of  chain  in  which  each  link  is 
formed  with  a  tooth  at  each  end.  The  teeth 
of  adjacent  links  coact  to  completely  fill  the 
spaces  between  the  teeth  of  the  chain  wheel. 
The  construction  is  such  as  to  produce  a 
noiseless  operation  of  the  chain  gear  even  at 
high  speeds. 

48.  Detachable  Toothed-link  Belt  and 
Wheel. — Each  link  is  formed  with  a  tooth, 
which  meshes  with  the  teeth  of  the  chain 
wheel.  The  construction  of  each  link  is  such 
that  it  may  be  readily  slipped  into  or  out  of 
engagement  with  the  next  link  of  the  chain. 

ROPE    GEAR. 

49.  V-PuLLEY., — The  ordinary  type  of  pul- 
ley for  round  ropes  or  cables.  Owing  to  the 
V-shaped  construction  of  the  pulley  groove., 
the  rope  wedges  tightly  into  engagement 
with  the  pulley. 

50.  Pulley  with  Flexible  Filling.— In 
order  to  secure  frictional  engagement  of  the 
cable  with  this  pulley,  the  pulley  groove. is 
provided  with  rubber,  leather,  wooden,  or 
other  filling. 

51.  Pulley  with  Ribbed  Groove. —  In 
this  construction  of  pulley  the  required  grip 
is  produced  by  forming  ribs  in  the  bottom  of 
a  pulley  groove. 

52.  Pulley  with  Gripping  Lugs. — The 
flanges  of  this  pulley  are  formed  with  lugs 
which  kink  the  rope  or  cable  as  shown,  thus 
producing  the  required  grip. 

53.  Rope  Sprocket-wheel. — An  old  form 
of  rope  gear  used  in  hoists  and  the  like. 

54  and  55.  Gripping  Pulleys.— Gripping 
arms  are  provided  which  grip  the  cable  at  the 
point  where  the  cable  presses  into  the  pulley. 
In  54  the  gripping  arms  are  wedged  inward 
by  the  side  walls  of  the  pulley  groove  when 
pressed  downward  by  the  cable.  These  arms 
are  normally  h  Id  up  by  coil  springs.  In  55 
the  cable  is  gripped  by  the  toggle  movement 
of  hinged  clips  placed  at  intervals  along  the 
periphery  of  the  pulley. 

56.  Cable  Sprocket-wheel. — The  cable 
is  provided  with  clamos  which  enter  sockets 
formed  in  the  cable  wheel.  This  is  a  forni  of 
cable  gear  commonly  used  at  present  in  ele- 
vating and  conveying  machinery. 


CLUTCHES. 

57.  Common  Jaw  Clutch. — One  member 
of  the  clutch  is  mounted  to  slide-on  a  feathered 
shaft,  and  the  other  member  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  machinery  is  normally  sta- 
tionary on  this  shaft.  When  the  slidable 
member  is  moved  forward  the  teeth  on  its 
forward  edge  intermesh  with  the  teeth  of  the 
other  member,  setting  the  machinery  in  mo- 
tion. The  slidable  member  is  moved;  forward 
by  means  of  a  forked  lever  which  is  hinged  to 
a  split  collar  mounted  loosely  between  nanges 
on  the  clutch  member. 

58.  Claw  Clutch. — The  slidable  member 
of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  body  portion  with 
two  claw  arms  which,  when  moved  forward, 
are  adapted  to  engage  opposite  sides  of  a  bar 
on  the  other  member  of  the  clutch. 

59.  Lever  Clutch. — The  slidable  member 
is  provided  with  a  lever  loosely  hinged  to  its 
forward  end.  The  other  member  of  the 
clutch  consists  of  a  disk  formed  with  ratchet 
teeth  on  its  face.  These  are  engaged  by  the 
hinged  arm  when  the  shaft  rotates  in  one 
direction,  but  the  arm  moves  freely  over 
them  when  rotated  in  the  opposite  direction. 

60.  Knee  and  Rose  Clutch. — A  crank 
arm  is  attached  to  the  slidable  member  of  the 
clutch,  and  engages  a  pin  on  an  arm  loosely 
hinged  to  the  opposite  member  of  the  clutch. 

61.  Ratchet  Clutch. — The  clutch  mem- 
bers are  formed  with  ratchet  teeth,  so  that 
when  the  motion  of  the  driving  shaft  is  re- 
versed,  the  members   will  be  disengaged. 

62.  Pin  Clutch. — The  slidable  member  is 
provided  with  radial  arms  formed  with  pins 
at  their  outer  ends  which  are  adapted  to  enter 
sockets  formed  along  the  periphery  of  a  disk 
on  the  opposite  member  of  the  clutch. 

63.  Friction  Disk  Clutch. — The  two 
clutch  members  are  each  formed  with  disks 
preferably  faced  with  rubber  or  leather,  so 
that  when  pressed  together  their  frictional 
engagement  will  cause  a  transmission  of  mo- 
tion from  the  rotating  disk  to  the  other. 

64.  Friction  Groove  Clutch. — One  of 
the  clutch  members  is  formed  with  a  groove 
in  its  face  to  receive  the  lip  of  the  other  mem- 
ber which  is  cup-shaped.  Both  the  lip  and 
the  side  walls  of  the  groove  are  slightly 
tapered  to  insure  a  close  fit,  even  after  the 
parts  have  been  partly  worn  away  by  friction. 

65.  Stud  Clutch. — Engagement  between 
the  two  members  of  the  clutch  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  stud  on  each  disk  adapted  to 
enter  a  notch  formed  in  the  periphery  of  the 
opposing  disk. 

66.  Friction  Band  Clutch. — One  mem- 
ber of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  pulley  provided 
with  a  steel  band  which  encircles  and  fits 
tightly  on  its  periphery.  The  other  member 
of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  lever  provided  with 
pins  at  its  outer  ends,  which  are  adapted  to 
engage  the  steel  band.  Since  this  band  is  not 
fastened  to  the  pulley,  any  .<!hock  due  to 
suddenly  throwing  the  clutch  members  into 
engagement  will  be  taken  up  by  the  steel  band 
slipping  on  the  face  of  the  pulley. 

67.  Friction  Cone  Clutch.— The  clutch 
is  made  up  of  two  cones,  one  adapted  to  fit 
into  the  other.  The  frictional  engagement 
causes  one  to  drive  the  other. 

68."  Self-releasing  Clutch. — The  clutch 
disks  are  provided  with  inclined  teeth,  so  that 
in  case  the  resistance  to  the  driven  shaft  in- 


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creases  beyond  a  certain  degree,  the  clutch 
members  will  automatically  move  apart. 

69.  Cam  Clutch. — One  of  the  members  is 
cup  shaped,  and  within  this  the  other  mem- 
ber operates.  The  latter  comprises  a  niimber 
of  cam-shaped  arms  hinged  to  a  body  portion, 
and  so  arranged  that  when  moved  in  one 
direction  they  will  bind  against  the  inner 
wall  of  the  drum,  but  when  moved  in  the  op- 
posite direction  they  will  be  automatically 
disengaged  therefrom. 

70.  V-GROOVED  Clt;tch. — The  clutch  disks 
are  formed  with  annular  V-grooves  adapted 
to  fit  into  each  other,  and  thus  increase  the 
friction  surface  of  the  clutch  members: 

71.  Expansion  Clutch.  —  The  slidable 
member  is.  provided  with  a  number  of  mov- 
able ring  segments  connected  by  radial  arms 
to  the  main  body  of  the  clutch  and  adapted 
to  bear  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  drum 
or  cup  which  constitutes  the  other  member  of 
the  clutch.  When  the  slidable  member  is 
moved  forward,  by  reason  of  the  toggle  ac- 
tion of  the  radial  arms,  the  segments  are 
brought  into  frictional  engagement  with  the 
other  member  of  the  clutch. 

72.  Coii^GRip  Clutch.  —  The  movable 
member  of  the  clutch  is  formed  with  a  num- 
ber of  coils  of  steel  in  which  there  is  a  central 
conical  opening.  This  is  moved  over  the 
cone  which  constitutes  the  opposite  member 
of  the  clutch,  producing  the  required  fric- 
tional engagement  of  the  two  members. 

ANGLE    SHAFT    COUPLINGS    AND 
UNIVERSAL  JOINTS. 

73.  Crank  and  Hinged-pin  Coupling. — 
A  coupling  for  shafts  which  lie  at  an  angle  to 
each  other.  One  shaft  carries  a  hinged  pin 
which  fits"  into  an  opening  in  the  outer  end 
of,a  crank  arm  carried  by  the  other  shaft. 

'74.  Double-sleeve  Angle  Coupling, — 
Each  shaft  carries  a  crank  arm  provided  with 
a  pin  at  its  outer  end,  which  lies  parallel  with 
its  respective  shaft.  The  two  pins  enter  a 
coupling  device  consisting  of  two  sleeves  in- 
tegrally formed,  but  lying  at  an  angle  with 
each  other  which  corresponds  to  the  angle 
formed  by  the  shafts.  Through  this  double- 
sleeve  coupling,  motion  is  transmitted  from 
one  shaft  to  the  other,  the  pins  sliding  back 
jand  forth  in  the  sleeve  openings. 

75.  Cross-bar  Angle  Coupling. — This  is 
used  for  coupling  two  parallel  but  offset 
shafts.  Each  shaft  carries  a  yoke  piece  pro- 
vided with  sleeves  at  its  outer  ends.  The 
coupling  member  is  a  cross-shaped  piece,  its 
arms  fitting  into  the  sleeves  of  the  yoke 
pieces,  and  permitting  the  necessary  lateral 
play  as  the  shaft  rotates.  This  form  of 
coupling  is  also  applicable  to  shafts  which  lie 
at  an  angle  with  each  other. 

76.  Pin  and  Slot  Coupling. — A  crank 
pin  carried  by  one  shaft  engages  a  slot  in  a 
crank  arm  carried  by  the  other  shaft.  The 
motion  transmitted  is  variable,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  leverage  varies  as  the  pin  moves 
up  and  down  in  the  slot. 

77.  Ring-Gimbal  Universal  Joint. — The 
ends  of  the  shafts  are  provided  with  yoke 
members  whose  arms  are  pivoted  to  a  ring- 
gimbal,  the  pivot  pins  of  the  two  yoke  pieces 
lying  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  This 
coupling  will  communicate  motion  at  any 
angle  under  45  degs.  For  angles  of  over  45 
degs.  a  double-link  universal  joint  is  used. 


78.  Double-link  Universal  Joint. — A 
link  forked  at  each  end  is  hinged  to  two  rings, 
which  are  mounted  in  the  yoke  pieces  on  the 
ends  of  the  shafts.  In  place  of  rings  cross 
pieces  such  as  shown  in  the  illustration  are 
often  used. 

79.  Hooke's  Angular  Coupling. — The 
shafts  are  connected  by  two  double  links 
which  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
gram. Interrriediate  of  the  shafts  the  links 
are  connected  with  ball-and-socket  joints. 

80.  Ball-and-socket  Universal  Joint. — 
Socket  pieces  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  the 
shafts,  and-  these  are  provided  with  metal 
bands  which  encircle  the  ball  that  constitutes 
the  coupling  member.  The  bands  enter 
grooves  in  the  ball  which  lie  at  right  angles  to 
each  other. 

81.  "Almond"  Angular  Coupling. — A 
side  view  of  the  coupling  is  shown  at  1  and  a 
plan  view  at  2.  '  Between  the  shafts  to  be 
coupled  is  a  fixed  stud  on  which  a  bell  crank 
is  mounted  to  turn.  The  bell  crank  is  per- 
mitted to  slide  axially  on  the  stud.  The 
bell  crank  is  connected  at  the  ends  by  ball- 
and-socket  joints  with  links  attached  to  the 
ends  of  the  shafts.  Now,  as  the  power  shaft 
rotates,  rotary  motion  will  be  communicated 
to  the  other  shaft  through  the  bell  crank, 
which  will  rock  and  also  slide  axially  on  the 
stud. 

82.  Flexible  Shaft. — Two  shafts  are  con- 
nected by  a  flexible  shaft  consisting  of  a  coil 
spring,  or  a  metal  tube  in  which  a  helical  saw- 
slot  has  been  cut.  This  flexible  shaft  will 
permit  transmission  of  motion  through  a 
wide  angular  range. 

83.  Linked  Flexible  Shaft. — The  flex- 
ible shaft  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  links 
coupled  together  with  universal  joints.  A 
coil  spring  fits  loosely  over  the  links  and  pre- 
vents them  from  kjnking.  This  spring  in 
turn  is  covered  with  a  flexible  tube.  The 
shaft  will  transmit  motion  about  almost  any 
curve  or  angle.  It  can  be  used  for  heavy 
work. 

84.  Right-angle  Coupling. — The  ends  of 
the  shafts  are  formed  with  heads  in  which  are 
drilled  a  number  of  sockets.  A  series  of  rods, 
each  bent  to  form  a  right  angle,  enter  these 
slots  and  form  the  coupling  links  between  the 
shafts.  As  the  shafts  rotate  these  rods  slide 
in  and  out  of  their  sockets. 


RATCHET     MOVEMENTS. 

85.  The  teeth  of  a  ratchet  wheel  are  en- 
gaged by  a  pawl  hinged  to  a  rocking  arm. 
The  ratchet  wheel  is  rotated  only  on  the 
forward  stroke  of  the  arm, 

86.  A  rocking  lever  carries  two  pawls;  one 
on  each  side  of  its  fulcrum.  The  wheel  is 
rotated  both  by  the  downward  and  the  return 
stroke  of  the  lever;  for  while  one  pawl  is 
rotating  the  wheel,  the  other  swings  to  posi- 
tion to  take  a  new  hold  on  the  ratchet  wheel. 
The  potation  of  the  ratchet  wheel  is  thus 
kept  nearly  constant. 

87.  A  ratchet  crown-wheel  or  rag-wheel 
in  engaged  by  pawls  depending  from  two 
arms  loosely  pivoted  on  the  axle  of  the 
ratchet-wheel.  These  two  arms  are  con- 
nected by  links  to  a  common  power  arm. 
Rectilinear  reciprocating  movement  of  the 
latter  in  the  line  of  the  arrow  produces  an 
almost  constant  rotation  of  the  ratchet- 
wheel. 


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88.  The  action  of  this  ratchet  mechanism 
is  very  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  86, 
except  that  the  pawls  are  hooked  and 
ratchet-wheel  is  rotated  by  an  alternating 
pulling  rather  than  pushing  action  of  the 
pawls'. 

89.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  principle 

f)ictured  in  Fig.  88,  and  shows  a  rocking 
ever  with  two  pawls  hinged  thereon  en- 
gaging a  ratchet  rack. 

90.  Another  modification  of  the  principle 
shown  in  88.  The  rocking  lever  is  mounted 
on  a  fixed  stud  and  is  provided  at  the  center 
with  a  pin  which  enters  a  slot  in  a  ratchet 
bar.  The  latter  is  formed  with  ratchet 
teeth  on  its  opposite  edges  which-  are  en- 
gaged by  hooked  pawls  pivoted  on  the 
rocking  lever.  These  pawls  are  crossed,  as 
shown,  so  that  they  will  be  kept  by  grav- 
ity in  constant  engagement  with  the  ratchet 
teeth.  Now,  when  the  lever  is  rocked  the 
pawls  will  alternately  act  to  lift  the  ratchet 
bar. 

91.  A  common  construction  used  for 
rotating  a  ratchet-wheel  against  a  spring 
resistance.  A  dog  mounted  on  a  fixed 
pivot  drops  by  gravity  or  by  spring  pressure 
against  the  ratchet  teeth  and  holds  the 
wheel  from  turning  while  the  pawl  is  being 
swung  back  for  a  fresh  hold  on  the  ratchet- 
wheeL 

92.  This  shows  the  method  of  rotating  an 
ordinary  spur  gear-wheel  bv  rneans  of  a 
pawl.  The  pawl  is  provided  with  a  tooth 
at  its  outer  end  which  fits  between  the 
teeth  of  the  gear.  The  pawl  is  hinged  to 
the  lower  arm  of  the'  bell-crank  lever 
mounted  on  the  gear  shaft.  The  operating 
lever  also-mounted  on  this  shaft  is  permitted 
a  certain  amount  of  play  between  two  pins 
on  the  shorter  arm  of  the  bell  crank-lever. 
A  rod  connects  the  operating  lever  with  the 
pawl.  When  the  lever  is  raised  it  first  lifts 
the  pawl  out  of  engagement  with  the  gear, 
then,  coming  in  contact  with  the  upper  pin 
on  the  bell  crank-lever,  it  moves  the  pawl 
and  bell  crank  back  to  the  desired  position. 
On  lowering  the  operating  lever  the  pawl  is 
first  brought  into  engagement  with  the  gear 
and  then  the  lower  pin  on  the  bell  crank  is 
encountered,  and  the  gear  is  caused  to  ro- 
tate. This  arrangement  prevents  wearing 
away  of  the  teeth — a  common  defect  in  the 
ordinary  type  of  ratchet  mechanism. 

93.  The  pawl  is  kept  in  contact  with  the 
ratchet-wheel  by  the  weight  of  the  lever  on 
which  it  is  formed;-  By  pulling  the  rope 
attached  to  the  end' of  the  lever  the  pawl 
will  be  drawn  out  of  engagement  with  the 
ratchet-wheel,  and  the  latter  will  be  turned 
by  friction  of  the  rope  on  the  wheel  hub. 

94.  A  reversible  spur-gear  rrtchet  me- 
chanism. Mounted  on  the  shaft  which 
carries  the  spur-gear  is  a  bell  crank-lever. 
This  at  one  end  carries  a  double-toothed 
pawl,  one  of  which  teeth  meshes  with  the 
teeth  of  the  gear.  The  pawl  is  so  shaped 
that  it  will  withdraw  the  tooth  from  engage- 
ment with  the  gear  teeth  on  the  return 
stroke  of  the  lever.  When  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation,  the  pawl  is 
moved  over  to  the  position  shown  in  dotted 
lines,  bringing  its  other  tooth  into  engage- 
ment with  the  gear  teeth. 

95.  The  ratchet-wheel  is  intermittently 
rotated  by  the  oscillation  of  a  lever  which 
carries  a  spring-pressed  pawl.     On  the  up- 


ward stroke  the  ratchet  is  turned  by  the 
pawl  which  is  backed  by  a,  shoulder  on  the 
lever.  On  the  return  stroke  a  dog  holds  the 
ratchet-wheel  from  turning  while  the  pawl 
snaps  past. 

96.  Ratchet  teeth  are  formed  on  a  ball 
which  rests  in  a  socket  formed  at  the  end  of 
a  lever.  A  spring  pawl  on  this  lever  en- 
gages the  ratchet  teeth  at  any  position  of 
the  lever.  This  construction  is  useful  for 
ratchet  braces  which  have  to  be  operated  in 
inconvenient  places. 

97.  A  device  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  vibratory  motion.  A  spring-pressed  pin 
engages  the  teeth  of  a  revolving  crown- 
wheel ratchet,  and  is  thereby  caused  to 
vibrate. 

98.  A  device  for  converting  recipro- 
cating motion  into  intermittent  rotary 
motion.  The  crown-wheel  ratchet  is  inter- 
mittently rotated  by  a  reciprocating  lever 
carrying  a  pawl  which  engages  the  ratchet 
teeth. 

99.  Internal  ratchet  used  on  ratchet 
braces,  etc.  The  drill  spindle  carries  a 
number  of  spring-pressed  pawls  which  bear 
against  the  internal  ratchet  teeth  formed  in 
the  handle  of  the  brace.  ^ 

100.  Ball  ratchet  device  for  lawn  mow- 
ers, etc.  In  the  hub  of  a  wheel  is  a  groove  in 
which  a  ball  is  carried.  A  spring  presses  this 
ball  down  against  a  shaft  on  which  the  wheel 
turns.  When  the  wheel  rotates  forward,  the 
ball  wedges  in  between  the  shaft  and  th3 
groove,  causing  the  shaft  to  turn  with  the 
wheel.  When  the  direction  of  rotation  ia 
reversed,  the  ball  is  forced  up  against  the 
spring,  releasing  the  shaft. 

ESCAPEMENTS. 

101.  Recoil  Escapement. — This  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  escapement  used  on  clocks.  The 
pallets  carried  by  the  pendulum  are  so 
mounted  that  when  a  tooth  of  the  escape 
wheel,  which  is  driven  by  the  clock-train,  is  just 
escaping  from  one  of  the  pallets,  another  tooth 
fails  on  the  other  pallet  near  its  point.  As  the 
pendulum  swings  on,  however,  the  taper  face 
of  the  pallet  bearing  against  the  tooth  causes 
the  escape  wheel  to  turn  slightly  backward. 
As  the  pendulum  swings  back,  it  receives  an 
impulse  from  the  escape  wheel  which  is  greater 
by  reason  of  this  recoil.  The  principal  value 
oi  the  recoil,  however,  is  to  overcome  any  un- 
evenness  in  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  train, 
which  might  otherwise  stop  the  clock. 

102.  Dead-beat  Escapement. — A  form  of 
escapement  used  on  the  best  clocks.  The  teeth 
of  the  escape  wheel  fall  "dead"  upon  the  pal- 
lets, that  is,  the  pallets  are  so  cut  that  as  the 
pendulum  continues  to  swing  they  slide  on 
the  teeth  without  turning  the  escape  wheel 
backward.  The  ends  of  the  pallets  are  formed 
with  inclined  faces,  termed  "impulse  faces," 
against  which  the  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel 
bear  when  giving  impulse  to  the  pendulimi. 
The  value  of  this  escapement  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  gives  a  very  eVen  beat  of  the  pendulum 
even  when  there  is  a  slight  variation  in  the 
force  exerted  by  the  clock  train. 

103.  Lever  Escapement. — This  is  an  es- 
capement used  on  watches.  The  anchor  on 
which  the  pallets  are  carried  is  secured  to  a 
lever,  formed  with  a  notch  in  one  end.  This 
notch  is  engaged  by  a  pin  on  the  arbor  of  the 
balance  wheel.  The  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel 
alternately  bear  against  the  inclined  faces  of 


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the  pallets  and  oscillate  the  lever,  which  tums^ 
the   balance   wheel   alternately   in   opposite 
directions. 

104.  Verge  Escapement. — A  form  of  es- 
capement used  in  old-fashioned  watches.  The 
escape  wheel  is  a  crown  wheel,  and  its  teeth, 
on  opposite  sides,  are  engaged  by  two  pallets, 
carried  on  the  shaft  of  the  balance  wheel.  The 
escapement  teeth,  acting  alternately  on  the 
pallets,  lift  and  clear  them,  thus  rocking  the 
shaft  and  balance  wheel,  which  governs  the 
frequency  of  the  escape. 

105.  Star  Wheel,  Escapement. — The  es- 
cape has  but  few  teeth  and  is,  therefore,  called 
a  star  wheel.  The  pallets  act  on  teeth  that 
lie  diametrically  opposite  each  other.  This 
escapement  has  a  dead-beat  action. 

106.  Crown  Tooth  Escapement. — An  old 
form  of  recoil  escapement,  in  which  a  crown 
escape  wheel  is  used.  The  pallets  are  mounts 
ed  to  engage  opposite  sides  of  the  wheel.  This 
type  is  objectionable,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  pendulum  must  oscillate  through  a  very 
wide  angle  in  order  to  permit  the  teeth  to 
escape  from  the  pallets,  which  requires  a 
greater  pressure  in  the  clock-train  and  heavier 
parts  and  produces  greater  friction  on  the 
pallets. 

107.  Lantern  Wheel  Escapement. — An 
old-fashioned  type  of  escapement,  in  which 
the  escape  wheel  is  a  lantern  wheel,  and  the 
pallets  are  two  plates  set  at  angles  on  a  rock- 
ing arm. 

108.  Pin-wheel  Escapement. — A  dead- 
beat  escapement  used  in  many  of  the  best 
turret  clocks.  The  escape  wheel  is  formed 
with  pins  which  drop  on  to  the  * '  dead ' '  faces 
of  the  pallets,  but  give  impulses  to  the  pen- 
dulum by  sliding  off  the  inclined  "impulse" 
faces  of  the  pallets.  It  is  found  best  in  prac- 
tice to  cut  the  "dead"  faces  so  as  to  give  a 
very  slight  recoil, 

109.  Old-fashioned  Crown  Wheel  Es- 
capement.— This,  in  appearance,  is  quite  sim- 
ilar to  the  escapement  shown  in  Figure  106, 
but  is  different  in  action.  The  inclined  faces 
of  the  teeth,  which  are  very  long,  act  to  lift 
the  pallets. 

110.  Ring  Escapement. — A  form  of  '  'dead- 
beat"  escapement.  The  pallets  are  formed 
on  the  inside  of  the  ring,  within  which  the 
escape  wheel  turns. 

Ill  and  112.  Gravity  Escapements. — A 
type  of  escapement  in  which  the  impulse  from 
the  escape  wheel  is  not  given  directly  to  the 
pendulum,  but  through  the  medium  of  two 
weights,  usually  the  arms  on  which  the  pallets 
are  carried  and  which  are  alternately  lifted  by 
the  escape  wheel  and  dropped  against  the  pen- 
dulum. Figure  111  shows  the  four-legged 
gravity  escapement  used  on  turret  clocks. 
The  escape  wheel  is  formed  with  four  legs  or 
teeth,  and  carries  eight  pins,  four  oh  one  face 
of  the  hub  and  four  on  the  other.  The  pal- 
let arms  are  pivoted  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
point  from  which  the  pendulum  swings.  The 
pallets  which  are  formed  on  these  arms  are 
arranged  to  lie  one  on  one  side  and  the  other 
on  the  other  side  of  the  escape  wheel.  The 
pallet  arms  are  each  provided  with  a  stop 
piece  against  which  the  teeth  of  the  escape- 
ment will  alternately  rest.  In  the  illustra- 
tion, a  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  is  resting 
against  the  stop  on  the  right-hand  arm.  As 
the  pendulum  swings  toward  the  right,  the 
tooth  will  escape  from  the  stop,  permitting 
the  wheel  to  rotate  until  it  encounters  the 


stop  on  the  left-hand  arm,  at  the  same  time 
a  pin  on  the  wheel  engages  the  end  of  the 
pallet  at  the  left,  and  lifts  the  pallet  arm.  In 
the  meantime  the  right-hand  pallet  arm  swings 
with  the  pendulum  to  the  end  of  its  stroke 
but  falls  with  it  on  the  return  stroke  until 
stopped  by  a  pin  on  the  escape  wheel.  It 
will  be  evident  that  the  angle  through  which 
the  pallet  arm  falls  with  the  pendulum  is 
greater  than  that  through  which  it  is  lifted  by 
the  pendulum,  and  it  is  this  difference  in 
travel  which  gives  impulse  to  the  pendulum. 
Figure  112  shows  a  double, '  three-legged  es- 
capement which  is  used  for  very  large  clocks. 
Two  three-legged  escape  wheels  are  used  with 
three  lifting  pins  held  between  them  like  the 
pins  of  a  lantern  wheel.  The  pallets  operate 
between  the  wheels.  A  stop  piece  is  placed  on 
one  of  the  pallet  arms  for  the  forward  wheel, 
and  the  other  arm  carries  a  stop  for  the  rear 
wheel.  The  teeth  of  one  wheel  are  set  60 
degrees  in  advance  of  the  other.  The  action 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  four-legged  escape- 
ment. A  tooth  of  the  forward  wheel  is  shown 
resting  on  its  stop.  When  this  is  released  by 
the  swinging  pendulum,  the  wheels  rotate, 
lifting  the  left-hand  pallet  until  a  tooth  of  the 
rear  wheel  engages  its  stop.  The  right  pallet 
arm,  however,  continues  to  be  lifted  by  the 
pendulum,  and  then  falls  with  it,  giving  it 
impulse  until  arrested  by  a  lifting  pin,  only 
to  be  lifted  again  when  the  pendulum  releases 
the  rear  wheel  from  its  stop. 

GEARING. 

113.  A  means  for  changing  rectilinear  recip- 
rocating motion  to  rotary  reciprocating  motion 
and  vice  versa.  Two  intermeshing  pinions 
engage  internal  racks  formed  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  frame. 

114.  Means  for  changing  rotary  motion  to 
rectilinear  reciprocating  motion.  A  rotating 
sector  or  pinion  formed  with  teeth  on  only  a 
portion  of  its  periphery  imparts  reciprocating 
motion  to  a  rack  frame  by  first  engaging  the 
teeth  at  one  side  of  the  rack,  and  then  the 
teeth  on  the  other  side  of  the  rack.  See  Fig- 
ure 115  for  gravity  return. 

115.  Another  method  of  converting  rotary 
motion  into  rectilinear  reciprocating  motion. 
A  rotating  sector  engages  the  teeth  of  a  rack 
during  a  part  of  its  rotation  and  thereby  lifts 
the  rack,  but  as  soon  as  the  rack  clears  the 
sector  teeth,  it  drops  by  gravity,  ready  to  be 
lifted  up  when  it  again  encounters  the  teeth 
of  the  sector.  See  Figure  114  for  power  re- 
turn. 

116  A  movement  designed  as  a  substitute 
for  a  crank.  The  rack  frame  is  formed  with 
internal  racks  on  opposite  sides,  but  these 
racks  lie  in  different  planes.  Two  separate 
pinions  are  employed  which  mesh  respectively 
with  these  racks.  The  pinions  are  mounted 
loosely  on  a  shaft,  but  carry  pawls  which  en- 
gage with  ratchet  wheels  secured  to  the  shaft. 
On  the  forward  stroke  of  the  rack  frame  the 
pinions  will  both  be  rotated  but  in  opposite 
directions.  However,  due  to  their  ratchet 
and  pawl  connection  with  the  shaft,  only  one 
pinion  turns  the  shaft.  On  the  return  stroke 
the  rotation  of  the  pinions  will  be  reversed 
but  the  shaft  will  continue  to  rotate  in  the 
same  direction,  driven  this  time  by  the  other 
pinion  of  the  pair. 

117.  Sun  and  Planet  gearing.  A  gear 
wheel,  called  the  '  'sun ' '  wheel,  rotating  on  a 
fixed  center,  is  engaged  by  a  gear  wheel  called^ 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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534 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


the  planet  wheel,  which  revolves  s^Jjout  the 
sun  wheel.  This  construction  was  used  by 
James  Watt  in  one  of  his. steam  engines  as  a 
substitute  for  a  crank.  The  planet  wheel  was 
rigidly  secured  to  the  connecting  rod  and  con- 
nected by  an  arm  to  the  center  of  the  sun  wheel. 
At  each  complete  revolution  of  the  planet 
wheel  about  the  sun  wheel,  the  latter  was 
caused  to  rotate  twice. 

118  and  119.  Means  for  converting  rotary 
motion  into  irregular  reciprocal  motion.  In 
118  two  intermeshing  spur  gears  are  provided 
with  crank  arms  connected  by  a  working 
beam.  If  the  gears  are  of  equal  size  the  mo- 
tion transmitted  to  the  rod  secured  to  the 
working  beam  will  be  uniform.  If,  however, 
the  gears  are  of  different  sizes,  the  motion  of 
this  rod  will  vary  greatly.  In  119  a  still  more 
complex  movement  is  produced,  since  there 
are  three  intermeshing  gear  wheels  of  unequal 
sizes  and  two  connected  working  beams.  _ 

120.  Irregular  oscillatory  motion  is  given 
to  a  hinged  arm  by  pivoting  at  its  outer  end 
a  cam-shaped  gear  wheel  which  is  rotated  by 
a  continuously  driven  pinion.  Any  desired 
motion  of  the  arm  may  be  produced  by  vary- 
ing the  shape  of  the  ram  gear. 

121.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  rotary  motion.  An 
elliptical  gear  rotates  at  uniform  speed  and 
drives  a  spur  pinion.  The  latter  is  secured  to 
a  shaft  which  slides  between  the  arms  of  two 
forked  levers.  A  spring  keeps  the  pinion  in 
mesh  with  the  elliptical  gear. 

122.  Means  for  converting  constant  rotary 
motion  into  intermittent  rotary  motion.  The 
driving  wheel  is  formed  with  teeth  through  a 
portion  of  its  periphery  equal  to  the  toothed 
periphery  of  the  pinion.  The  latter  is  cut 
away  at  one  place  to  fit  the  plane  portion  of 
the  driving  wheel.  This  prevents  the  pinion 
from  rotating  until  a  pin  on  the  wheel  strikes 
a  projecting  arm  on  the  pinion  and  guides  the 
teeth  of  the  gears  into  mesh  with  each  other. 

123.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  rotary  motion.  A  crown 
wheel  eccentrically  mounted  is  dri^'en  b>[  a 
pinion  rotating  at  uniform  speed.  The  point 
of  engagement  of  the  crown  wheel  with  the 
pinion  varies  radially,  causing  the  wheel  to 
rotate  at  a  variable  speed. 

124.  The  mechanism  is  so  arranged  as  to  im- 
part planetary  movement  to  a  pinion.  An 
internal  gear-  wheel  formed  with  a  pulley 
groove  in  its  periphery  is  mounted  to  rotate 
on  a  sleeve  which  carries  a  spur  gear  at  one 
end  and  a  pulley  at  the  other.  The  gear 
wheels  are  belted  to  a  driving  pulley  in  such 
manner  as  to  rotate  in  opposite  directions. 
A  spur  pinion  which  fits  in  between  the  teeth  of 
the  two  gears  is  rotated  thereby  on  its  own 
axis  and  revolves  about  the  center  of  the  two 
gears  at  a  speed  which  is  the  differential  of 
the  speeds  of  the  two  gears. 

125.  The  construction  hereshown  is  adapted 
to  produce  a  slow  forward  movement  of  a  rack 
with  a  quick  return.  The  rack  is  mounted  to 
slide  longitudinally  and  is  driven  by  a  toothed 
sector.  The  latter  is  provided  with  a  slotted 
arm  which  is  engaged  by  a  pin  on  a  rotating 
disk.  The  forward  movement  will  take  place 
while  the  pin  is  passing  through  the  larger 
arc  subtended  by  the  two  dotted  radial  lines 
shown,  and  there  turn  while  the  pin  is  pass- 
ing through  the  smaller  arc. 

126.  A  means  for  converting  reciprocating 
aaotion  into  continuous  rotary  motion.    A 


double-faced  reciprocating  rack  engages  first 
one  and  then  the  other  of  a  pair  of  toothed 
sectors.  The  sectors  are  mounted  on  a  pair 
of  shafts,  disposed  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
rack.  The  shafts  carry  pinions  which  engage 
opposite  sides  of  the  central  gear  wheel.  The 
rotary  motion  alternately  imparted  to  the 
sectors,  is  conveyed  through  these  pinions  to 
the  gear  wheel,  each  pinipn  alternately  acting 
to  drive  the  wheel  when  its  respective  sector 
is  in  mesh  with  the  rack,  and  then  to  be 
driven  by  the  gear  wheel  until  its  sector  is 
brought  again  in  mesh  with  the  rack.  Thus 
a  continuous  rotary  motion  is  produced. 

127  Mechanism  for  converting  uniform 
rotary  motion  into  irregular  rotary  motion. 
Mounted  eccentrically  on  the  driving  shaft  is 
a  gear  wheel  which  transmits  motion  to  an- 
other gear  wheel  through  an  intermediate 
pinion.  Pivoted  to  the  centers  of  the  two 
gear  wheels  are  two  links  whose  outer  ends 
are  connected  by  a  hinge  pin  on  which  the 
pinion  rotates  These  links  serve  to  hold  the 
pinion  constantly  in  mesh  with  the  gears,  no 
matter  what  the  position  of  the  eccentric  is. 

128.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  reciprocating  motion.  A 
rack  frame  mounted  to  slide  longitudinally  is 
driven  by  an  eccentric-toothed  sector.  The 
racks  are  placed  at  an  angle  with  the  line  of 
movement  and  are  provided  with  jaws  at  each 
end  adapted  to  mesh  with  pins  projecting 
above  the  face  of  the  sector.  As  the  sector 
rotates  it  transmits  a  gradually  accelerated 
longitudinal  movement  to  the  rack  frame 
until  the  outer  pin  engages  the- jaw  at  the  end 
of  the  rack.  The  rack  frame  is  then  driven 
by  this  pin  until  the  opposite  rack  is  engaged 
by  the  sector  teeth. 

129  to  132.  Mangle  Gears.— So-called  be- 
cause of  their  use  on  mangle  machines.  129. 
The  larger  wheel  is  formed  with  a  cam  groove 
which  guides  the  pinion.  The  shaft  of  the 
latter  is  ordinarily  provided  with  a  universal 
joint,  which  permits  it  to  move  vertically  and 
thus  keep  in  mesh  with  the  crown  teeth 
formed  on  the  large  wheel.  The  pinion 
meshes  first  with  the  outer  and  then  with  the 
inner  ends  of  the  teeth  on  the  larger  gear, 
driving  tKe  latter  first  in  one  direction  and 
then  in  the  other.  130  shov/s  another  form 
of  the  same  movement.  The  pinion  moves 
radially  in  the  slot  shown  in  dotted  lines,  and 
engages  first  the  outer  and  then  the  inner  line 
of  teeth  on  the  mangle  wheel,  causing  the 
latter  to  rotate  first  in  one  direction  and  then 
in  the  other.  131.  The  mangle  wheel  is 
formed  with  an  internal  gear,  and  the  pinion 
is  guided  by  a?  cam  groove.  This  construc- 
tion and  that  shown  in  Figure  130  produce 
uniform  motion  through  an  almost  complete 
rotation,  and  this  is  followed  by  a  quick  ro 
turn  due  to  the  smaller  radius  of  the  inner 
circle  of  teeth.  132.  In  this  construction,  as  in 
that  of  Figure  129,  the  same  speed  is  main- 
tained in  both  directions  of  rotation.  The 
mangle  wheel  in  Figure  132  is  formed  with 
teeth  on  both  faces;  the  pinion  first  engages 
the  teeth  on  one  face  of  the  wheel,  and  then 
passing  through  the  opening  engages  the 
teeth  on  the  opposite  face,  thus  reversing  the 
direction  of  rotation. 

133  to  137.  DiFFERENTTAL  Gear.— 133.  Two 
worm  wheels,  one  of  which  has  more  teeth 
than  the  other,  engage  a  single  worm.  Sup- 
pose that  one  wheel  has  100  teeth  and  the 
other  has  101;  then  at  every  complete  rota- 


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Copyright,  1904,  by  Munn  &  Co. 


536 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


tion  of  the  latter  wheel  it  will  be  one  tooth 
behind  the  former  wheel,  and  at  the  end  of 
100  rotations  the  former  would  have  made  a 
complete  rotation  relative  to  the  latter.  If  the 
worm  be  cut  with  a  single  thread  it  would  have 
to  make  100  times  101,  or  10,100  rotations  in 
order  to  produce  this  result.  This  construc- 
tion is  used  on  certain  counting  devices. 
134.  Two  bevel  gears  are  connected  by  a  pair 
of  small  bevel  pinions  mounted  in  a  frame,  as 
shown  in  the  side  elevation  1.  If  the  gear 
wheels  should  be  rotated  at  different  veloci- 
ties the  frame  would  rotate  at  the  mean  veloc- 
ity. 135.  A  rapidly  rotating  shaft  carries  a 
gear  wheel  eccentrically  mounted  thereon. 
The  latter  is  carried  along  into  engagement 
with  a  fixed  internal  gear  or  rack,  and  is  there- 
by rotated  at  a  slow  speed.  136.  Two  con- 
centrically mounted  bevel  gears  of  different 
diameters  engage  with  a  third  bevel  gear. 
The  latter  rotates  at  the  mean  of  the  velocities 
of  the  other  two.  137.  A  hollow  screw  threaded 
into  a  frame  is  formed  with  an  internal  thread, 
of  slightly  different  pitch,  adapted  to  receive  a 
smaller  screw,  which  is  so  mounted  in  the 
frame  that  it  may  slide  longitudinally,  but 
cannot  rotate.  If  the  larger  screw  should 
have  ten  threads  to  the  hich,  and  the  smaller 
screw  eleven,  the  latter  would  move  outward 
one-eleventh  part  of  an  inch  while  the  former 
was  fed  inward  an  inch. 

138.  Uniform  rotary  motion  converted  into 
reciprocating  rectilinear  motion.  A  rack 
frame  arranged  to  slide  longitudinally  is  en- 
gaged by  a  toothed  sector  which  meshes  with 
the  teeth  on  ooe  side  of  the  rack  to  drive  the 
frame  forward,  and  then  with  the  teeth  on 
the  other  side  to  drive  the  frame  back. 

139.  Variable  speed  gear  for  producing  fast 
and  slow  motion.  It  comprises  two  pairs  of 
toothed  sectors  so  arranged  as  to  properly 
mesh  with  each  other.  The  driving  gear 
shown  at  the  right  is  provided  with  two  arms 
which  carry  atuds  at  their  outer  ends.  These 
studs  lie  below  the  lower  face  of  the  gears  and 
engage  studs  formed  on  the  lower  face  of  the 
driven  gear,  as  shown  in  dotted  lines,  thus 
guiding  the  wheels  after  one  pair  of  sectors 
have  moved  out  of  mesh  and  before  the  other 
pair  have  come  into  mesh  with  each  other. 

140.  Mechanism  for  producing  increased  or 
decreased  speed  on  the  .same  line  of  shafting. 
A  fixed  bevel  gear  wheel,  A,  meshes  with  two 
bevel  gear  wheels,  B,  which  in  turn  me.ih 
with  a  pinion,  E,  carried  on  the  right-hand 
shaft.  The  bevel  wheels,  B,  are  mounted  in 
a  bracket  which  turns  freely  on  the  shaft  of 
pinion,  E.  Each  wheel,  B,  carries  a  pinion, 
C  which  meshes  with  a  bevel  gear  wheel,  D, 
carried  by  the  left-hand  shaft.  The  change 
of  speed  from  ohe  shaft  to  the  other  is  due 
to  the  planetary  movement  of  the  wheels,  B 
and  C.  When  the  multiple  of  the  teeth  in  A 
and  C  exceeds  that  of  B  and  D  the  shafts 
will  rotate  in  opposite  directions. 

CAMS  AND  CAM  MOVEMENTS. 
141  and  142.  Cylinder  or  Drum  Cams. — 
In  Figure  141a  groove  is  formed  in  the  curved 
face  of  a  cylinder  or  drum.  A  roller,  on  the 
end  of  a  pivoted  arm  fits  into  this  groove. 
As  the  drum  rotates  the  arm  will  be  swung  to 
various  positions,  guided  by  the  groove  in  the 
cam.  In  Figure  142  the  roller  bears  against 
the  rim  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  made  of  such 
shape  as.  to  give  the  desired  motion  to  the 
lever.     In  this  form  of  cam,  while  the  roller 


is  positively  moved  down  by  the  cam  rim,  it 
is  raised  up  b^  a  spring  on  the  lever,  which 
tends  to  hold  it  constantly  against  the  cam. 
In  the  first  type  of  cam  the  motion  is  positive 
in  both  directions. 

143.  Beveled  Cam. — This  form  of  cam  is 
used  to  give  motion  to  a  lever  whose  axis  lies 
at  an  angle  with  the  cam-shaft.  The  cam  is 
of  x:onical  form  with  curv^ed  edges  against 
which  the  lever  bears.  In  our  illustration  we 
have  shown  a  sliding  rod  in  place  of  a  rocking 
lever.  The  conical  face,  it  will  readily  be 
seen,  must  lie  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the 
rod. 

144.  Face  Cam. — The  cam  groove  is  cut  in 
the  face  of  a  disk,  and  this  on  being  rotated 
guides  the  movement  of  the  rocking  lever 
which  carries  a  roller  that  enters  this  groove. 

145.  Clover-leaf  Cam. — This  is  a  form  of 
disk  cam  which  gives  a  positive  drive  to  a 
sliding  lever.  The  cam  acts  between  two 
rollers  on  the  lever,  and  is  so  cut  as  to  exactly 
fill  the  space  between  these  rollers  at  all  times. 

146.  Heart  Cam. — Another  torm  of  disk 
cam.  This  is  so  cut  as  to  give  uniform  recti- 
linear motion  to  a  sliding  rod  which  bears 
against  its  edge.  To  lay  out  this  cam,  divjde 
the  desired  line  of  travel  of  the  rod  into  any 
convenient  number  of  equal  spaces,  starting 
from  the  center  of  the  roller,  and  from  the 
center  of  the  cam  describe  arcs  passing  through 
the  dividing  points.  Twice  the  number  of 
radial  lines  should  be  laid  off  from  the  center 
of  the  cam,  the  lines  being  equally  spaced  an- 
gularly. The  successive  points  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  radial  lines  and  the  arcs  will  then 
mark  the  centers  for  a  series  of  arcs  with  radii 
equivalent  to  the  radius  of  the  roller.  The 
curve  drawn  tangent  to  these  arcs  will  then 
mark  the  outline  of  the  cam. 

147.  Means  are  here  shown  for  converting 
rotary  motion  into  alte'rnating  reciprocating 
motion  of  two  rods.  The  rods  are  attached 
to  pivoted  levers  carrying  rollers  which  bear 
against  the  edges  of  two  oval  disk  cams 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft. 

148.  Rotary  motion  is  here  converted  into 
variable  rectilinear  motion.  The  end  of  a 
sliding  lever  rests  on  the  irregular  edge  of  a 
disk  cam,  and  is  there  by  caused  to  move  np 
and  down  following  the  irregularities  of  the 
cani.  The  cam  shown  gives  three  recipro- 
cations of  the  rod  for  each  rotation  of  the  cam 
shaft. 

149.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion  of 
a  shaft  into  rocking  motion  of  a  lever.  The 
lever  is  caused  to  rock  by  a  cam  with  an  ob- 
lique face  on  which  the  roller  of  the  lever 
bears.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  motion 
shown  in  Figure  142. 

150.  Means  for  converting  rocking  motion 
of  a  shaft  into  uniform  rectilinear  motion  of  a 
rod.  The  rod,  which  is  mounted  to  slide  in 
bearings,  carries  a  pin  which  engages  a  slot  in 
the  cam  on  the  rocking  shaft.  The  cam  slot 
is  so  cut  as  to  give  uniform  motion  to  the  rod. 

151.  Continuous  rotary  motion  of  a  shaft  is 
here  converted  into  intermittent  reciprocating 
motion  of  a  slide.  A  cam  lever  hinged  at  its 
lower  end  to  a  fixed  point  is  connected  by  a 
rod  at  its  upper  end,  to  the  sUde..  A  crank 
arm  on  the  rotating  shaft  carries  a  pin  which 
enters  a  curved  slot  in  the  cam  lever.  The 
crank  arm  causes  the  lever  to  rock,  carrying 
the  slide  with  it.  The  cam  slot  should  form 
an  arc  with  a  radius  equal  to  that  of  the  crank 
arm,  so  that  while  the  crank  pin  is  passing 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


thtough  this  arc  the  slide  will  remain  station- 
ary. This  motion  is  used  on  certain  types  of 
sewing  machines  and  printing  presses. 

152.  The  type  of  pam  used  on  the  needle 
bars  of  some  sewing  machines.  A  pin  on  a 
rotating  disk  engages  a  slot  in  a  cam  yoke  on 
the  needle  bar.  This  slot  is  formed  with  a 
curve  at  one  place,  which  holds  the  bar  sta- 
tionary, while  the  pin  is  passing  through  it. 
This  causes  the  needle  to  stop  while  the  shut- 
tle passes. 

153.  This  cam  motion  differs  from  that  of 
Figure  152,  in  that  it  causes  the  sliding  bar  to 
stop  midway  of  its  upward  stroke  and  midway 
of  its  downward  stroke.  The  cam  slot  com- 
prises two  parallel  sections  connected  by  two 
curved  sections.  While  the  pin  on  the  rotat- 
ing disk  passes  through  the  curved  sections 
the  bar  is  held  stationary. 

154.  The  cam  here  shown  causes  the  sliding 
bar  to  stop  at  the  end  of  each  stroke.  The 
cam  is.  triangular,  with  curved  faces,  and 
rotates  between  the  two  parallel  working 
faces  of  a  cam  frame  on  the  sliding  bar.  While 
the  outer  face  of  the  cam  engages  the  frame 
the  bar  is  held  stationary.  This  is  a  form  of 
cam  motion  used  in  place  of  an  eccentric  for 
operating  the  valve  of  a  certain  French  engine. 

155.  A  peculiar  variable  intermittent  mo- 
tion of  the  sliding  rod  is  given  by  the  planetary 
action  of  a  cam  mounted  on  a  rotating  disk. 
The  cam  shaft  passes  through  the  disk  and 
carries  a  pinion  which  meshes  with  a  station- 
ary internal  gear  wheel. 

156.  A  rectangular,  motion  is  imparted  to 
the  cam  frame  by  two  triangular  curved  cams 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft.  The  frame  is 
mounted  to  slide  laterally  in  bearings,  which 
in  turn  are  permitted  to  slide  vertically  in 
grooves  on  two  stationary  supports.  The 
frame  is  made  up  of  two  horizontal  rails  on 
which  one  of  the  cams  acts,  and  two  vertical 
rails  on  which  the  other  cam  acts  The  illus- 
tration shows  the  frame  about  to  be  moved 
downward  by  the  forward  cam  acting  on  the 
lower  rail  while  the  rear  cam  prevents  any 
lateral  movement.  On  the  next  quarter  rota- 
tion of  the  cam  shafts  a  lateral  movement  will 
ensue,  due  to  the  rear  cam  acting  on  the  right- 
hand  vertical  rail.  At  the  same  time  the  for- 
ward cam  will  hold  the  frame  against  vertical 
movement.  During  the  third  quarter  of  the 
rotation  the  frame  will  be  lifted,  and  during 
the  last  quarter  it  will  be  moved  back  laterally 
to  the  position  illustrated.  If  the  cams  are 
both  of  the  same  size,  the  motion  of  the  frame 
will  trace  a  perfect  square. 

157.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  vibrating  motion.  A  forked  lever  en- 
gages opposite  edges  of  a  disk  cam,  and  is 
thereby  caused  to  vibrate.  This  cam,  as  that 
in  Figure  145,  is  so  cut  that  its  opposite  edges 
are  everywhere  equidistant  when  measured 
through  the  center.  For  this  reason  it  is  ob- 
vious that  such  a  cam  must  always  be  cut 
with  an  odd  number  of  projections. 

158.  A  recently  patented  mechanism  for 
imparting  power  to  the  dasher  shaft  of  a 
churn.  A  rocking  movement  is  imparted  to 
the  shaft  from  a  rotating  cam.  At  the  upper 
end  of  the  shaft  is  a  forked  piece  or  follower 
mounted  to  turn  in  a  socket  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis  of  the  shaft.  The  follower  engages 
a  spline  on  the  cam  and  is  thereby  guided 
first  to  one  side,  and  then  to  the  other  of  the 
cam,  rocking  the  shaft  on  its  axis. 


159.  Trammel  Gear. — A  reciprocating  move- 
ment of  the  rod  is  produced  by  the  rotation  of 
a  shaft,  and  vice  versa.  Pivoted  to  the  rod 
are  two  blocks  which  slide  respectively  in  two 
slots  in  the  face  of  the  disk  which  cross 
each  other  at  right  angles.  This  movement 
was  patented  seventy  years  ago,  but  is  con- 
stantly being  reinvented  as  a  substitute  for 
the  crank. 

160.  Mechanism  for  converting  rotary  mo- 
tion into  reciprocating  motion.  This  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  eccentric  used  on  steam  engines, 
etc.,  for  communicating  a  reciprocating  mo- 
tion to  the  valves  from  the  crank  shaft.  The 
rod  is  provided  with  a  circular  strap  which  is 
bolted  over  a  disk  or  ring  eccentrically 
mounted  on  the  crank  shaft. 

161.  This  form  of  eccentric  is  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Figure  160,  but  an  oval  cam  frame 
or  yoke  is  used  in  place  of  a  circular  strap,  so 
as  to  produce  a  rectilinear  reciprocating  move- 
ment of  the  rod.  This  form  of  eccentric  acts 
directly  on  the  valve  rod  which  travels  be- 
tween fixed  guides. 

162.  Spiral  Cam  for  converting  rotary  mo- 
tion into  reciprocating  motion.  The  cam  is 
formed  with  a  flange  or  spline,  disposed  spi- 
rally on  the  curved  face  of  the  wheel.  The 
spline  engages  a  notch  in  a  rod  and  gives  the 
latter  a  reciprocating  movement  when  the 
cam  is  rotated. 

163.  Elliptical  Crank. — Two  cranks  are 
connected  with  a  single  pitman,  the  outer  one, 
through  a  connecting  link.  The  circular 
movement  of  the  inner  crank  causes  the  outer 
end  of  the  pitman  to  move  in  an  elliptical 
orbit,  thereby  increasing  its  leverage  at  cer- 
tain points. 

164.  A  device  for  gripping  a  bar  or  cable. 
The  bar  travels  between  a  fixed  guide  and  the 
cam-shaped  head  of  a  lever.  When  the  lever 
is  thrown  up,  friction  of  the  bar  on  the  cam 
tends  to  rotate  the  latter  until  it  becomes 
wedged  between  the  cam  and  the  fixed  guide 

165.  Lever  Toggle-joint. — A  device  com- 
monly used  on  letter-presses.  One  of  the  two 
connected  arms  is  pivoted  to  the  platen  of 
the  press  and  the  other  is  hinged  to  a  fixed 
standard.  By  lifting  the  lever  on  one  of  the 
toggle  arms  the  arms  will  be  brought  into  ver- 
tical alignment  with  each  other,  producing  a 
powerful  pressure  on  the  platen. 

166.  Screw  Toggle  Press. — Two  toggle  arms 
are  hinged  to  the  letter-press  and  at  their 
outer  ends  are  hinged  to  nuts  on  the  feed 
screw.  The  screw  is  cut  with  right-  and  left- 
hand  threads,  so  that  when  turned  in  opera- 
tive direction  it  wiU  draw  the  arms  toward 
each  other  and  press  the  platen  downward. 

167.  Bell  Crank  Toe  Levers.— Two  bell 
crank  levers  are  provided  with  projecting  toes 
which  bear  against  each  other  When  one  of 
these  levers  is  swung  on  a  center  it  causes  the 
other  to  swing  also,  but  at  a  variable  speed, 
due  to  the  varying  leverage.  This  mecha- 
nism is  used  for  a  type  of  valve  gear. 

168.  Wiper  Cam.-^A  type  of  cam  used  on 
certain  stamp  mills  to  lift  the  hammer.  The 
cam  bears  against  a  flanged  collar  on  the  ham- 
mer spindle,  which  permits  the  latter  to  rotate. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MOVEMENTS. 

169.  Device  for  transmitting  reciprocating 
motion  from  one  pair  of  rods  to  another  pair 
lying  at  right  angles  thereto.  The  rods  are 
all  connected  by  links  so  that  when  two  op- 
posed rods  are  moved  inward  or  toward  each 


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other,  the  other  two  rods  will  be  moved  out- 
ward, and  vice  versa.  Also  if  two  adjacent 
rods  be  moved  the  one  outward,  and  the 
other  in  ward, the  opposite  rods  will  be  moved 
one  outward  and  the  other  inward  respec- 
tively. 

170.  Means  for  converting  rotary  into  recip- 
rocating motion.  A  bent  shaft  carries  at  its 
outer  end  an  arm  which  is  loosely  mounted 
thereon.  The  lower  end  of  this  arm  engages 
a  slot  in  a  bar  which  is  mounted  to  slide  in 
suitable  guides.  As  the  bent  shaft  rotates, 
the  arm  which  is  prevented  from  rotating 
with  the  shaft  is  given  a  rocking  movement 
in  the  direction  of  its  axis,  and  thus  imparts 
a  reciprocating  movement  to  the  bar. 

171.  Movement  used  on  hand  stamps.  The 
plate  which  carries  the  type  normally  lies  face 
upward  against  an  ink  pad,  and  is  formed  with 
a  flange  at  each  end  in  which  cam  slots  are 
cut.  The  type  plate  is  pivoted  in  a  yoke 
piece  to  which  the  handle  is  secured,  the 
pivot  pins  passing  through  slots  in  the  up- 
rights of  the  frame.  When  the  handle  is 
depressed,  the  type  plate  is  carried  down- 
ward and  at  the  same  time  rotated  by  engage- 
ment with  two  pins  which  operate  in  the  cam 
slots  so  that  the  type  will  face  downward 
when  brought  into  contact  with  the  paper. 
The  parts  are  returned  to  normal  position  by 
a  spring  on  release  of  the  handle. 

172.  A  peculiar  device  for  alternately  rock- 
ing a  pair  of  levers  by  means  of  a  reciprocating 
rod.  The  rod  carries  a  bell  crank  lever,  A. 
This  lever  is  normally  held  in  the  position 
illustrated  by  two  pins  against  which  it  is 
pressed  by  the  spring-pressed  rod.  Two  bell 
crank  levers,  B  and  C,  connected  by  a  bar, 
are  hinged  adjacent  to  the  rod.  With  the 
parts  in  the  position  illustrated,  when  the 
rod  is  drawn  forward,  one  arm  of  the  bell 
crank,  A,  will  engage  a  pin  at  the  end  of 
lever,  B,  and  will  be  thereby  turned  until  it 
engages  a  stop  piece,  D,  on  the  rod,  after 
which  it  will  operate  to  swing  bell  crank,  B, 
on  its  axis.  Owing  to  the  connection  be- 
tween the  levers  B  and  C,  the  latter  will  also 
be  sv/ung  but  in  the  opposite  direction.  On 
return  of  the  rod  the  bell  crank  lever,  A ,  is 
brought  to  normal  position  by  the  two  posi- 
tion pins,  and  when  next  the  rod  is  drawn 
forward,  the  other  arm  of  lever  A  will  engage 
a  pin  on  lever  C,  returning  both  levers  B  and 
C  to  their  original  positions. 

173.  Mechanism  for  transmitting  rotary 
motion  at  increased  speed  from  one  shaft  to 
another  in  alignment  therewith.  The  lower 
or  driving  shaft  carries  a  crown  wheel  at  ita 
upper  end  which  is  engaged  by  a  second  crown 
wheel  having  universal  joint  connection  with 
a  stationary  central  post.  The  latter  is  sup- 
ported from  the  frame  by  cross  arms,  which 
are  adapted  to  engage  slots  cut  in  the  second 
crown  wheel,  and  thus  prevent  the  wheel 
from  rotating.  The  upwardly  projecting  frame 
of  the  second  crown  wheel  is  connected  to  a 
wheel  on  the  upper  shaft,  but  eccentric  there- 
to, by  means  of  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  The 
driven  crown  wheel  is  thus  tilted  so  as  to 
engage  the  teeth  of  the  driving  wheel.  As 
the  latter  rotates  the  driven  wheel  is  given  a 
rocking  or  wobbling  movement,  which  rotates 
the  upper  shaft.  A  slight  movement  of  the 
lower  shaft  thus  produces  a  complete  rota- 
tion of  the  upper  shaft. 

174.  A  device  for  converting  reciprocating 
intQ  rotary  motion  and  vice  versa.     Two  inter- 


meshing  gear  wheels  are  provided  with  spring 
pawls  oppositely  disposed  on  the  gears,  and 
adapted  alternately  to  snap  into  engagement 
with  a  lug  on  a  reciprocating  rod  and  thereby 
impart  rotary  motion  to  the  gears. 

175.  A  device  for  spacing  apart  a  number 
of  bars.  The  bars  are  arranged  to  slide  with 
a  certain  amount  of  friction  between  guide 
pieces.  Normally  they  are  crowded  together 
in  a  group  by  a  pair  of  coil  springs.  A  pair 
of  rotating  spur  wheels  whose  teeth  engage 
the  pointed  ends  of  the  bars  are  mounted  on 
either  side  to  slide  vertically  in  suitable  guide- 
ways.  The  vertical  movement  of  the  gears 
carries  the  bars  downward  against  the  springs 
and  the  slow  rotary  movement  of  the  gears 
successively  releases  the  bars  at  regular  inter- 
vals. The  bars  remain  where  released,  being 
held  by  frictional  engagement  with  the  guide 
pieces. 

176.  An  early  form  of  flexible  shaft  coup- 
ling. One  of  the  shafts  is  pointed  and  fits 
into  a  socket  in  the  other  shaft.  Each  shaft 
carries  a  collar  and  these  are  connected  by  a 
flat  spiral  spring. 

177.  Centrifugal  hammer.  Two  ham- 
mers are  hinged  on  a  rapidly  revolving  disk. 
As  the  disk  revolves,  these  hammers  are  al- 
ternately swung  by  the  added  force  of  gravity 
and  of  centrifugal  action,  on  to  the  anvil.  A 
very  powerful  stroke  is  thus  given. 

178.  A  device  for  communicating  recipro- 
cating motion  of  an  engine  to  a  rotating  crank 
in  such  manner  that  the  crank  will  have  a 
greater  throw  than  the-  stroke  of  the  engine 
crosshead.  The  connecting  rod  acts  on  the 
crank  shaft  through  a  '*lazy  tongs"  which 
multiplies  the  stroke  and  affords  a  better 
leverage  UDon  the  same. 

179.  A  device  for  producing  two  rotations 
of  the  crank  shaft  of  an  engine  at  each  com- 
plete (forward  and  return)  stroke  of  the  cross- 
head.  The  crosshead  of  the  engine  is  con- 
nected by  a  rod  to  a  pair  of  connected  levers, 
one  of  which  is  pivoted  on  a  fixed  pin  and  the 
other  to  the  working  beam.  Owing  to  the 
toggle  action  of  the  levers  the  working  beam 
will  rise  and  fall  twice  while  the  crosshead 
moves  to  its  outer  position  and  returns. 

180.  A  device  for  converting  rocking  move- 
ment into  rectilinear  reciprocating  movement, 
usually  called  ' '  parallel ' '  motion.  Two  links 
pivoted  on  the  fixed  pin  A  connect  at  their 
outer  ends  with  two  links  pivoted  on  a  rod  at  jD. 
The  latter  links  are  also  connected  to  a  pair  of 
links  pivoted  to  a  rock  arm  C.  The  dis- 
tance between  .4  and  B,  the  fixed  pivot  of 
the  rock  arm,  is  equal  to  the  distance  be- 
tween B  and  C.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
double  link-quadrangle  swings  on  two  pivots, 
it  will  be  lengthened  when  swung  out  of  the 
vertical  position,  thus  giving  a  rectilinear 
motion  to  the  rod  D.  This  movement  is 
called  "Peaucellier's"  parallel  motion.  It  is 
used  to  give  rectilinear  movement  to  a  pump 
rod  or  to  the  piston  rod  of  an  engine. 

181.  Another  device  for  producing  recti- 
linear movement  of  a  pump  rod.  The  rod, 
instead  of  being  directly  connected  to  the 
working  beam  of  an  engine,  is  connected 
thereto  by  cross  links.  This  motion,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  true  "parallel  motion,"  but 
the  rod  is  strained  by  cross  connection. 

182  to  184.  Devices  for  overcoming  '  'dead ' ' 
centers  of  cranks.  In  Figure  182  the  pitman 
is  connected  to  one  end  of  a  leaf  spring,  whose 
other  end  is  connected  to  the  crank  disk.    The 


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542 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


pitman  is  thus  permitted  to  play  between  two 
socket  lugs  projecting  from  the  face  of  the 
disk.  Just  before  the  back  center  is  reached, 
the  pitman  slips  out  of  engagement  with 
the  lower  socket,  by  reason  of  the  tensile 
strain  on  the  spring,  then  on  the  return  stroke, 
the  connection  of  the  spring  being  above  the 
line  of  centers,  the  spring  yields  and  throws 
the  pitman  back  into  the  lower  socket,  and 
acts  upon  it  to  rotate  the  disk,  until  the 
forward  center  is  reached,  when  the  action 
will  be  the  reverse  of  that  just  described.  In 
183  the  pitman  is  attached  to  a  plate  secured 
to  the  flywheel  at  two  points  by  screws  pass- 
ing through  slots  cut  diagonally  in  the  plate. 
In  starting  the  wheel  from  either  of  its  dead 
centers,  the  pitman  will  cause  the  plate  to 
slide  on  its  diagonal  slots  and  the  pitman  will 
thus  carry  itself  out  of  the  dead  center.     The 

Elate  will  then  be  returned  to  normal  position 
y  a  spring.  The  device  shown  in  184  is 
specially  applicable  to  machines  operated  by 
treadles.  Attached  to  the  pitman  is  a  piston 
acting  in  a  cylinder  pivoted  to  the  rod  on 
which  the  treadle  is  hinged.  Within  the 
cylinder  are  two  coil  springs  which  alter- 
nately act  on  the  piston  to  carry  the  crank 
over  the  two  dead  centers. 

185.  A  device  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  shaft  to  another  lying  at  right  angles 
thereto.  The  driving  shaft  is  formed  with  a 
spiral  ribbon  which-  acts  between  rollers  ra- 
dially mounted  on  a  wheel,  carried  by  the 
driven  shaft.  The  wheel  is  formed  with  a 
double  series  of  rollers,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  spiral  shaft,  but  the  forward  series  has 
been  cut  away  in  the  illustration  to  show 
detail.  The  action  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
worm  and  worm  wheel,  but  friction  is  reduced 
by  the  use  of  the  rollers. 

186.  An  internal  worm  gear  is  here  shown 
which  offers  the  same  advantages  as  the  inter- 
nal spur  gear,  namely,  that  of  greater  strength 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  area  of  contact  be- 
tween the  worm  and  the  worm  wheel  is  in- 
creased. The  worm  wheel  is  made  up  of  two 
hollow  sections,  clamped  together,  but  so 
spaced  as  to  form  a  slot  in  the  rim  through 
which  the  worm  shaft  passes. 

187.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  rocking  motion.  The  power  shaft  car- 
ries two  cams  formed  with  corrugated  peri- 
pheries. On  opposite  sides  of  the  rock  shaft 
are  two  rollers,  one  for  each  cam.  The  cams 
are  so  spaced  that  when  one  roller  is  being 
lifted,  the  other  will  fall.  Thus,  a  rocking 
motion  is  imparted  to  the  rock  shaft.  The 
same  effect  may  be  produced  by  using  a  sin- 
gle broad  cam  'for  the  two  rollers,  but  spacing 
one  roller  a  little  in  advance  of  the  other  on 
the  rock  shaft. 

188.  Another  form  of  internal  worm  gear. 
A  worm  wheel  is  mounted  on  a  stationary 
bracket  and  engages  the  spiral  thread  formed 
in  a  ring.  As  the  ring  revolves  about  the 
gear,  the  latter  is  caused  to  slowly  rotate.  As 
in  Figure  186,  a  very  strong  construction  and 
powerful  transmission  is  afforded  by  this 
arrangement 

189.  A  sliding  toggle  movement  is  here 
shown  for  producing  great  pressure  in  a  direc- 
tion at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  impelling 
force.  The  toggle  members  are  so  mounted 
and  are  of  such  shape  that  they  combine  the 
action  of  the  inclined  plane  with  the  ordinary 
toggle  action. 


190.  Means  for  giving  parallel  movement  to 
the  paddles  of  steamboats,  etc.  The  power 
shaft  carries  a  disk  which  is  Connected  by  a 
series  of  hinged  links  with  a  ring  held  eccen- 
trically to  the  shaft,  between  pairs  of  rollers. 
The  paddles  are  attached  to  the  links  and  are 
thereby  kept  parallel,  while  the  disk  and  ring 
rotate.  This  same  arrangement  can  be  used 
to  communicate  motion  to  shafts  lying  out  of 
alignment  with  each  other,  one  of  the  shafts 
being  attached  to  the  ring. 

191.  Device  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  shaft  to  another  at  decreased  velocity. 
The  device  is  here  shown  diagrammatically. 
The  driving  shaft  carries  an  eccentric  A,  upon 
which  spur  gears  B  and  C  are  fitted  to  turn 
freely.  The  latter  are  permanently  secured 
together.     Wheel  B  meshes  with  internal  gear 

D,  on  the  driven  shaft,  and  wheel  C  meshes 
with  the  stationary  internal  gear  E.  In  oper- 
ation the  eccentric  carries  gear  C  about  gear 

E,  thereby  causing  it  to  rotate  on  its  own 
center.  The  gear  B  will  be  revolved  by 
the  eccentric  in  one  direction  and  be  rotated 
in  the  opposite  direction  by  the  gear  C  to 
which  it  is  attached,  thus  causing  the  gear  D 
to  move  at  a  reduced  speed, 

192  to  196.  Ball-bearing  Devices. — In 
192  is  shown  a  ball-bearing  knuckle  joint  con- 
sisting of  a  flanged  socket  member  having 
sockets  for  the  reception  of  steel  friction  balls, 
and  a  second  member  formed  with  flanges 
which  bear  against  the  friction  balls.  When 
the  device  is  in  operation,  the  balls  will  roll 
back  and  forth  in  their  sockets  at  each  rota- 
tion of  this  knuckle  joint.  In  193  a  common 
form  of  ball-bearing  is  shown.  The  balls  are 
held  in  stationary  cups  and  bear  against  cones 
on  the  rotating  shaft.  194  shows  an  end- 
thrust  ball  bearing  of  common  form.  195' 
shows  a  ball-bearing  wheel  or  caster.  The 
balls  are  arranged  to  travel  over  an  endless 
path,  being  guided  from  the  forward  end, of 
the. wheel  bearing,  through  a  passageway  in 
the  body  of  the  caster,  to  the  rear  of  the 
wheel  bearing  surface.  196  shows  the  same 
principle  applied  to  a  worm  and  worm  wheel. 
The  thread  of  the  worm  does  not  engage  the 
teeth  of  the  worm  wheel,  but  communicates 
motion  thereto  through  a  series  of  balls.  The 
latter,  when  they  reach  the  end  of  the  worm 
thread,  are  guided  back  through  a  passage- 
way in  the  worm  body  to  the  beginning  of  the 
thread. 

197.  Means  for  converting  reciprocating 
rectilinear  movement  into  reciprocating 
rotary  movement.  A  primitive  form  of  turn- 
ing lathe.  The  wooden  shaft  or  other  objet  t 
to  be  turned,  is  mounted  to  rotate  freely  be- 
tween pivot  pins.  A  rope  coiled  about  the 
shaft  has  its  free  ends  secured  to  a  spring 
bow.  In  operation,  the  handle  of  the  bow 
is  seized  in  one  hand,  and  the  other  hand 
holds  the  tool  against  the  work,  which  is 
rotated  first  in  one  direction,  and  then  in  the 
other,  by  moving  the  bow  back  and  forth. 

198.  This  is  another  form  of  primitive  lathe 
which,  however,  is  adapted  to  be  driven  by 
foot  power.  The  rope,  which  is  wound 
around  the  shaft  is  secured  at  its  upper  end 
to  a  spring,  usuelly  the  end  of  a  thin  board, 
and  at  its  lower  end  to  a  pedal.  When  the 
1  atter  is  depressed,  the  shaft  will  rotate  toward 
the  cutting  tool  and  on  its  release  the  spring 
will  cause  it  to  rotate  back,  ready  tor  the  next 
downward  stroke  of  the  pedal.     This  type  of. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


543 


lathe  is  still  commonly  used  in  some  Eastern 
countries. 

199.  An  ancient  form  of  drill,  but  one  which 
is  still  used  by  jewelers.  Coiled  about  the 
spindle  of  the  drill  are  two  cords  whose  lower 
ends  are  secured  to  a  cross  piece  mounted  to 
slide  up  and  down  on  the  spindle.  When  the 
cross  piece  is  pressed  downward,  it  causes  the 
cords  to  uncoil,  rotating  the  spindle.  When 
the  cross  piece  reaches  the  bottom  of  its  stroke 
the  pressure  on  it  is  relieved,  and  due  to  the 
momentum  of  a  heavy  flywheel  on  the  spin- 
dle, the  latter  continues  to  rotate,  recoiling  the 
cords  and  lifting  up  the  cross  piece.  On  the 
next  downward  stroke  of  the  cross  piece,  the 
spindle  will  rotate  in  the  opposite  direction. 

200.  Trip  hammer.  A  rotating  disk  is 
formed  with  a  series  of  pins  adapted  con- 
secutively to  depress  one  arm  of  a  bell  crank 
to  the  opposite  arm  of  which  a  hammer  weight 
is  connected  by  a  cord.  When  the  bell  crank 
clears  a  pin  on  the  disk,  the  weight  drops,  de- 
livering the  blow,  and  is  then  lifted  again  by 
the  next  pin  acting  on  the  bell  crank. 

201.  Means  for  converting  reciprocating 
motion  into  rotary  motion.  A  rope  attached 
at  one  end  to  a  foot  pedal  passes  over  an  inter- 
mediate pulley,  and  is  attached  at  the  other 
end  to  the  weighted  crank  arm  of  a  shaft. 
The  arrangement  is  such  that  on  the  down- 
ward or  power  stroke  of  the  pedal, the  weighted 
arm  will  be  lifted  to  the  vertical  position, 
when  it  will  be  assisted  by  gravity  and  its  own 
momentum  to  continue  its  rotation  and  lift 
the  pedal  for  the  next  downward  stroke. 

202  to  205.  Means  for  converting  rotary 
motion  into  rectilinear  motioii.  In  202,  se- 
cured to  a  rotating  shaft  is  a  cam  formed  with 
projecting  horns,  which  are  adapted  to  suc- 
cessively engage  a  lug  on  a  sliding  rod.  The 
rod  is  thereby  given  a  trip-hammer  move- 
ment, dropping  by  gravity  as  the  lug  clears 
the  horns.  In  203,  a  disk  mounted  eccen- 
trically on  a  rotating  shaft  is  engaged  on 
opposite  sides  by  a  pair  of  rollers,  pivoted  to 
a  rod.  As  the  shaft  rotates,  the  rod  will  be 
moved  up  and  down,  following  the  eccentric 
movement  of  the  disk.  This  movement  is 
used  on  windmills  to  transmit  motion  from  the 
rotating  windmill  shaft  to  the  pump  rod.  In 
204  a  shaft  is  provided  with  radial  arms  bearing 
rollers  at  their  outer  ends.  These  are  adapted 
to  operate  within  a  frame  mounted  to  slide, 
and  formed  with  two  lugs  diagonally  disposed 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  frame.  When  the 
shaft  is  rotated,  by  means  of  the  crank  arm 
shown,  the  frame  will  be  moved  first  to  one 
side  by  one  of  the  rollers  engaging  one  of  the 
lugs,  and  then  in  the  opposite  direction  by 
another  of  the  rollers  moving  into  engage- 
ment with  the  other  lug.  In  205,  a  sliding 
carriage  is  formed  with  a  lug  adapted  to  be 
eUgaged  successively  by  a  series  of  pins  on  a 
revolving  disk.  The  carriage  will  be  moved 
forward  by  one  of  the  pins  until  the  latter 
clears  the  lug,  when  the  carriage  will  be 
moved  back  again  by  another  pin  engaging 
an  arm  of  a  bell  crank  whose  other  arm  en- 
gages the  carriage. 

206.  Automatic  release  for  a  winding  drum. 
A  winding  drum  is  mounted  to  turn  freely  on 
a  shaft.  A  hook  is  pivoted  on  the  face  of  the 
drum,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  rotate  the 
drum  the  hook  is  brought  into  engagement 
with  a  taopet  on  the  shaft.  When,  however, 
the  weight  has  been  raised  to  a  predetermined 
position  by  the  winding  drum,  a  pin  strikes  the 


hook,  releasing  it  from  engagement  with  the 
tappet  and  permitting  the  weight  to  drop. 

207.  An  amusement  device  called  the  "Ply- 
ing Horse"  used  in  parks  and  fairs.  A  frair.e 
mounted  to  rotate  on  a  vertical  spindle,  is 
provided  with  a  simple  gear  wheel,  which 
meshes  with  a  driving  pinion.  By  alter- 
nately pulling  the  cords,  radiating  from  a 
crank  on  the  shaft  which  carries  the  pinion, 
the  persons  occupying  the  seats  or  horses  at 
the  corners  of  the  frame,  are  enabled  to  keep 
the  apparatus  in  motion. 

208.  This  figure  shows  a  single  pulley  driv- 
ing four  other  pulleys  by  means  of  a  cross- 
shaped  connecting  rod.  This  form  of  drive 
is  occasionally  used  for  rotating  wheels  or 
cylinders  which  lie  so  close  to  each  -other  that 
no  gearing  or  other  mechanism  for  transmit- 
ting motion  can  be  used. 

209.  This  figure  illustrates  the  rather  cu- 
rious fact  that  if  two  wheels  are  coupled  to- 
gether by  a  connecting  rod,  whose  crank  pins 
are  respectively  equally  distant  from  the 
centers  of  the  wheels,  then  while  one  wheel 
is  constantly  rotated  in  one  direction  the 
other  may  be  rotated  in  the  same  direction, 
or  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  desired. 

210.  A  stop  motion  used  in  brick  machines 
for  drawing  the  mold  back  and  forth,  and 
bringing  it  to  rest  at  each  stroke  to  permit  , 
of  depositing  the  clay  and  removing  the  brick. 
A  rotating  wheel  carries  a  crank  pin  which 
engages  a  slot  in  a  connecting  rod.  At  the 
end  of  its  forward  stroke,  and  at  the  end  of 
its  return  stroke  the  connecting  rod  will  re- 
main stationary,  v/hile  the  crank  pin  moves 
from  one  end  of  the  slot  to  the  other. 

211.  A  device  used  in  sewing  machines  for 
feeding  the  goods  under  the  needle.  The 
feed  bar  is  formed  with  teeth  at  one  end  and 
the  opposite  end  is  pivoted  between  the  arms 
of  a  forked  lever.  The  feed  bar  is  lifted  by 
a  peripheral  projection  on  a  cam,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  forked  lever  is  moved  forward 
by  a  projection  on  the  side  face  of  the  cam, 
which  bears  against  a  lug  carried  on  the  lever. 
A  spring  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  lever  nor- 
mally holds  the  lug  in  contact  with  the  face 
of  the  cam. 

212.  Elevator  safety  device.  Secured  to 
the  side  of  the  elevator  shaft  is  a  plate 
formed  with  one  or  more  studs.  To  the  wind- 
ing drum  of  the  elevator  a  number  of  hooks 
are  pivoted.  When  the  drum  rotates  the 
hooks  are  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  action, 
and  if  dangerous  speed  is  acquired,  they  swing 
out  far  enough  to  catch  hold  of  one  or  more 
of  the  studs,  bringing  the  drum  to  a  stop. 
The  shock  of  the  sudden  stoppage  is  usually 
taken  up  by  a  coil  spring  on  the  drum. 

213.  A  device  for  converting  oscillating 
motion  of  a  lever  into  intermittent  rotary 
motion.  A  crank  arm  which  is  provided  with 
two  pawls  hinged  to  its  upper  end,  is  oscil- 
lated within  the  rim  of  a  wheel.  The  pawls 
are  connected  by  a  cord  to  a  small  crank, 
which  may  be  turned  so  as  to  bring  one  pawl 
into  frictional  encagement  with  the  rim  of 
the  wheel,  and  thereby  cause  the  wheel  to 
rotate  intermittently.  When  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation,  the  crank 
is  turned,  raising  the  first  pawl  and  bringing 
the  other  one  into  engagement  with  the  wheel. 

214.  Means  for  converting  rectilinear  mo- 
tion into  rotary  motion.  This  is  used  en 
certain  forms  of  drill  stocks.  The  drill  stock 
is  cut  with  two  spiral  grooves,  one  of  which 


544 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Is  left-handed  and  the  other  right-handed.  A 
ring  on  the  drill  stock  is  provided  with  a  fol- 
lower which  follows  one  of  the  grooves  on  the 
forward  stroke,  and  the  other  groove  on  the 
return  stroke,  thus  causing  the  drill  to  turn 
always  in  the  same  direction. 

215.  An  automatic  bench  clamp,  used  by 
carpenters  for  holding  the  work  while  planing, 
etc.  Pivoted  to  the  work  bench  are  two  cam 
levers,  formed  with  curved  ends,  which  are 
moved  apart  by  the  work  as  it  is  pressed  in 
between  them,  thus  causing  the  clamping 
ends  of  the  lever.^  to  tightly  grip  the  work. 

216.  Gripping  tongs  for  lifting  stones  and 
the  like.  The  upper  arms  are  connected  to 
a  shackle  by  a  pair  of  links  so  that  when  a 
pull  is  exerted  on  the  shackle,  the  arms  are 
drawn  together,  pressing  the  points  into  the 
stone;  the  heavier  the  stone  lifted  the  more 
tightly  will  the  arms  be  drawn  together,  thus 
increasing  the  grip  on  the  stone. 

217.  A  series  of  cross  connected  levers  used 
for  multiplying  or  reducing  motion.  In  the 
illustration,  the  lowest  pair  of  levers  is  pivoted 
to  a  fixed  pin  A,  and  the  arrangement  is  such 
that  if  one  pair  of  the  crossed  levers  be  folded 
together,  the  entire  series  will  fold,  giving  the 
rod  attached  to  the  upper  pair  of  levers  a 
greatly  multiplied  longitudinal  movement,  and 
conversely  if  the  rod  be  moved,  a  greatly 
reduced  motion  will  be  given  to  the  lower 
pair  of  links.  The  extent  to  which  the  mo- 
tion is  multiplied  or  reduced  is  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  number  of  pairs  of  levers  in 
the  series.  This  device  is  called  a  "lazy 
tongs. ' '  The  figure  also  shows  a  means  for 
multiplying  motion  imparted  from  one  recti- 
linear reciprocating  rod  to  another.  If  the 
fixed  pivot  of  the  lazy  tongs  be  at  B,  on  giving 
reciprocating  motion. tp  the  lower  rod,  the 
reciprocating  motion  will  be  imparted  to  the 
upper  rod,  but  the  travel  of  the  upper  rod  will 
be  twice  that  of  the  lower  rod. 

DRAFTING   DEVICES. 

218.  A  pantograph,  or  an  instrument  for 
reproducing  a  drawing  on  a  larger  or  smaller 
scale.  It  comprises  two  levers  hinged  to- 
gether and  connected  by  a  pair  of  hinged 
lints.  One  of  the  levers  carries  a  slide.  A, 
in  which  a  pencil  is  secured.  The  other  lever 
carries  a  pivot  pin,  and  the  tracing  point  is 
located  at  C.  In  use  the  device  is  made  to 
turn  on  the  fixed  point  at  B,  then  on  moving 
the  tracing  point  C  over  a  drawing,  the  same 
will  be  reproduced  by  the  pencil  at  ^4.  By 
varying  the  positions  of  the  pencil  and  the 
pivot  pin  on  their  respective  levers,  the  re- 
production may  be  made  larger  or  smaller 
than  the  original  as  desired. 

219.  This  figure  shows  the  "parallel  ruler," 
a  device  used  for  drawing  parallel  lines.  Two 
parallel  rulers  are  connected  by  a  pair  of  par- 
allel li  nks  of  equal  length-  The  rulers  will  then 
always  lie  parallel  to  each  other,  whether 
swung  apart  or  moved  together. 

220.  A  device  for  drawing  a  conchoid  curve. 
A  conchoid  curve  may  be  described  as  a  curve 
of  such  form  that  when  measured  along  lines 
drawn  from  a  fixed  point  called  the  pole,  it 
will,  at  all  points,  be  equidistant  from  a 
straight  line,  called  the  asymptote.  The  de- 
vice shown  comprises  a  T-square  with  grooved 
head-piece  adapted  to  receive  a  slide  pivoted 
to  a  bar.  A  slot  in  the  lower  end  of  this  bar 
engages  a  pin  on  the  blade  of  the  T-square 
and  the  opposite  end  of  the  bar  carries  the 


scribing  pencil.  The  pin  represents  the  pole 
and  the  grooved  head  of  the  T-square  repre- 
sents the  asymptote.  The  curve  traced  by 
the  pencil  when  measured  along  the  bar  lies 
everywhere  equidistant  from  the  asymptote. 

221.  An  ellipsograph  or  a  device  for  draw- 
ing ellipses.  This  is  pimilar  to*  the  panto- 
graph shown  in  Figure  218.  The  fixed  pivot, 
however,  is  at  B,  the  tracing  point  at  A,  and 
the  pencil  at  C.  When  A  is  moved  in  a 
straight  line  toward  or  away  from  B,  the 
pencil  C  will  trace  an  elliptical  curve. 

222.  A  device  for  drawing  a  helical  curve. 
A  rod  provided  with  a  pivot  point  is  threaded 
to  receive  a  nut  with  a  milled  flange.  As  the 
rod  is  moved  about  ts  center,  the  nut  is  ro- 
tated by  a  frictional  contact  of  the  flange 
with  the  drawing  paper,  and  is  thus  slowly 
fed  toward  or  away  from  the  center.  A  pen- 
cil carried  by  a  sleeve  on  this  nut  will  then 
trace  a  helical  curve. 

223.  A  device  for  describing  parabolas.  A 
pin  is  placed  at  the  focus  of  the  desired  parab- 
ola and  a  straight-edge  is  placed  on  the  line 
of  the  directrix.  A  slack  cord  is  secured  at 
one  end  to  the  pin,  and  at  the  other  to  the 
blade  of  a  square  whose  stock  bears  against 
the  straight  edge.  The  slack  of  the  cord  is 
taken  up  by  the  pencil,  which  bears  against 
the  blade  of  the  square.  Sufficient  slack  is 
provided  to  make  the  distance  of  the  pencil 
from  the  focus  equal  to  its  distance  from  the 
straight-edge  or  directrix.  The  curve  then 
described  by  the  pencil  while  keeping  the  cord 
taut  against  the  square,  as  the  square  is  moved 
along  the  straight-edge,  will  be  a  parabola. 

224.  A  device  for  describing  hyperbolas. 
The  two  pins  shown  represent  the  foci  of  two 
opposite  hyperbolas.  A  ruler  turns  on  one  of 
these  pins  as  a  center,  and  its  opposite  end  is 
connected  with  the  other  pin  by  a  slack  cord. 
The  slack  of  the  cord  is  taken  up  by  the 
pencil  which  bears  against  the  ruler.  The 
curve  described  will  then  fulfil  the  conditions 
of  a  hyperbolic  curve,  which  requires  that  the 
distance  from  any  point  in  the  curve  to  its 
focus,  minus  the  distance  from  that  point  to 
any  other  fixed  point  or  focus,  should  always 
be  a  constant  quantity. 

GOVERNORS. 

A  governor  of  a  steam  engme  is  a  device 
for  automatically  operating  the  throttle,  or 
for  shortening  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve 
when  the  engine  attains  a  dangerous  speed. 

225.  Watt's  Governor. — When  a  danger- 
ous speed  is  acquired,  the  centrifugal  force 
acting  upon  a  pair  of  balls  tends  to  lift  a 
sleeve  which,  through  a  bell  crank,  operates 
the  throttle. 

226.  Porter's  Governor. — The  operation 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  Watt,  but  the  balls 
are  required  to  lift  a  weight  which  may  be 
adjusted  as  desired. 

227.  KliEy's  Cross  Arm  Governor. — The 
degree  of  sensitiveness  is  governed  by  the 
length  of  the  cross  arms,  and  a]?o  by  an  ad- 
justable weight,  which  is  lifted  by  the  balls. 

228.  Buss'  Governor. — Two  pairs  of  balls 
are  used,  one  pair  acting  to  counterbalance 
the  other. 

229.  Tangye's  Governor.— The  balls 
v/hen  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  action  de- 
press a  rod  in  the  hollow  central  shaft  and 
this  rod  acts  directly  on  the  block  in  the  link 
thus  shortening  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


545 


230  and  231.  Proell's  Governor. — In  230 
the  balls,  aside  from  lifting  a  weight,  act  to 
compress  a  spiral  spring.  In  231  the  outward 
movement  of  the  balls  is  controlled  by  an  air 
dashpot. 

232.  Cosine  Governor. — A  cross  arm  gov- 
ernor which  acts  to  raise  a  weight. 

233.  Parabolic  Governor. — The  balls 
move  on  parabolic  guide  arms,  which  modify 
the  effect  of  the  centrifugal  force,  and  produce 
equal  valve  movement,  which  is  exactly  pro- 
portional to  the  speed  of  the  engine. 

234.  Oscillating  Lever  Governor. — 
The  balls  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  a  laver, 
which  assumes  a  more  horizontal  position  as 
the  speed  of  the  engine  increases.  A  spring 
normally  holds  the  arm  in  the  tilted  position 
illustrated. 

235.  Sweet  's  Flywheel  Governor. — The 
centrifugal  action  of  the  ball  moves  the  eccen- 
tric toward  the  center,  thus  reducing  the 
stroke  of  the  slide  valve.  A  leaf  spring  re- 
sists the  centrifugal  action  of  the  ball. 

236.  Hartnell's  Expansion  Governor.: — 
The  balls  are  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  force 
against  the  action  of  a  spring  raising  the  block 
in  the  link  and  thus  varying  the  stroke  of  the 
valve. 

237.  Hartnell's  Crank  Shaft  Governor. 
— The  weights  operate  against  the  spring  to 
move  a  toothed  sector,  which  moves  the  eccen- 
tric toward  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft,  thus 
varying  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve. 

238.  Turner's  Crank  Shaft  Governor.— 
The  weights  have  bearings  in  the  side  plates 
of  the  governor.  They  also  carry  pins  by 
which  they  are  connected  to  the  eccentric. 
When  the  weights  are  thrown  out  by  cen- 
trifugal action,  they  move  the  eccentric 
toward  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft. 

239  and  240.  Vane  Governors. — The  shaft 
is  prevented  from  rotating  too  rapidly  by  the 
atmospheric  resistance  acting  on  a  pair  of 
vanes.  This  resistance  may  be  varied  by  ad- 
justing the  vanes  to  different  angles.  In 
some  types  of  vane  governors' the  inclined 
vanes  serve  to  lift  a  sleeve,  cutting  off  the 
supply  of  power. 


SPRINGS. 
241  and  242.  Laminated  or  Carriage 
Springs,  used  on  carriages  to  take  up  the 
jolts  of  the  wheels  in  passing  over  uneven 
roads.  241  shows  the  elliptical  form,  and 
242  the  semi-elliptical  form.  They  are  built 
up  of  flat  spring  metal  strips. 

243.  Watch  or  Clock  Spring,  used  to 
drive  a  watch  or  clock  train.  The  spring  is 
formed  of  a  flat  spring  metal  strip,  wounti 
Into  a-  flat  coil. 

244.  Ribbon  Spring. — A  strip  of  flat  spring 
metal  mounted  to  exert  a  torsional  pressure. 

245.  Spiral  Spring. — A  length  of  round 
spring  wire  wound  into  spiral  form.  This 
spring  could  be  used  either  as  a  tension  or  as  a 
compression  spring,  though  usually  it  has  the 
form  shown  in  Figure  247  when  used  as  a 
tension  spring.  A  spiral  spring  should  never 
be  extended  or  compressed  more  than  one- 
third  of  its  length. 

246.  Sear  Spring. — This  spring  gets  its 
name  from  its  use  in  gun'  locks  for  causing  the 
sear  to  catch  in  the  notch  of  the  tumbler. 
However,  the  springy  is  here  shown  as  holding 
apart  the  arms  of  a'  compass. 

247.  Tension  Spiral  Spring. — A  spiral 
spring  which  tapers  toward  the  ends  so  that 
the  pull  will'  come  centrally  on  the  spring, 
thus  giving  an  even  tension  and  avoiding  side 
strains. 

248.  Flat  or  Leaf  Spring. — A  strip  of  flat 
spring  m^tal  used  chiefly  as  a  compression 
spring.  A  spring  of  this  type  is  apt  to  lose  its 
resiliency  after  continued  use. 

249.  Disk  Spring. — A  compression  spring 
made  up  of  a  series  of  dished  disks  or  plates. 

250.  Helical  Spring. — This  spring  differs 
from  the  spiral  spring.  Figure  245,  in  that  it 
is  formed  by  being  wrapped  around  a  cone, 
whereas  a  spiral  spring  is  formed  by  being 
wrapped  around  a  cylinder.  The  helical 
spring  may  safely  be  compressed  until  it  lies 
flat  like  a  clock  spring-. 

251.  Volute  Spring.— A  compression  spring 
formed  by  coiling  a  flat  spring  ribbon  into  a 
helix. 

252.  Furniture  Spring. — A  compression 
spring  comprising  a  double  helical  spring  used 
in  furniture  to  support  the  cushioned  backs 
or  seats' of  chairs.  This  spring  is  also  used  in 
bed  springs. 


TRANSMISSION     OF    POWER     BY     BELTING. 


The  Tenacity  of  Good  New  Belt  Leath- 
er varies  from  3,000  lb.  to  5,000  lb.  per  square 
inch  of  sectional  area. 

The  Coefficient  of  Friction  between 
ordinary  belting  and  cast-iron  pulleys  is  about 
.423. 

The  Thickness  of  Belts  varies  from 
three-sixteenths  to  five- sixteenths  of  an  inch, 
or  an  average  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch. 

Tenacity  of  Riveting  and  Lacing. — The 
ultimate  tenacity  of  good  single  leather  belt- 
ing rnay  be  taken  at  about  1,000  lb.  per  inch 
in  width;  the  corresponding  strength  of  a 
riveted  joint  being  about  400  lb.,  a  butt  laced 
ioint  about  250  lb.,  and  an  ordinary  overlap 
laced  joint  470  lb.  It  is  not  customary,  how- 
ever, to  allow  an  effective  strain  of  more  than 
one-fourth  these  amounts. 

Working  Stress  of  Belts. — The  follow- 
ing are  the  effective  working  stresses  allowed 


for   the   different    kinds   and    thicknesses   of 
belts  referred  to  in  the  table  of  powers. 
Ordinary  single  belts,    50  lb. 
Light  double  belts,        70  lb. 
Heavy  double  belts,      90  lb. 
Link  belts,  f  in.  thick,  42  lb. 
"     iin.       "     48  1b. 
"     tin.       "     57  1b. 
"     fin.       "     66  1b. 
"     I  in.       "     78  1b. 
"     1  in.       *'     90  1b. 
Speed  of  Belting. — On  ordinary  shop  line 
shafts  the  velocity  of  the  belts  varies  from 
1,000  ft.  to  1,500  ft.  per  minute.     Lathe  belts 
vary  frqm  1,500  ft.  to  3,000  ft.  per  minute. 

Stress  on  Shafting. — The  cross  stress  on 
shafting  arising  from  the  sum  of  the  tension 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  belt  may  be  taken  at 
90  lb.  per  inch  in  width. — Practical  Electrical 
Engineers'  Pocket  Book  and  Diary. 


546 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


HEIGHT    OF    COLUMNS,    SPIRES    AND 
TOWERS 

Name  Location  Feet 

Eiffel     Tower Paris,  France,  984 

Washington    Monu- 
ment       Washington,    D.    C,  555 

Cathedral Ulm,    Germany,  529 

Cologne    Cathedral....  Cologne,     Germany,  512 
Pyramid    of    Cheops...  Egypt,  482 
St.    Stephen's    Cathe- 
dral       Vienna,  A ustra,  470 

Strassburg  Cathedral..  Strassburg,    Germany,    468 

St.     Peter's Rome,     na^.  448 

Cathedral    Salisbury.  E.igland,  4.6 

Cathedral    Antwerp,     Lie»giuni,  4J2 

Torrazzo    Tower Cremona,    Italy,  396 

Cathedral    Florence,     Italy,  3s7 

St.   Paul's  Cathedral.. London,     England,  364 

Cathedral    Milan,    Italy,  355 

Hotel    des    Invalides.. Paris,     France,  344 
St.    Patrick's  Cathe- 
dral      New  York,    U.   S.    A..  332 

St.   Mark's  (Cam- 
panile)      Venice,    Italy,  323 

Trinity     Church New  York,   U.   S.   A.,  284 

Westminster    Abbey...  London,    England,  283 

Notre    Dame Paris,     France,  223 

Bunker    Hill    Monu- 
ment      .Boston,    Mass,  221 

Leaning    Tower    of 

Pisa    Pisa,    Italy,  179 


TABLE    OF   HIGH    BUILDINGS   WHICH 

EXCEED  300'  ABOVE  SIDEWALK      ' 

LEVEL.  Height 

Building.  In  Feet 

Woolworth     Building 750 

Metropolitan    Tower 700 

Singer  Tower 612 

Municipal     Building 560 

Bankers'    Trust    Building 539 

Whitehall     Building 446 

Heidelberg     Building 410 

Liberty     Tower 385 

Park    Row    Building 382 

Broadway-Cortlandt   Building 360 

Manhattan    Life    Building 348 

Wall    Street    Exchange    Building 345 

221   West   41st    St.    &    218-26    W.    42d    St.*....  341 

Walker-Lispenard     Building* 338 

110-112    West    40th    Street* 335 

Times     Building 331 

43-49    Exchange    Place 327 

37    Wall     Street 318 

80    Maiden    Lane* 315 

World     Building 309 

St.     Paul     Building 308 

Rector  St.,    Trinity  PI.    &  Greenwich  St 308 

Hotel     McAlpin* 307 

West  St.,    Cedar  to  Albany  Sts 306 

60    Broadway 306 

43rd-44th  Sts.,   Madison  &  Vanderbilt  Aves.*  305 

*  Buildings  are   in   course   of  construction. 

Revised  by  Bureau  of  Buildings,  BorougU 
of    Manhattan.    N.    Y.    C. 


NAMES 

OF  THE  MONTHS  IN 

FIVE   LANGUAGES. 

English. 

Spanish. 

Portuguese. 

French. 

Uernian. 

January. 

enero. 

Janeiro. 

Janvier. 

Januar. 

February. 

febrero. 

feverelro. 

I6vrler. 

Februar. 

March. 

marzo. 

marco. 
abrll. 

mars. 

Marz. 

Z': 

abrll. 

avrll. 

April. 

raayo. 

male. 

mal. 

Mal. 

June. 

junho. 

iuln. 

Junl. 

July. 

julho. 

julllet. 

Jull. 

August. 

agosto. 

agosto. 

aoat. 

August. 

September. 

septlembre. 

setembro. 

septembre. 

September. 

October. 

octubre. 

outubro. 

octobre. 

Oktober. 

Novertiber. 

novtembte. 

novembro. 

novembre. 

November. 

December. 

diciembre. 

dezembro. 

d^cembre. 

Dezember. 

NUMBER  OF  WORDS  IN  A  LINE  AND  PAGE  AND  THE  NUMBER  OF  EMS  IN  A  PAGE 


Sizes  of  type  and  measures. 

Number 
of  words 
in  a  line. 

Number  of  words 
in  a  page. 

Number  of  lines 
in  a  page. 

Number 
of  ems  in 

Solid. 

Leaded. 

Solid. 

Leaded. 

a  page. 

lOjpoint: 

General  order 

10 

12 
IG 

18 

\l 

20 
25 

13 
17 
24 
27 

10 

3'8G 

,??! 

1,380 

588 
1,050 
1.C9G 
2,112 

8G4 
1,551 
2,491 
3,102 

294 

528 

848 

I,05G 

423 

759 

1,219 

1,518 

C2o 
1,122 
1,802 
2,244 

257 

58 
54 
03 

08 

48 
G7 
79 
84 

f,3 
90 
106 
112 

32 
45 

53 

57 

38 
54 

C4 
G8 

48 
67 
80 
S4 

25 

1,050 

1,S5G 

Quarto 

2,992 

Census 

3,621 
1,643 

8-point: 

General  order 

Document 

2,920 

Quarto. 

4,C75 
5,696 

2,911 

6-point: 

5,141 
8,249 
10,115 

Quarto. . 

14-point: 

B  111 : . . . . 

■ 

The  above  table  is  based  on  the  Government  "Printing  Style  Book. 


CHAPTER  V. 


GEOMETRICAL    CONSTRUCTIONS, 


GEOMETRICAL  FIGURES. 


1.  Acute  Angle. — An  acute  angle  is  less 
than  a  right  angle,  or  less  than  90  degrees. 

2.  Alternate  Angles. — The  internal  an- 
gles made  by  two  lines  with  a  third,  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  it.  If  the  two  lines  are  parallel, 
the  alternate  anglds  are  equal.  If  the  par- 
allels AB,  CD,  be  cut  by  the  line  EF,  the 
angles  AGH,  GHD,  as  also  the  angles  BGH 
and  GHC,  are  called  alternate  angles. 

3.  Arc. — Any  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  or  other  curve;  a  segment  of  a  circle. 

4.  5, 6,  and  7.  Conic  Sections.— Formed  by 
the  intersections  of  cones  and  planes.  The 
conic  sections  are  the  ellipse,  parabola,  knd 
hyperbola.  If  the  section  be  taken  parallel  to 
the  base  of  the  cone  its  outline  will  form  a 
perfect  circle.  If  the  section  be  taken  parallel 
to  one  side  of  the  cone  it  will  in  outline  have 
the  form  of  a  parabola  (6).  If  the  section  be 
taken  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  its  outline 
will  have  the  form  of  a  hyperbola  (7).  Any 
other  seclion  through  the  cone  will  in  outline 
have  the  form  of  an  ellipse  (5). 

8.  Chord. — A  right  line  marking  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  arc  of  a  circle. 

9.  Circle. — 1.  In  geometry,  a  plane  figure, 
comprehended  by  a  single  curve  line,  called  its 
circumference,  every  part  of  which  is  equally 
distant  from  a  point  called  the  center.  Of 
course  all  lines  drawn  from  the  center  to  the 
circumference,  or  periphery^  are  equal  to  each 
other.  2.  In  popular  use,  the  line  that  com- 
prehends the  figure,  the  plane  or  surface  com- 
prehended, and  the  whole  body  or  solid  matter 
of  a  round  substance,  are  denominated  a  cir- 
cle; a  ring:  an  orb;   the  earth. 

10.  Curve. — A  curve  line  is  one  which  may 
be  cut  by  a  right  line  in  more  points  than  one. 
A  curve  line  is  that  which  is  neither  a  straight 
line  nor  composed  of  straight  lines. 

11.  Cube. — A  regular,  solid  body  with  six 
equal  square  sides. 

12.  Cylinder. — A  solid  body  supposed  to 
be  generated  by  the  rotation  of  a  parallelo- 
gram round  one  of  its  sides ;  or  a  long,  circular 
body,  of  uniform  diameter,  and  its  extremi- 
ties forming  equal  parallel  circles. 

13.  Diagonal. — The  line  extending  from 
one  angle  to  another  of  a  quadrilateral  or 
multilateral  figure,  and  dividing  it  into  two 
parts. 

14.  Diagram. — A  figure,  draught,  or 
scheme  delineated  for  the  purpose  of  demon- 
strating the  properties  of  any  figure,  as  a 
square,  triangle,  circle,  etc. 

1 5.  Diameter.— A  right  line  passing  through 
the  center  of  a  circle,  or  other  curvilinear  fig- 


ure, terminated  by  the  curve,  and  dividing 
the  figure  symmetrically  into  two  equal  parts. 

16.  Ellipse. — In  conic  sections,  a  figure 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  plane  and  cone 
when  the  plane  passes  obliquely  through  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  cone. 

17.  Equilateral  Triangle. — A  triangle 
having  all  three  sides  equal. 

18.  Hexagon. — A  plane  figure  of  six  sides 
and  six  angles.  If  the  sides  and  angles  are 
equal,  it  is  a  regular  hexagon.  The  cells  of 
honey-comb  are  hexagons,  and  it  is  remark- 
able that  bees  instinctively  form  their  cells  of 
this  figure,  which  fills  any  given  space  without 
any  interstice  or  loss  of  room. 

19.  Hypothenuse. — The  subtense  or  longest 
side  of  a  right-angled  triangle>  or  the  line  that 
subtends  the  right  angle. 

20.  Rectangular  Triangle. — If  one  of 
the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  a  right  angle,  the 
triangle  is  rectangular. 

21.  Right  Angle. — A  right  angle  is  one 
formed  by  a  right  line  falling  on  another  per- 
pendicularly, or  an  angle  of  90  degrees,  mak- 
ing the  quarter  of  a  circle. 

22.  Isosceles  Triangle. — If  two  of  the 
sides  only  are  equal  in  a  triangle  it  is  an  isos- 
celes or  equicrural  triangle. 

23.  Oblique  Line. — An  oblique  line  is  one 
that,  falling  on  another,  makes  oblique  angles 
with  it. 

24.  Obtuse  Angle. — An  angle  greater  than 
a  right  angle,  or  containing  more  than  90 
degrees. 

25.  Scalene  Triangle. — One  in  which  all 
the  three  sides  are  unequal. 

26.  Secant. — The  secant  of  a  circle  is  a  line 
drawn  from  the  circumference  on  one  side  to  a 
point  without  the  circumference  on  the  other. 

27.  Oval. — ^A  body  or  figure  in  the  shape  of 
an  egg,  or  of  an  ellipse. 

28.  Parallelogram. — 1.  In  geometry,  a 
right;lined  quadrilateral  figure,  whose  oppo- 
site sides  are  parallel,  and  consequently  equal. 
2.  In  common  use,  this  word  is  applied  to 
quadrilateral  figures  of  more  length  than 
breadth. 

29.  Sector. — A  part  of  a  circle  compre- 
hended between  two  radii  and  the  included 
arc ;  or  a  mixed  triangle,  formed  by  two  radii 
and  the  arc  of  a  circle. 

30.  ■  Parallelopiped. — A  regular  solid  com- 
prehended under  six  parallelograms,  the  op- 
posite ones  of  which  are  similar,  parallel,  and 
equal  to  each  other;  or  it  is  a  prism  whose 
base  is  a  parallelogram.  It  is  always  triple  to 
a  pyramid  of  the  same  base  and  height.    Or  a 


547 


548 
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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


parallelopiped  is  a  solid  figure  bounded  by  six 
faces,  parallel  to  each  other,  two  and  two. 

31.  Parallel  Lines. — One  line  is  parallel 
to  another,  when  the  lines  are  at  an  equal  dis- 
tance apart  throughout  the  whole  length. 

32.  Segment  of  a  Circle. — That  part  of 
the  circle  contained  between  a  chord  and  an 
arc  of  that  circle,  or  so  much  of  the  circle  as 
is  cut  off  by  the  chord.  The  segment  of  a 
sphere  is  a  part  cut  off  by  a  plane, 

33.  Pentagon. — A  plane  figure  having  five 
angles,  and  consequently  five  sides. 

34.  Perpendicular. — In  geometry,  a  line 
falling  at  right  angles  on  another  line,  or  mak- 
ing equal  angles  with  it  on  each  side.  Thus 
if  the  straight  line  AD,  falling  on  the  straight 
line  BC,  make  the  angles  BAD,  DAC  equal  to 
one  another,  AD  is  called  a  perpendicular  to 
BC , 

35.  Quadrangle. — A  plane  figure  having 
four  angles,  and  consequently  four  sides. 

36.  Rectangle. — A  four-sided  figure  hav- 
ing only  right  angles.  A  right-angled  paral- 
lelogram. 

37.  Quadrant. — The  quarter  of  a  circle  or 
of  the  circumference  of  a  circle. 

38.  Quadrilateral.^ — Having  four  sides, 
and  consequently  four  angles. 

39.  Tangent. — In  the  figure,  let  AH  he  & 
straight  line  drawn  touching  the  circle  ADE 
at  A,  one  extremity  of  the  arc  AB,  and  meet- 
ing the  diameter  IB  produced,  which  passes 
through  the  other  extremity  B  to  the  point  H ; 
then  AH  IS  the  tangent  of  the  arc  AB,  or  of 
the  angle  ACB,  of  which  AB  is  the  measure. 

40.  Radius. — A  right  line  drawn  or  extend- 
ing from  the  center  ofa  circle  to  the  periphery ; 
the  semidiameter  of  the  circle.  In  trigonom- 
etry, the  radius  is  equal  to  the  sine  of  90  de- 
grees. 

41.  Trapezium. — A  plane  figure  contained 
under  four  right  lines,  of  which  no  two  are 
parallel. 

42.  Trapezoid. — A  plane,  four^sided  figure, 
having  two  of  the  opposite  sides  parallel  to 
each  other. 

43.  Reflection. —  In  the  figure,  let  AB 
represent  a  smooth  polished  surface,  or  mirror, 
and  suppose  a  ray  of  light  proceeding  in  the 
direction  LP  to  impinge  on  the  surface  at  P, 
and  to  be  reflected  from  it  in  the  direction  PR. 


From  P  draw  PQ  perpendicular  to  AB,  then 
the  angle  LPQ  is  called  the  angle  of  incidence, 
and  QPR  the  angle  of  reflection. 

44.  Superficies.  A  superficies  consists  of 
length  and  breadth;  as,  the  superficies  of  a 
plate  or  of  a  sphere.  Superficies  is  recti- 
linear, curvilinear,  plane,  convex,  or  concave. 

45.  Rhomboid. — A  figure  having  some  re- 
semblance to  a  rhomb;  or  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  opposite  sides  and  angles  are 
equal,  but  which  is  neither  equilateral  nor 
equiangular. 

4fi.  Semicircle. — The  half  of  a  circle;  the 
part  of  a  circle  comprehended  between  its 
diameter  and  half  of  its  circumference. 

47.  Square. — A  rectilinear  figure  having 
four  equal  sides  and  four  right  angles. 

48.  Rectilinear  Triangle. — One  in  which 
the  three  lines  or  sides  are  all  right  lines,  as 
distinguished  from  curvilinear  triangle. 

49.  Rhomb.  Rhombus. — An  oblique-angled, 
equilateral  parallelogram,  or  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  sides  are  equal  and  the  opposite 
sides  parallel,  but  the  angles  unequal,  two  of 
the  angles  being  obtuse  and  two  acute. 

50.  Sine.— In  the  circle  ACH,  let  AOH  be 
a  diameter,  and  let  CE  be  perpendicular  there- 
to; then  shall  CE  be  the  sine  of  the  arc  CH, 
or  of  the  angle  COH,  and  of  its  supplement 
CO  A.  The  sine  of  a  quadrant,  or  of  a  right 
angle,  is  equal  to  the  radius.  The  sine  of  any 
arc  is  half  the  chord  of  twice  that  arc. 

51.  Acute-angled  Triangle. — One  hav- 
i  ng  all  three  of  its  angles  acute. 

52.  An  Equilateral  Triangle. — Onehav- 
i  ng  all  the  three  sides  equal. 

53.  Polygon. — A  plane  figure  of  many  an- 
gles, and  consequently  of  many  sides;  par- 
ticularly, one  whose  perimeter  consists  of 
more  than  four  sides. 

54.  Obtusangular  Trian^gle. — If  one  of 
the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  obtuse,  the  triangle 
is  called  obtusangular  or  amblygonous. 

55.  Curvilinear  and  Spherical  Trian- 
gles.—  If  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle  are  all 
curves,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  curvilinear. 
If  the  sides  are  all  arcs  of  great  circles  of  the 
sphere,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  spherical. 

56.  MixTiLiNEAR  Triangle. — If  .some  of 
the  sides  of  a  triangle  are  right  and  others 
curve,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  mixtilinear. 


GEOMETRICAL  CONSTRUCTIONS.* 


1. 

To  divide  a  given  line  A  B  into  two  equal 
parts;  and  to  erect  a  perpendicular  through 
the  middle. 

With  the  end  A  and  B  as  centers,  draw  the 
dotted  circle  arcs  with  a  radius  greater  than 
half  the  line.  Through  the  crossings  of  the 
arcs  draw  the  perpendicular  C  Z), which  divides 
the  line  into  two  equal  parts. 

2. 

From  a  given  point  C  on  the  line  A  B,  erect 
a  perpendicular  C  D. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  circle 
arcs  at  A  and  B  equal  distances  from  C.  With 
A  and  B  as  centers,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs 
at  D.  From  the  crossing  D  draw  the  required 
perpendicular  D  C. 

*  Copyright,  1895,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 
ment  with  Messrs.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 


From  a  given  point  C  at  a  distance  from  the 
line  A  B,  draw  a  perpendicular  to  the  line. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arc 
so  that  it  cuts  the  line  at  A  and  B.  With  A 
and  B  as  centers,  draw  the  dotted  cross  arcs  at 
D  with  equal  radii.  Draw  the  required  per- 
pendicular through  C  and  crossing  D. 


At  the  end  of  .A  to  a  given  line  A  B,  erect  a 
perpendicular  A  C. 

With  the  point  Z)  as  a  center  at  a  distance 
from  the  line,  and  with  A  D  as  radius,  draw 
the  dotted  circle  arc  so  that  it  cuts  the  line  at 
E  through  E  and  D,  draw  the  diameter  E  C; 
then  join  C  and  A,  which  will  be  the  required 
perpendicular. 

Published  by  special  permission  of,  and  arrange- 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


551 


5. 

Through  a  given  point  C  at  a  distance  from 
the  line  A  B,  draw  a  line  C  D  parallel  to  A  B. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  E  D, 
with  E  as  a  center,  draw  through  C  the  dotted 
arc  F.  C.  With  the  radius  F  C  and  E  as  a 
center,  draw  the  cross  arc  at  D.  Join  C  with 
the  cross  at  D,  which  will  be  the  required 
parallel  line. 

6. 

On  a  given  line  A  B  and  at  the  point  B,  con- 
struct an  angle  equal  to  the  angle  CDS. 

With  D  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  C 
E;  and  with  the  same  radius  and  B  as  a  ce  ter, 
draw  the  arc  G  F;  then  make  G  F  equal  to  C 
E;  then  join  B  F,  which  will  form  the  required 
angle,  F  B  G  =  C  D  E. 


Divide  the  angle  AC  B  into  two  equal  parts. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  D 
E;  with  D  and  E  as  centers,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  at  F  with  equal  radii.  Join  C  F,  which 
divides  the  angle  into  the  required  parts. 

Angles     AC  F  =  F  C  B  =  h{AC  B). 

8- 

Divide  an  angle  into  two  equal  parts,  when 
the  lines  do  not  extend  to  a  meeting  point. 

Draw  the  lines  C  D  and  C  E  parallel,  and  at 
equal  distances  from  the  lines  A  B  and  F  G. 
With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  B  G; 
and  with  B  and  G  as  centers,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  H.  Join  C  H,  which  divides  the  angle 
into  the  required  equal  parts. 


To  construct  a  parallelogram,  with  the 
given  sides  A  and  B  and  angle  C. 

Draw  the  base  line  D  E,  and  make  the  angle 
F  D  E  =  C;  lines  D  E  =  B  and  D  F^A;  com- 
plete the  parallelogram  by  cross  arcs  at  G,  and 
the  problem  is  thus  solved. 

10. 

To  divide  the  line  A  B  in  the  same  propor- 
tion of  parts  as  A  C. 

Join  C  and  B,  and  through  the  given  divi- 
sions 1,  2,  and  3  draw  lines  parallel  with  C  B, 
which  solves  the  .problem. 

11. 

To  find  the  center  of  a  circle  which  will  pass 
through  three  given  points  A ,  B,  and  C. 

With  B  as  a  center,  draw  the  arc  D  E  F  G; 
and  with  the  same  radius  and  A  -as  a  center, 
draw  the  cross  arcs  D  and  F;  also  with  C  as  a 
center,  draw  the  cross  arcs  E  and  G.  Join  D 
and  F,  and  also  E  and  G,  and  the  crossing  o  is 
the  required  center  of  the  circle. 

12. 

To  construct  a  square  upon  a  given  line 
A  B. 

With  A  B  as  radius  and  A  and  B  as  centers, 
draw  the  circle  arcsA  E  D  and  B  E  C.  Divide 
the  arc  B  E  in  two  equal  parts  at  F,  and  with 
E  F  as  radius,  and  E  as  center,  draw,  the  circle 
C  F  D.  Join  A  and  C  B  and  D,  C  and  D, 
which  completes  the  required  square. 

13. 

Through  a  given  point  ^4  in  a  circumference, 
draw  a  tangent  to  the  circle. 


Through  a  given  point  A  and  center  C, 
draw  the  line  B  C.  With  A  as  a  center,  draw 
the  circle  arcs  B  and  C;  with  B  and  C  as  cen- 
ters, draw  the  cross  arcs  D  and  E;  then  join  D 
and  E,  which  is  the  required  tangent. 

14. 

From  a  given  point  A  outside  of  a  circum- 
ference, draw  a  tangent  to  the  circle. 

Join  A  and  C,  and  upon  ^4.  C  as  a  diameter 
draw  the  half  circle  ABC,  which  cutsthe  given 
circle  at  B.  Join  A  and  B,  which  is  the  re- 
quired tangent. 

15. 

To  draw  a  circle  with  a  given  radius  R,  that 
will  tangent  the  circle  A  B  C  at  C. 

Through  the  given  point  C,  draw  the  diam- 
eter A  C  extended  beyond  D;  from  C  set  off 
the  given  radius  R  to  D;  then  D  is  the  center  of 
the  required  circle,  which  tangents  the  given 
circle  at  C. 

16. 

To  draw  a  circle  with  a  given  radius  R,  that 
will  tangent  two  given  circles. 

Join  the  centers  A  and  B  of  the  given  circles 
Add  the  given  radius  R  to  each  of  the  radii  of 
the  given  circle,  and  draw  the  cross  arcs  C, 
which  is  the  center  of  the  circle  required  to 
tangent  the  other  two. 

17. 

To  draw  a  tangent  to  two  circles  of  different 
diameters. 

Join  the  centers  C  and  c  of  the  given  circles, 
and  extend  the  line  to  D;  draw  the.radii  A  C 
and  a  c  parallel  with  one  another.  Join  A  a, 
and  extend  the  line  to  D.  On  C  D  as  a  diam- 
eter, draw  the  half  circle  C  e  D;  on  c  Z)  as  a 
diameter,  draw  the  half  circle  c  /  D;  then  the 
crossings  e  and  /  are  the  tangenting  points  of 
the  circles. 

18. 

To  draw  a  tangent  between  two  circles. 
Join  the  centers  C  and  c  of  the  given  circles; 
draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs,  and  join  the  cross- 
ing m,  n,  which  line  cuts  the  center  line  at  a. 
With  a  C  as  a  diameter,  draw  the  half  circle 
a  f  C;  and  with  «  c  as  a  diameter,  draw  the 
half  circle  c  e  a;  then  the  crossings  e  and  /  are 
the  tangenting  points  of  the  circles. 

19. 

With  a  given  radius  r,  draw  a  circle  that  will 
tangent  the^ven  line  A  B  and  the  given  circle 
C  D.  ^ 

Add  the  given  radius  r  to  the  radius  R  of  the 
circle,  and  draw  the  arc  c  d.  Draw  the  line  c  e 
parallel  with  and  at  a  distance  r  from  the  line 
A  B.  Then  the  crossing  c  is  the  center  of  the 
required  circle  that  will  tangent  the  given  line 
and  circle. 

20. 

To  find  the  center  anu  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  given  circle  A  B  atC,  and  the 
line  D  E. 

Through  the  given  point  C,  draw  the  tangent 
G  F;  bisect  the  angle  F  G  E;  then  o  is  the 
center  of  the  required  circle  that  will  tangent 
A  Bate,  and  the  line  D  E. 


21. 


To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 


552 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


will  tangent  the  given  line  A  B  zi  C,  and  the 
circle  D  E. 

Through  the  point  C,  draw  the  line  E  F  at 
right  angles  to  A  B;  set  off  from  C  the  radius  r 
of  the  given  circle.  Join  G  and  F.  With  G 
and  F  as  centers  draw  the  arc  crosses  m  and  n. 
Join  m  n,  and  where  it  crosses  the  line  E  F  is 
the  center  for  the  required  circles, 

22. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  given  line  A  B  a.t  C,  and  the 
circle  D  E. 

From  C,  erect  the  perpendicular  C  G;  set 
off  the  given  radius  r  from  C  to  H.  With  H 
as  a  center  and  r  as  radius,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  on  the  circle.  Through  the  cross  arcs 
draw  the  line  I  G;  then  G  is  the  center  of  the 
circle  arc  F  I  C,  which  tangents  the  line  at  C 
and  the  circle  at  F. 

23.  .  .    , 

Between  two  given  lines,  draw  two  circles 
that  will  tangent  themselves  and  the  lines. 

Draw  the  center  line  A  B  between  the  given 
lines;  assume  D  to  be  the  tangenting  point  of 
the  circles;  draw  D  C  at  right  angles  to  A  B. 
With  C  as  center  and  C  Z>  as  radius,  draw  the 
circle  E  D  F.  From  E,  draw  E  m  at  right 
angles  toE  F;  and  from  F  draw  F  m  at  right 
angles  toF  E;  then  m  and  n  are  the  centers  for 
the  required  circles. 

24. 

Draw  a  circle  that  will  tangent  two  given 
lines  A  B  and  C  D  inclined  to  one  another 
and  the  one  tangenting  point  E  being  given. 

Draw  the  center  line  G  F.  From  B,  draw 
E  F  aX  right  angles  to  A  B;  then  F  is  the  center 
of  the  circle  required. 

25. 

Draw  a  circle  that  will  tangent  two  lines  and 
go  through  a  given  point  C  on  the  line  F  C, 
which  bisects  the  angle  of  the  lines. 

Through  C  draw  A  B  at  right  angles  to  C  F; 
bisect  the  angles  DAB  and  E  B  A,  and  the 
crossing  on  C  F  is  the  center  of  the  required 
circle. 

26. 

To  draw  a  cyma,  or  two  circle  arcs  that  will 
tangent  themselves,  and  two  parallel  lines  at 
given  points  A  and  B. 

Join  A  and  B;  divide  A  B  into  four  equal 
parts  and  erect  perpendiculars.  Draw  A  m 
at  right  angles  from  A,  and  B  n  at  right  angles 
from  B;  then  m  and  n  are  the  centers  of  the 
circle  arcs  of  the  required  cyma. 

27. 

To  draw  a  talon,  or  two  circle  arcs,  that  will 
tangent  themselves,  and  meet  two  "parallel 
lines  at  right  angles  in  the  given  points  A 
and  B. 

Join  A  and  B;  divide  A  B  into  four  equal 
parts  and  erect  perpendiculars;  then  m  and  n 
are  the  centers  of  the  circle  arcs  of  the  required 
talon. 

28. 

To  plot  out  a  circle  arc  w>thout  recourse  to 
its  center,  but  its  chord  A  B  and  height  h  being 
given. 

With  the  chord  as  radius,  and  A  and  B  as 
centers,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs  A  C  and 
B  D.     Through  the  point  O  draw  the  lines 


AOoandBOo.  Make  the  arcs  Co  =  .4  o  and 
D  o  =  B  o.  Divide  these  arcs  into  any  desired 
number  of  equal  parts,  and  number  them  as 
shown  on  the  illustration.  Join  A  and  B  with 
the  divisions,  and  the  crossings  of  equal  num- 
.bers  are  points  in  the  circle  arc. 

29. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle. 

Bisect  two  of  the  angles  in  the  triangle,  and 
the  crossing  C  is  the  center  of  the  required 
circle. 

30. 

To  inscribe  an  equilateral  triangle  in  a  circle. 

With  the  radius  of  the  circle  and  center  C 
draw  the  arc  D  F  E;  with  the  same  radius, 
and  D  and  E  as  centers,-  set  off  the  points  A 
and  B-  Join  A  and  B,  B  and  C,  C  and  A, 
which  will  be  the  required  triangle. 

31.      , 

To  inscribe  a  square  in  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  through  the 
center  erect  the  perpendicular  C  D,  and  com- 
plete the  square  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

32. 

To  describe  a  square  about  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameters  A  B  and  C  D  at  right 
angles  to  one  another;  with  the  radius  of  the 
circle,  and  A,  B,  C,  and  D  as  centers,  draw  the 
four  dotted  half  circles  which  cross  one  another 
in  the  corners  of  the  square,  and  thus  com- 
plete the  problem. 

33. 

To  inscribe  a  pentagon  in  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  from  the  center 
C  erect  the  perpendicular  C  D.  Bisect  the 
radius  ^  C  at  E;  with  E  as  center,  and  D  E 
as  radius,  draw  the  arc  D  E,  and  the  straight 
line  D  F  is  the  length  of  the  side  of  the  penta- 
gon. 

34. 

To  construct  a  pentagon  on  a  given  line  A  B. 

From  B  erect  B  C  perpendicular  to  and  half 
the  length  of  A  B;  join  A  and  C  prolonged  to 
D;  with  C  as  a  center  and  C  5  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  B  D;  then  the  chord  B  B  i&  the  radius 
of  the  circle  circumscribing  the  pentagon. 
With  A  and  B  as  centers,  and  B  D  as  radius, 
draw  the  cross  O  in  the  center. 

35.  ... 
To  construct  a  pentagon  on  a  given  line  A  B 

without  resort  to  its  center. 

From  B  erect  B  o  perpendicular  and  equal  to 
A  B;  with  C  as  center  and  C  o  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  D  o;  then  A  D  is  the  diagonal  of  the 
pentagon.  With  A  D  as  radius  and  A  as  cen- 
ter, draw  the  arc  D  E;  and  with  E  as  center 
and  A  B  as  radius,  finish  the  cross  E,  and  thug 
complete  the  pentagon. 

36.  .  .  .    , 
To  construct  a  hexagon  in  a  given  circle. 
The  radius  of  the  circle  is  equal  to  the  side 

of  the  hexagon. 

37. 

To  construct  a  Heptagon. 
The  appotem  a  in  a  hexagon  is  the  length  of 
the  side  of  the  heptagon. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


553 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Set  off  A  B  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle; 
draw  a  from  the  center  C  at  right  angles  to 
A  B;  then  a  is  the  required  side  of  the  hep- 
tagon. 

38.  .      ,       .         .  . 

To  construct  an  octagon  on  the  given  line  A  B. 

Prolong  A  BtoC.  With  B  as  center  and  A 
B  as  radius,  draw  the  circle  A  F  D  E  C;  from 
B,  draw  ^  /  at  right  angles  to  A  B;  divide  the 
angles  A  B  D  ana  D  B  C  each  into  two  equal 
parts;  then  B  E  is  one  side  of  the  octagon. 
With  A  and  E  as  centers,  draw  the  arcs  H  K  E 
and  A  K  I,  which  determine  the  points  H  and 
/,  and  thus  complete  the  octagon  as  shown  in 
the  illustration. 

39. 

To  cut  off  the  corners  of  a  square,  so  as  to 
make  of  it  a  regular  octagon. 

With  the  corners  as  centers,  draw  circle  arcs 
through  the  center  of  the  square  to  the  side, 
which  determines  the  cut-off. 

40. 

The  area  of  a  regular  polygon  is  equal  to  the 
area  of  a  triangle  whose  base  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  all  the  sides,  and  the  height  a  equal  to 
the  appotem  of  the  polygon. 

The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  area  of  two  or 
more  triangles  ABC  and  ADC  having  a 
common  or  equal  base  b  and  equal  height  h  ara 
alike. 

41.  .  _  ^ 

To  construct  any  regular  polygon  on  a  giVen 
line  A  B  without  ^esort  to  its  center.  •-=': 

Extend  A  B  to  C  and,  with  B  as  center, 
draw  the  half  circle  A  D  B.  Divide  the  half 
circle  into  as  many  parts  as  the  number  of 
sides  in  the  polygon,  and  complete  the  con- 
struction as  shown  on  the  illustration. 

42. 

To  construct  an  isometric  ellipse  by  com- 
pasess  and  six  circle  arcs. 

Divide  O  A  and  O  B  each  into  three  equal 
parts;  draw  the  quadrant  A  C.  From  C,  draw 
the  line  C  c  through  the  point  1.  Through  the 
points  2  draw  d  e  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 
major  axis.  Then  2  is  the  center  for  the  ends 
of  the  ellipse ;.  e  is  the  cen ter  for  the  arc  d  c;  and 
C  is  the  center  for  the  arc  c  /. 

43. 

To  construct  a  Hyperbola  by  plotting. 
Having  given  the  transverse  axis  B  C,  vertexes 
A  a,  and  foci  /  /'.  Set  off  any  desired  number 
of  parts  on  the  axis  below  the  focus,  and  num- 
ber them  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc.  Take  the  distance 
a  1  as  radius,  and,  with  /'  as  center,  strike  the 
cross  1  with  /'  1  =a  1.  With  the  distance  A  1, 
and  the  focus  /  as  center,  strike  th6  cross  I 
with  the  radius  F  1  =  A  1,  and  the  cross  1  is  a 
point  in  the  hyperbola. 

44. 
To  draw  an  Hyperbola  by  a  pencil  and  a  string, ' 
Having  given  the  transverse  axis  B  C,  foci  /' 
and  /,  and  the  vertexes  A  and  a.  Take  a  rule 
and  fix  it  to  a  string  at  e;  fix  the  other  end  of 
the  string  at  the  focus  /.  The  length  of  the 
string  should  be  such  that  when  the  rule  R  is 
in  the  position  /'C.the  loop  of  the  string  should 
reach  to-:4;  then  move  the  rule  on  the  fpcus  /', 


and  a  pencil  at  P,  stretching  string,  will  trace 
the  hyperbola. 

45.  

^  To  construct  a  Tarabola  by  plotting. 
Having  given  the  axis,  vertex,  and  focus  of 
the  parabola.  Divide  the  transverse  axis  into 
any  desired  number  of  parts  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and 
draw  ordinates  through  the  divisions;  take  the 
distance  .4.  1,  and  set  it  off  on  the  1st  ordinate 
from  the  focus  /  to  a,  so  that  A  1  =  /  a.  Repeat 
the  same  operation  with  the  other  ordinates — 
that  is,  set  off  the  distance  A  5  from  /  to  e,  so 
that  A  b=f  e;  and  so  the  parabola  is  con- 
structed. 

46. 
To  draw  a  Parabola  with  a  pencil  and  a  string. 

Having  given  the  two  axes,  vertex,  and  focus 
of  the  parabola.  Take  a  square  cde,  and  fix  to 
it  a  string  at  c;  fix  the  other  end  of  the  string 
at  the  focus  /.  The  length  of  the  string  should 
be  such  that  when  the  square  is  in  the  position 
of  the  axis  A  /,  the  string  should  reach  to  the 
vertex  A.  Move  the  square  along  B  B,  and 
the  pencil  P  will  describe  the  parabola. 

47. 

Schide's  anli- friction  curve, 
R  represents  the  radius  of  the  shaft,  and 
C  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  is  the  center  line  of  the  shaft. 
From  o,  set  off  the  small  distance  o  a;  and  set 
off  a  \=R.  Set  off  the  same  small  distance 
from  a  to  b,  and  make  b  2  =  R.  Continue  in 
the  same  way  with  the  other  points,  and  the 
anti-friction  curve  is  thus  constructed. 

48. 

Isometric  Perspective. 

This  kind  of  perspective  admits  of  scale 
measurements  the  same  as  any  ordinary  draw- 
ing, and  gives  a  clear  representation  of  the 
object.  It  is  easily  learned.  All  horizontal 
rectangular  lines  are  drawn  at  an  angle  of  30°. 

All  circles  are  ellipses  of  proportion,  as 
shown  in  No.  42,  on  the  following  page. 

49. 

To  construct  an  ellipse. 
With  a  as  a  center,  draw  two  concentric  cir- 
cles with  diameters  equal  to  the  long  and  short 
axes  of  the  desired  ellipse.  Draw  from  o  any 
number  of  radii,  A,  B,  etc.  Draw  a  line  B  b' 
parallel  to  n  and  b  b'  parallel  to  m,  then  6  is  a 
point  in  the  desired  ellipse. 

50. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  with  a  string. 
Having  given  the  two  axes,  set  off  from  c 
half  the  great  axis  at  a  and  b,  which  are  the 
two  focuses  of  the  ellipse.  Take  an  endless 
string  as  long  as  the  three  sides  in  the  tri- 
angle a  6  c,  fix  two  pins  or  nails  in  the  focuses, 
one  in  a  and  one  in  6,  lay  the  string  around  a 
and  b,  stretch  it  with  a  pencil  d,  which  then 
will  describe  the  desired  ellipse. 

51. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  by  circle  arcs. 
Divide  the  Jong  axis  into  three  equal  parts, 
draw  the  two  circles,  and  where  they  intersect 
one  another  are  the  centers  for  the  tangent 
arcs  of  the  ellipse  as  shown  by  the  figure. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


555 


W 


i5 


Z6 


^-^ ''i3 


75" 


j^^^^-^B 


/     '7Nv 

K/  ^i\ 

a 

^W 

>^^,.-^4--> 

\ 

1     '<  /  1 

hp 

<d/  V 

\ 

A         B 

c 

'^z 


^■--.. 


^ B  (7 


/»  /      X.'3'tSi>7a9IO 


556 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


52. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  by  circle  arcs. 
Given  the  two  axes,  set  off  the  short  axis 
from  A  to  b,  divide  6  into  three  equal  parts, 
set  off  two  of  these  parts  from  o  towards  c 
and  c  which  are  the  centers  for  the  ends  of  the 
ellipse.  Make  equilateral  triangles  on  c  c,  when 
e  e  will  be  the  centers  for  the  sides  of  the  ellipse. 
If  the  long  axis  is  more  than  twice  the  short 
one,  this  construction  will  not  make  a  good 
ellipse. 

53. 

To  construct  an  ellipse. 
Given  the  two  axes,  set  off  half  the  lofig  axis 
from  c  to  /  /,  which  will  be  the  two  focuses  in 
the  ellipse.  Divide  the  long  axis  into  any 
number  of  parts,  say  a  to  be  a  division  point. 
Take  A  aa,s  radius  and  /  as  center  and  describe 
a  circle  arc  about  6,  take  a  5  as  radius  and  /  as 
center  describe  another  circle  arc  about  &,tnen 
the  intersection  6  is  a  point  in  the  ellipfse,  and 
so  the  whole  ellipse  can  be  constructed. 

54. 

To  draw  on  ellipse  that  will  tangent  two  parallel 
lines  in  A  and  B. 
Draw  a  semicircle  on  A  B,  draw  ordinates 
in  the  circle  at  right  angle  to  A  B,  the  corre- 
sponding and  equal  orainates  for  the  ellipse 
to  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  lines,  and  thus  the 
elliptic  curve  is  obtained  as  shown  by  the 
figure. 

55. 

To  construct  a  cycloid. 

The  circumference  C  =  3.14  D.  Divide  the 
rolling  circle  and  base  line  C  into  a  number  of 
equal  parts,  draw  through  the  division  point 
the  ordinates  and  abscissas,  make  a  a'  =  l  d, 
b  b'  =  2'e,  c  c  =  3  /,  then  a  b'  and  c'  are  points 
in  the  cycloid.  In  the  Epicycloid  and  Hypo- 
cycloid  the  abscissas  are  circles  and  the  ordi- 
nates are  radii  to  one  common  center. 


56. 


Evolute  of  a  circle. 


Given  the  pitch  p,  the  angle  v,  and  radius  r. 
Divide  the  angle  v  into  a  number  of  equal  parts, 
draw  the  radii  and  tangents  for  each  part, 
divide  the  pitch  p  into  an  equal  number  of 
equal  parts,  then  the  first  tangent  will  be  one 
part,  second  two  parts,  third  three  parts,  etc., 
and  so  the  Evolute  is  traced. 

57. 

To  construct  a  spiral  with  compasses  and  four 
centers. 
Given  the  pitch  of  the  spiral,  construct  a 
square  about  the  center,  with  the  four  sides 
together  equal  to  the  pitch.  Prolong  the 
sides  in  one  direction  as  shown  by  the  figure, 
the  corners  are  the  centers  for  each  arc  of  the 
external  angles. 


58. 


To  construct  a  Parabola. 


Given  the  vertex  A,  axis  x,  and  a  point  P. 
Draw  A  B  at  right  angle  to  x,  and  B  P  parallel 
to  X,  divide  A  B  and  B  P  into  an  equal  num- 
ber of  equal  parts.  From  the  vertex  A  draw 
lines  to  the  divisions  on  B  P,  from  the  divi- 


sions on  ^  J5  draw  the  ordinates  parallel  to  x, 
the  corresponding  intersections  are  points  in 
the  parabola. 

59. 

To  construct  a  Parabola. 
Given  the  axis  of  ordinate  B,  and  vertex  A. 
Take  ^  as  a  center  and  describe  a  semicircle 
from  B  which  gives  the  focus  of  the  parabola  at 
/.  Draw  any  ordinate  y  at  right  angle  to  the 
abscissa  A  x,  take  a  as  radius  and  the  focus  / 
as  a  center,  then  intersect  the  ordinate  y,  by 
a  circle-arc  in  P  which  will  be  a  point  in  the 
parabola.  In  the  same  manner  the  whole 
Parabola  is  constructed. 


To  draw  an  arithmetic  spiral. 
Given  the  pitch  p  and  angle  v,  divide  them 
into  an  equal  number  of  equal  parts,  say  6; 
makeO  1=0  1,02=  0  2,03  =  0  3,04  =  0  4,0  5 
=  0  5,  and  0  6  =  the  pitch  p;  then  join  the 
points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  and  6,  which  will  form  the 
spiral  required. 

THE  CIRCLE. 
Notation  of  Letters. 
d  =  diameter  of  the  circle. 
r  =  radius  of  the  circle. 
p  =  periphery  or  circumference. 
a  =  area  of  a  circle  or  part  thereof. 
b  =  length  of  a  circle  arc. 
c  =  chord  of  a  segment,  length  of. 
A  =  height  of  a  segment. 
«  =  side  of  a  rectangular  polygon 
r  =  center  angle. 
w  =  polygon  angle. 

All  measures  must  be  expressed  by  the  sam« 
unit. 


FORMULAS  FOR  THE  CIRCLE 

p  = 

Periphery  or  Circumference. 
n  <f=3.14d. 

p  = 

P  = 

=  2;:  r 

2V 

=  6.28r. 

;r  a  =  3.54^/0.. 

P  = 

2a 
r 

4a 
~    d' 

rf  = 

Diameter  and  Radius. 
V          V 

n         3.14 

r  = 

P 

2n 

6.28 

d  =  2\/—^1.12SVa 
r  =  y— =  0.564  Va. 


Area  of  the  Circle. 


.  J2 


a  = =  0.785d2 

4 


r2=3.14r2. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.  557 


50 


sa 


6t> 


55 


c' 


'k...'. 


69 


6Y 


66 


er 


68 


r/ 


ra 


fy 

a6 

i 

d 

at 

^^^^ — c;:^ 


ia-6f 


A 


558 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


p2          p2 

62. 

xrv 

Alt     12.56 

b  = =  0.0175rw, 

pr     pd 

180 

2       4* 

1806                 6 
v  = =  57.296-. 

n  =  3. 14^  59265358979323846264338327950288 

Ttr                  r 

419716^399 

■ 

63. 

2;r  =  6.283185 

3;r  =  9.424778 

w  v=  180 , 

4;r=  12.566370 

2 

6;r=  15.707963 

6;:  =  18.849556 

v  =  2(180°— «;). 

7;r  =  21.991 148 

64. 

8;:  =  25.132741 

c2  +  4/l2        e2 

9;r  =  28.274334 

Sh         2h 

i;r  =  0.785398 

i;r=  1.047197 

c  =  2V2hr  —  h^. 

i7r  =  1.570796 

65. 

J;r  =  0.392699 

ac 

i;r  =  0.523599 

T^T  =  0.261799 
§T  =  2.094394 

v^-H~i-y 

5^5^  =  0.008726 

1 

66. 

-  =  0.318310 

It 

2 

v^-c^-r 

-=0.636619 

r 

1C 

3 

-  =  0.954929 

a+b+c 

67. 

n 
4 

v=v,    w—w. 

-=1.273239 

w  +  v  =  180°,m>v. 

6 

68. 

— ^1.909859 

.D=B  +  C,     A'  +  B'  +  C  =  1S0°, 

It 
8 

B  =  D—C.     A  +B  +C  =  180°, 

-=2.546478 

A'  =  A,       B'^'B. 

12 

^3.819718 

69. 

A+B  +  C  =  180°, 

360 

=114.5915 

A'=A,     B'  =  B. 

7:2=9.869650 

70. 

E  +  C  =  A+D  =  \8Q'', 

|/;r  =  1.772453 

4/ -  =  0.564189 

D  =  B  +  c. 

E  =  A+B.                                       I 

.A 

71. 

y  -=1.253314 

(a  +  6)2  =  a2+2a&+62. 

j/-  =  0.797884 

72, 

(a— 6)2=a2— 2a6  +  62.            ,^^           \ 

Log.  7r  =  0.49714987 
61. 

The  periphery  of  a  Circle 

IS  commonly  ex- 

73. 

(a +6)  (o— 6)  =0^—62.           '■-'       ■ 

pressed  by  the  Greek  letter  n 

=  3.14  when  the 

diameter  cf=l  or  the  unit. 

For  any  other 

74. 

valiie  of  the  diameter  d,  we 

will  denote  this 

a  :  h=c  :  d, 

periphery  by  the  letter  p,  r  = 

=  radius,  and  o  = 

area  of  the  circle.     The  periphery  of  a  circle 

ad  =  hc. 

3B   equal   to    3    14-100   times   its   diameter. 

c-^  chord. 

A=B. 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


559 


T3 


cv 

r<6    . 

^y^< 

6^ 

75 


76 


rr 


78 


\      A/ 

X 

93 


SO 


Sfi 


6 


93 


96 


560 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


75. 

a  :  b  =  c  :  d, 
ad  =  bc. 

a  :  c  =  c  :  b, 

ab=^c^ 
c=  V  ah. 

A  :  B  =  a  :  6. 

a  ;  x  =  x  :  a — x, 

87. 

88. 
89. 

90. 
91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 
95. 

96. 

aR 

76. 

R—T 

t. 

<=  Va2— (72— r)2,     sin.v  =  — . 
a 

t=  ya2— (i2+r)2. 

77. 

a=  y<2  +  (/e+r)2. 

78. 

/         6'2 
V=^r~y  r2 Z  =  2r—  V, 

c2  =  a2  +  62. 

„2=c2— 62 
62  =  c2— a2 

f2  =  a2  +  ft2_26d, 
h=  Va2—d2. 

a2  +  62_c2 

^  =  2  |/r2— (r— F)2.     r  =  K/  +  '^'). 

vy. 

^=4/ ;r2d2, 

^    n2 

80. 

I 

n  = 

To  ^nd  the  length  of  a  Spiral. 

81. 

26 
c2=a2  +  62  +  26d. 

7tr^               I        r 
*~'^"~    p    '      "~^,    ~  p' 

9             •. 

h2=  Y  a^—d^, 

C2_a2_62 

P  = =  -.     P  =  Pitch. 

I       n 

82. 

26 

a  :  b  =  h  :  c, 

ac     ad 

~  b~  c' 

c2     ch 

6       a' 

a  :  c^d  :  (6— d), 

ah 
f/  = , 

c  +  a 

v  =  v. 

a  :  c  =  b  :  d, 
ad^bc. 

a  :  t^t  :  b, 
t^  =  ab. 

/2=(a  +  6)   (a— 6). 

To  find  the  length  of  a  Spiral. 
l  =  nn  (R+r), 

Z  =  -!L(K2_;.2). 

P 

Periphery  of  an  Ellipsi. 

83. 

84. 
85. 
86. 

p  =  2VD2  +  lA674d2. 

To  construct,  a  screw  Helix. 

To  square  a  Circumference. 
72  =  0.555355  rf  =1. 1107  r  =  0.7071  S. 
5  =  0.785398  d=  1.57079  r=  1.4142  72 
d  =  1.27322  S  =  1.79740  R  =  2r. 

To  square  a  Circleplane. 
72  =  0.626657  d=  1.253314  r  =  0.7071  3 
/S  =  0r886226  d=  1.77245  r  =  1.4142  72 

X=  Y  a^—b^. 

d=  1.12838  5=5 1.5367  72  =  2  r. 

CHAPTER  VI. 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES, 


HOW  TO  READ  A  GAS  METER. 


The  dial  marked  "1  thousand"  in 
the  accompanying  illustration  is  divi- 
ded into  hundreds;  the  dial  marked 
"10  thousand"  is  divided  into  thou- 
sands; that  marked  "100  thousand" 
into  ten-thousands,  and  that  marked 
"1  million"  into  hundred-thousands. 
When  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  have  been 
consumed,  the  pointer  on  the  dial 
marked  "1  thousand"  will  have  made 
a  complete  rotation  and  the  fact  will 
be  indicated  by  the  pointer  of  the  next 
dial  at  the  left,  which  will  point  to  the 
figure  1.  When  10,000"  cubic  feet 
of  gas  have  been  consumed,  the  point- 
er on  the  "10  thousand"  dial  will 
point  to  1,  and  so  on.  In  reading  a 
gas  meter,  put  down  the  hundreds  first, 
then  the  thousands,  and  so  on,  always 
counting    the    figure    just    under,    or 


which  has  just  been  passed  by,  the 
pointer.  In  the  j^Uustration  about  half 
a  hundred  is  indicated  on  the  "I 
thousand"  dial,  three  thousands  is 
indicated  on  the  next  dial,  two  ten- 
thousands  on  the  next  dial,  and  one 
one-hundred-thousands  on  the  "1  mil- 
lion" dial.  The  reading  will  be  123,- 
050.  The  dial  marked  "ten  feet"  is 
called  the  units  dial.  It  is  used  for 
testing  the  meter  to  discover  whether  it 
is  in  working  order  or  not.  Each  mark 
represents  a  cubic  foot  and  the  com- 
plete circle  10  cubic  feet.  If  the 
pointer  moves  when  no  gas  is  burning, 
it  indicates  a  leak.  If  it  does  not 
move  when  the  gas  is  burning,  or  if  its 
motion  is  unsteady,  it  indicates  a  de- 
rangement in  the  mechanism  and  shows 
that  the  meter  requires  attention. 


CUBIC 


FEET 


GAS  METER   INDICATOR  DIALS. 
561 


562 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


LINEAR    MEASURE. 


3 
13 

72 

1,000 

3 

4 

9 

12 

18 

3 

2i 

5 

2 

5i 

66 

4 

40 

220 

8 

1,760 

5,280 


barleycorns,  or . , 
lines,  or. .....  .. 

points,  or 

mils  (mi.) 

inches 1 

inches 1 

inches 1 

inches 1 

inches 1 


feet 

feet 

feet 

yards 

yards 

feet,  or 1 

rods J 

poles,  or f 

yards j 

furlongs,  or ] 

yards,  or !■  1 

feet J 

miles 1 


1  inch  (in.) 


palm 

hand 

span 

foot  (ft.) 

cubit 

yard  (yd.) 

military  pace 

geometrical  pace 

fathom 

rod,  pole,  or  perch 

Gunter's  chain 


1  furlong  (fur.) 

mile 
league 


The  hand  is  used  to  measure  horses'  height. 
The  military  pace  is  the  length  of  the  ordinary 
step  of  a  man.  One  thousand  geometrical 
paces  were  reckoned  to  a  mile. 

LAND    MEASURE    (lINEAR). 

7.92  inches 1  link 

100  links,  or ] 

66  feet,  or. [  i  ^hain  (ch.) 

22  yards,  or f  ' 

4  poles J 

10  chains 1  furlong  (fur.) 

80  chains,  or I  1  mile 

8  furlongs / 

LAND    MEASURE    (sQUARE). 

144  sq.  inches... .  1  square  foot  (sq.  ft.) 

9  square  feet. .  1  square  yard  (sq.  yd.) 
30i  sq.  yards.. .  .  1  sq.  pole,  rod,  or  perch 
16  sq.  poles. ..." 
40  sq.  poles,  or 

1,210  sq.  yards 

4  roods,  or. . .  . 
10  sq.  chs.,  or... 
160  sq.  poles,  or.  }  1  acre"! 
4,840  sq.  yds.,  or...  j 
43,560  sq.  ft. .  .  • 
640  acres,  or. 
3,097,600  sq.  yds.  . 

30  acres ' .  1  yard  of  land 

100  acres 1  hide  of  Irvnd 

40  hides 1  barony 

*  The  side  of  a  square  having  an  area  of  an 
acre  is  equal  to  69.57  linear  yards. 


CUBIC    MEASURE. 

,728  cubic  inches 1  cubic  foot 

27  cubic  feet 1  cubic  or  solid  yard 


1  square  chain  (sq.  ch.) 
1  sq.  rood 


1  sq.  mile 


DRY    MEASURE,    U.    S. 


2  pints 1  quart  (qt.) 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.) 

2  gallons,  or 1  j        j, 

8  quarts J 

4  pecks 1  struck  bushel  =  2150. 42 


Cu.  In. 

67.20 

268.80 

537.60 


LIQUID    MEASURE,    U.    S. 

4  gills 1  pint  (O.) 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.) 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.) 

63  gallons 1  hogshead  (hhd.) 

2  hogsheads 1  pipe  or  butt 

2  pipes 1  tun 


Cu.  In. 

:   28.875 

57.75 
231 


APOTHECARIES     LIQUID    MEASURE. 

Apothecaries'  or  Wine  Measure  is  used  by 
pharmacists  of  this  country.  Its  denomina- 
tions are  gallon,  pint,  fluid  ounce,  fluid 
drachm,  and  minim,  as  follows: 


Cong. 

O. 

F.  Oz.     F.    Dr.       Minims 

1       = 

8 

=      128   =  1,024   =    61,440 

1 

=        16   =      128   =       7,680 

1    =          8   =          480 

1    =            60 

1 

4 

= 

8 

=    160 

1 

= 

2 

=      40 

1 

=      20 
1 

The  Imperial  Standard  Measure  is  used  by 
British  pharmacists.  Its  denominations  and 
their  relative  value  are: 

Gal.  Quarts.  Pints.  F.  Oz.  F.  Dr.  Minims 
=  1,280=  76,800 
=  320=  19,200 
=  160=  9,600 
=  8=        480 

1=  60 

The  relative  value  of  United  States  Apothe- 
caries' and  British  Imperial  Measures  is  as 
follows : 

(^-Imperial  Measure.— n 
U.  S.  « 

Apothe- 
caries' 
Measure.  S  f^ 

1  Gallon  =  .83311  Gallon,  or  6  13 
1  Pint  =  .83311  Pint,  or  16 
1  Fl.  Oz.  =  1.04139  Fl.  Oz..  or  1 

1  Fl.  Dr.  =  1.04139Fl.  Dr.  or 
1  Minim  =1.04139  Minim,  or 


O    Q 


a 

2  22.85 
5  17.86 

0  19.86 

1  2.48 
1.04 


OLD    WINE    AND    SPIRIT    MEASURE. 


Imperial 
Gals. 


.8333 
8.333 
15 

26.25 
35 
52.5 

70 

105 


4  gills  or  quarterns. . .  1  pint 
2  pints 1  quart 

4  quarts  (231  cu.  in.) .  1  gallon  = 

10  gallons 1  anchor  = 

18  gallons 1  bunlet  = 

31i  gallons 1  barrel  = 

42  gallons 1  tierce  = 

1raS:.°^::::}i-^«h-^  = 
ufogsrkdT.-.-.;v}i--^-"= 

126  gallons,  or 1  i  pipe  or      = 

2  hogsheads,  or...    }     *"  ^^^^ 

li  puncheons J 

2  pipes  or 1  j  ^^.^  _  2IO 

5  puncheons J 

Apothecaries'  Weight  is  the  official  standard 

of    the    United    States    Pharmacopoeia.     In 

buying  and  selling  medicines  not  ordered  by 

prescriptions  avoirdupois  weight  is  used. 

Lb.  Oz.  Dr.  Scr.  Gr. 

1      =      12      =      96     =        288     =      5760 

1=8=  24      =        480 

1      =  3      =  60 

1      =  20 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


563 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES— Continued 


Avoirdupois  Weight. — Used  for  weighing 
all  goods  except  those  for  which  troy  and 
apothecaries'  weight  are  employed. 

Gross 
or  Long 

Ton.  Cwt.     Qr.          Lb.  Oz.              Dr. 

1  =   20   =    80   =  2,240  =  35,840   =  573,440 

1    =      4   =      112  =     1,792    =     28,672 

1    =        28  =        448   =       7,168 

1  =          16   =          256 
1    =            16 
Short 
or  Net 

Ton.  Cwt.    Qr.          Lb.  Oz.              Dr. 

1  =    20   =   80   =  2,000  =  32,000   =  512,000 

1=      4   =      100  =     1,600   =    25.600 

1   =        25  =        400   =      6,400 

1  =          16   =          256 

1   =  16 

The  "short"  ton  of  2,000  lbs.  is  used  com- 
monly in  the  United  States.  The  British  or 
"long"  ton,  used  to  some  extent  in  the  United 
States,  contains  2,240  lbs.,  corresponding  to  a 
cwt.  of  112  and  a  quarter  of  28  lbs. 

Troy  Weight. — Used  by  jewelers  and  at  the 
mints,  in  the  exchange  of  the  precious  metals. 
Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 

1        =        12        =        240      =      5760 
1        =  20     =        480 

1      =  24 

700  troy  grains  =  1  lb.  avoirdupois. 
17.5  troy  pounds  =  144  lb.  avoirdupois. 
175  troy  ounces  =  192  oz.  avoirdupois. 
437^  troy  grains  =  1  oz.  avoirdupois. 
1  troy  pound    =. 8228 -f- lb.  avoirdupois. 

The  common  standard  of  weight  by  which 
the  relative  values  of  these  systems  are  com- 
pared is  the  grain,  which  for  this  purpose  may 
be  regarded  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  pound 
troy  and  that  of  apothecaries'  weight  have 
each  five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty 
grains;  the  pound  avoirdupois  has  seven 
thousand  grains. 

The  relative  proportions  and  values  of  these 
several  systems  are  as  follows: 

Troy.  Avoirdupois. 

Oz.      Dr. 

1  pound  equals 13      2.65 

1  ounce  equals 1       1.55 

1  dwt.  equals 0    0.877 

Troy.  ^Apothecaries'.— > 

Lb.  Oz.  Dr.     Sc.     Gr. 

1  pound  equals 1       0       0       0        0 

1  ounce  equals 0       1       0       0        0 

1  dwt.  equals 0       0       0       14 

1  grain  equals 0       0       0       0         1 

Apothecaries'.  Avoirdupois. 

Oz.        Dr. 

1  pound  equals 13        2.65 

1  ounce  equals 1         1.55 

1  drachm  equals 0        2.19 

1  scruple  equals 0        0.73 

Apothecaries'.  ^Troy.— « 

Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 

pound  equals 1       0       0        0 

ounce  equals 0       1       0        0 

drachm  equals 0       0       2      12 

scruple  equals 0       0       0      20 


Avoirdupois. 

1  long  ton  equals. 

1  cwt.  equals 

1  quarter  equals. 
1  pound  equals.  . 
1  ounce  equals...  . 
1  drachm  equals. 
Avoirdupois. 


1  short  ton  equals 

1  cwt.  equals 

1  quarter  equals 

Avoirdupois. 

Lb 

1  pound  equals 1 

1  ounce  equals 0 

1  drachm  equals. ...    0 


Lb. 

2722 

.  136 

34 

1 


^Troy.-^ 
Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 
2   13    8 


^Troy.-^ 
Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 
..2430  6   13   8 
. .  121  6    6  16 
. .  30  4   11   16 
-—A  pothecaries' .  — - 
Oz.  Dr.  Scr.  Gr. 
2    4    2   0 
0    7    0   17* 
0    0    1    734 


DIAMOND    MEASURE. 

16  parts     =1  grain  =  0.8  troy  grain. 
4  grains   =  1  carat  =  3.2  troy  grains. 

TIME. 
The  unit  of  time  measurement  is  the  same 
among  all  nations.  Practically  it  is  1/86400  of 
the  mean  solar  day,  but  really  it  is  a  perfectly 
arbitrary  unit,  as  the  length  of  the  mean  solar 
day  is  not  constant  for  any  two  periods  of 
time.  There  is  no  constant  natural  unit  of 
time. 

1  minute  =60  seconds. 

1  hour  =60  minutes,    3600   sec- 

onds. 
1  day  =24  hours,  1440  minutes, 

86,400  seconds. 
1  sidereal  day  =86164.1  seconds. 

1  sidereal  month         =27.321661    mean    solar 

days  (average). 
1  lunar  month  =29.530589    mean    solar 

days  (average). 
1  anomalistic  month  =  27.544600    mean    solar 

days  (average). 
1  tropical  month        =27.321582    mean    solar 

days  (average). 
1  nodical  month         =27.212222   mean  solar 

days  (average.) 
Mean  solar  year  =365  d.  5  h.  48  m.  46.045 

s.  with  annual  varia- 
tion of  0.00539. 
The  change  in  the  length  of  the  mean  side- 
real day,  i.e.,  of  the  time  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion upon  its  axis,  amounts  to  0.01252  s.  in 
2400  mean  solar  years. 

ANGULAR  MEASURE 

60  seconds  =  1  minute 
60  minutes  =  1  degree 
60  degrees  =  1  sextant 
90  degrees  =  1  right  angle  or  quadrant 
360  degrees  =  1  circle 

GEOGRAPHICAL  MEASURE 
6087.15       feet  =  1  geographical  mile 

1.15287  statute  miles  =  1  geographical 
mile 
60  geographical  miles  =  1  degree  of 

longitude  at  the  Equator 
69.168       statute  miles  =  1   degree  of  lon- 
gitude at  the  Equator 
360  degrees  =  circumference  of  earth 

at  the  Equator 


564 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES— Continued 


NAUTICAL  MEASURE 

6  feet  =    1  fathom 

120  fathoms  =  1  cable  length 

6080.27         feet  =  1  nautical  mile 
1000  fathoms  =  1  nautical  mile 

1.15157  statute  miles  =  1  nautical  mile 
3  nautical  miles  =  1  league 

1  knot  =  a  speed  of  1  nautical  mile 

per  hour 
In  the  United  States  the  nautical  mile  is 
defined  to  be  one  sixtieth  part  of  the  length 
of  a  degree  of  a  great  circle  of  a  sphere  whose 
surface  is  equal  in  area  to  the  area  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  In  France,  Germany 
and  Austria  the  nautical  mile  has  a  length  of 
6,076.23  feet.  In  England  the  nautical  mile 
is  6,080  feet. 

Miles  at  sea  are  understood  to  be  nautical 
miles.  Therefore  it  is  no  more  necessary  to 
say  "nautical"  miles  when  speaking  of  a  sea 
distance  than  to  say  "statute"  miles  when 
speaking  of  a  land  distance. 

Landsmen  are  apt  to  confuse  knots  with 
nautical  miles.  A  knot  is  not  a  measure  of 
distance  but  a  measure  of  speed,  and  the  only 
measure  of  speed  in  the  English  language. 
When  speaking  of  a  vessel  that  travels,  say 
20  knots,  we  mean  that  the  vessel  is  travel- 
ing at  a  speed  of  20  nautical  miles  per  hour; 
but  the  distance  covered  may  be  one  nautical 
mile  or  a  thousand,  depending  upon  the  length 
of  time  during  which  the  20-knot  speed  is 
maintained.  Only  landsmen  use  the  ex- 
pression "knots  per  hour."  The  "per  hour" 
is  superfluous  and  incorrect. 


Following  is  a  list  of  the  lighthouses  from 
Bremerhaven  to  Dover;  figures  expressed  in 
sea  miles.  There  is  no  table  in  existence 
which  exactly  corresponds  with  the  excellent 
tables  which  we  give  from  Fastnet  Light  to 
Flushing. 

Hoheweg-Lighthouse 17 

Rothesand-Lighthouse 26 

Weser-Lightship 35 

Borkum  Lightship 100 

Terschelling  Lightship 146 

Dover 340 


PERPETUAL  CALENDAR. 

To  find  the  day  of  the  week  for  any  given 
date. 

1.  Take  the  last  two  figures  of  the  year, 
add  \i  of  them  (neglecting  remainder).  Thus: 
1949  =  49-1-12  =  61. 

2.  Add  for  the  month,  if  for  Jan.  or  Oct.. 
1;  May,  2;  Aug.,  3;  Feb.,  Mar.,  or  Nov.,  4; 
June,  5;  Sept.  or  Dec,  6;  April  or  July,  0;  if 
leap  year  (that  is,  if  it  be  divisible  by  4  without 
remainder)  Jan.,  0;  Feb.,  3. 

3.  Add  day  of  month. 

Divide  the  sum  of  these  three  by  '/,  and 
remainder  gives  the  number  of  the  day  of  the 
week. 

Thus:— 

What  day  of  the  week  is  15th  July,  1908? 

1.  8-1-2      =10 

2.  July         =   0 

3.  15th    =15 


25  =  7X3+-/. 
4th  day  of  the  week  =  Wednesday. 

What  day  of  the  week  was  December  25th, 
1905? 

1.  5  -H  1      =6 

2.  Dec.         =   6 

3.  25th    =25 

37  =  7X5+-^ 
2nd  day  of  the  week  —  Monday. 

The  above  only  applies  to  20th  Century. 
For  19th  Century,  add  2,  for  21st  Century, 
add  6,  18th  Century,  4,  but  before  1752  the 
"old  style"  was  used. 

DISTANCES  IN  DETAIL  OF  AMERICAN 
LIGHTS. 

Knots 

Naw  York  to  Sandy  Hook 18 

Sandy  Hook  to  Ambrose  Lightship 8 

Ambrose  Lightship  to  Fire  Island 30 

Fire  Island  to  .Shinnecock .     35 

Shinnecock  to  Nantuckat  Lightship 122 


TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  NAUTICAL  MILES  TO  STATUTE  MILES. 


Nauti- 

Nauti- 

Nauti- 

Nauti- 

tical 

Statute 

cal 

Statute 

tical 

Statute 

cal 

.    Statute 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

1 

1.152 

14 

16.122 

27 

31.092 

40 

46.063 

2 

2.303 

15 

17.274 

28 

32.244 

41 

47.214 

3 

3.455 

16 

18.425 

29 

33.396 

42 

48.366 

4 

4.606 

17 

19.577 

30 

34.547 

43 

49.518 

5 

5.758 

18 

20.728 

31 

35.699 

44 

50.670 

6 

6.909 

19 

21.880 

32 

36.850 

45 

51.821 

7 

8.061 

20 

23.031 

33 

38.002 

46 

52.972 

8 

9.213 

21 

24.183 

34 

39.153 

47 

54.124 

9 

10.364 

22 

25.335 

35 

40.305 

48 

55.275 

10 

11.516 

23 

26.486 

36 

41.457 

49 

56.427 

11 

12.667 

24 

27.638 

37 

42.608 

50 

57.578 

12 

13.819 

25 

28.789 

38 

43.760 

13 

14.970 

126 

29.941 

39 

44.911 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


505 


DECIMAL  SYSTEM— WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


A  meter  is  one  ten-millionth  of  the  distance 
from  the  equator  to  the  North  Pole. 


The  metric  system,  formed  on  the  meter  as 
the  unit  of  length,  has  four  other  leading  units, 
all  connected  with  and  dependent  upon  this. 
The  are,  the  unit  of  surface,  is  the  square  of 
ten  meters.  The  liter,  the  unit  of  capacity, 
is  the  cube  of  a  tenth  part  of  the  meter.  The 
stere,  the  unit  of  solidity,  has  the  capacity  of 
a  cubic  meter.  The  gram,  the  unit  of 
weight,  is  the  weight  of  that  quantity  of  dis- 
tilled water  at  its  maximum  density  which 
fills  the  cube  of  a  hundredth  part  of  the  meter. 
Each  unit  has  its  decimal  multiple  and  sub- 
multiple,  that  is,  weights  and  measures  ten 
times  larger  or  ten  times  smaller  than  the 
principal  unit.  The  prefixes  denoting  the 
multiples  are  derived  from  the  Greek,  and 
are  rfeca,  tea.;-  hecto,  hundred;  kilo,  thousand; 
and  myria,  ten  thousand.  Those  denoting 
sub-multiples  are  taken  from  the  Latin,  and 
are  deci,  ten ;  centi,  hundred ;  m.illi,  thousand. 


Relative  Value. 

Length. 

Surface. 

Capacity.    . 

Solidity. 

Weight. 

10,000 

Myriameter 

Kilometer 

Hectometer 

Decameter 

Meter 

Decimeter 

Centimeter 

Millimeter 

1,000 

Kiloliter 

Hectoliter 

Decaliter 

Liter 

Deciliter 

Centiliter 

Milliliter 

Kilogram 

100 

Hectare 

10 

Dekastere 

Stere 

Decistere 

Decagram 

Unit.  .  . : 

Are 

Declare 

Centiare 

0.1 

0.01 

Decigram 
Centigram 

0.001....      .... 

Milligram 

APPROXIMATE    EQUIVALENTS   OF   THE   FRENCH    (METRIC)  JlND 
ENGLISH   MEASURES. 


I  yard.  . ii  meter. 

II  meters 12  yards. 

To  convert  meters  into  yards Add  rrth. 

1  TTiPtPr-l  1  vd  •   ^  •?  ft  j  3  ft.  3|  inches  Gi^th  less). 

1  meter- 1.1  yd.,   6.6  tt -j  ^q  j^^.j^gg  (j  g  p^j.  ^^^^  j^gg^^ 

1  meter,  by  the  Standards  Commission =39.38203  inches. 

1  meter,  by  the  Act  of  1878 =39.37079  inches. 

1  foot 3  decimeters  (more  exactly  3.048). 

1  inch 25  millimeters  (more  exactly  25.4). 

1  mile 1.6  or  Ig  kilometers  (more  exactly  1.60931). 

1  kilometer i  of  a  mile. 

1  chain  (22  yards) 20  meters  (more  exactly  20.1165). 

5  furlongs  (1,100  yards) 1  kilometer  (more  exactly  1.0058). 

1  square  yard f  square  meter  (more  exactly  .8361). 

1  square  meter \  J?* '^:^t'^  ff> 

^  _  (It  square  yards. 

1  square  inch 6^  square  centimeters  (more  exactly  6.45). 

1  square  mile  (640  acres) 200  hectares  (0.4  per  cent  less). 

1  acre  (4840  square  yards) 4000  square  meters  (1.2  per  cent  more). 

1  cubic  yard f  cubic  meter  (2  per  cent  more). 

1  cubic  meter H  cubic  yards  (IJ  per  cent  less). 

1  cubic  meter 35^  cubic  feet  (.05  per  cent  less). 

1  cubic  meter  of  water 1  long  ton  nearly. 

1  kilogram 2.2  pounds  fully. 

ICtSTor '■  .•.•;.:::;:::::;;:;:;;;:;:::!■  >-^ '-  "-"y- 

1  long  hundredweight 51  kilograms  nearly. 

1  United  States  hundredweight 45^  kilograms  nearly . 


566 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


567 


KILOMETRES 

AND  MILES. 

Kil. 

Milea. 

Kil. 

Miles. 

Kil. 

Miles. 

Kil. 

Miles. 

1= about   4 

29  =  about  18 

57  =  about  36.1 

85= 

about  53.3 

2 

'    U 

30 

•   18* 

58 

'   36.7 

86 

54 

3 

11 

31 

•   19.7 

59 

'   37.3 

87 

54f 

4 

2i 

32 

'   20 

60 

'   38 

88 

55.2 

5 

•    3.1 

33 

'   20f 

61 

•   38.9 

89 

55 

6 

•    3f 

34 

'   21.2 

62 

•   39.2 

90 

56i 

7 

•    4.7 

35 

•   21i 

63 

'   391 

91 

56i 

8 

5 

36 

'   22i 

64 

•   40.4 

92 

57.4 

9 

51 

37 

'   231 

65 

'   41 

93 

58 

10 

6.2 

38 

'   23.7 

66 

•   41.9 

94 

58  1-5 

11 

6f 

39 

•   24.3 

67 

'   42.2 

95 

59i 

12 

7i 

40 

•   24.8 

68 

'   42i 

96 

59  5  6 

13 

8.1 

41 

'   25  1-3 

69 

•   43 

97 

60i 

14 

8.7 

42 

'   26^ 

70 

•   43.9 

98 

61.1 

15 

9.3 

43 

'   27.1 

71 

•   44.2 

99 

61.8 

16 

'   10 

44 

'   27f 

72 

'   44f 
•   451 

100 

62.1 

17 

'   10.9 

45 

'   28.7 

73 

200 

"   124.3 

18 

•   11.2 

46 

'   29 

74 

•   46 

300 

"   186 

19 

'   llf 

47 

'   291 

75 

'   46.6 

400 

"   248i 

20 

•   12.4 

48 

•   30.2 

76 

'   47i 

500 

"   310.7 

21 

•   13 

49 

'   30f 

77 

♦   47  5-6 

600 

"   372.8 

22 

13.6 

50 

'   3l| 

78 

♦   48i 

700 

"   435 

23 

'   14i 

51 

*   32.7 

79 

•   49.1 

800 

"   497.1 

24 

•   14  5-6 

52 

•   33 

80 

•   49.6 

900 

"   559.1 

25 

•    m 

53 

'   331 

81 

•   50;: 

1000 

"   621.8 

26 

'   16.1 

54 

'   34.2 

82 

•   51- 

27 

*   16f 

55 

*   341 

83 

'   52.1 

28 

'   17.7 

56 

'   35i 

84 

'   52.7 

TABLE  OF  DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS 
OF  FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH. 


^  =  -015625 

i^  =  -03125 

B%  =  -046875 

^  =  '0625 

^  =  -078135 

A  =  -09375 

^  =  -109375 

I  =  -125 

-    =  -140625 

=  -15625 

=  -171875 

=  -1875 

=  -203125 

=  -21875 

=  -234375 

=  -25 

it  =  -265625 

^  =  -28125 

If  =  -296875 

A  =  -3125 

II  =  -328125 


640635 
65625 


If  =  -671875 
H  =  -6875 
If  =  -703125 
§i  =  -71875 
tl  =  -734375 
I  =  -75 
jl  =  -765625 
ft  =  -78135 
U  =  -796875 
11  =  -8135 


U  =  -84375 
If  =  -859375 
I  =  -875 


11  =  -90635 
fl  =  -921875 
y  =  -9375 
ll  =  -953125 
II  =  -96875 
i^  =  -984375 


WEIGHT  OF  BELLS. 

Kremlin,    Moscow,    Russia 432,000   lbs. 

Mengoon,     Burmah,     India 201,600    " 

St.    Ivans.     Moscow,    Russia 127,350     " 

Great   Bell   of   Pekin,    China 120,000     " 

Maha    Ganda,    Burmah,    India 95,000     " 

Nishni     Novgorod,     Russia 69,664     " 

Church  of  the  Redeemer,    Moscow, 

Russia     60,736     " 

St.    Paul's,    London,    England 42,000    " 

Olmutz,    Bohemia,    Austria 40,320    " 

Vienna,    Austria    40,200     " 

Westminster,  London,  England,  St. 
Stephen's  Tower,  House  of  Par- 
liament         35,620    " 

Erfurt,     Saxony,     Germany 30,800     " 

Notre     Dame,     Paris,     France 28,670     " 

Montreal,    Canada    28,560    " 

City   Hall,    New  York,    U.    S.    A....    22,500    " 
Liberty  Bell,    Philadelphia,   U.   S.   A, 

The  three  towers  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament 
stand  up  from  behind  Westminster  Hall.  On 
the  left  next  to  Westminster  Bridge  is  the 
Clock  Tower  (St.  Stephen's  Tower),  (Darling- 
ton's London),  containing  the  enormous  bell 
known  as  "Big  Ben." — See  Ency.  Britannica, 
p.   539.   Big  Ben  (cracked),   bet.  13  and  14  tons. 


LENGTH  OF  CELEBRATED  BRIDGES. 

Longest  Total 

NAME.  Span.  Length.         Type. 

Forth,  Scotland 1710  8,296     Cantilever 

Williamsburg,  N.  Y 1600  7,200     Suspension 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 15953^        5,986 

Manhattan,  N.  Y 1470  9,900 

Queensboro,  N.  Y 1182  7,450     Cantilever 

Niagara  (Low  Falls),  N.  Y 821  1,040     Suspension 

Niagara,  N.  Y 550  910     Cantilever 

Washington  Bridge,  N.  Y 509  2,300     Composite 

Firth  of  Tay,  Scotland 245  10,779    Girder 


Spanning. 
Firth  of  Forth 
East  River 


Niagara  River 

Harlem  River 
Firth  of  Tay 


568 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATUTORY  WEIGHTS  OF  THE  BUSHEL. 

Courtesy     of     "International     Harvester    Company    Almanac    and    Encyclopedia." 


STATE  OR 
TERRITORY 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

56 
.56 

56 
56 
54 
58 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
50 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 

56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 
58 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

1 

32 
32 

32 

32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
32 
32 
36 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
26 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
30 

32 

32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
32 
32 

32 
30 
32 
32 
32 

oq 

48 
47 

45 

48 
50 
48 
48 

48 
47 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
47 
48 
48 

48 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

48 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
46 
47 
48 

48 
48 
48 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

i 

m 

42 

52 
40 
52 
48 

52 

42 
52 
50 
52 
50 
56 

ih 

48 
48 
50 
48 
52 
52 
52 

50 

48 
50 
42 
50 
42 
42 
48 
48 

42 
50 
42 

48 
52 
42 
52 
50 

i 
1 

56 
53 

56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

56 

50 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

56 

56 
58 
56 

56 
56 

s 
g 

8 

70 

70 
70 

70 
70 

70 
68 
70 
70 
70 

70 
70 
72 
70 
70 
70 

70 
68 
70 

70 

70 
70 
70 

70 

1 

1 

a 

48 
48 

48 

50 
50 
48 

48 
48 

48 
50 

50 
50 

50 

50 
50 

48 
50 
50 
50 

5.0 

50 

48 

50 
48 

48 

50 
50 

m 

20 

20 

20 
20 

20 

20 
20 
20 

20 

20 
20 
20 
20 

20 
20 
20 

20 

20 
20 
20 

20 

34 

38 
35 

32 

38 
38 
30 
30 

34 

38 
34 

1 
1 

60 
60 

60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
56 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
56 
60 

60 
60 
60 

60 
56 
60 
60 
60 

1 
1 

1 

55 

50 

54 

60 
55 

50 
55 
46 
50 
55 

54 
56 
55 
60 
56 

50 

54 

54 

46 
50 
46 

54 

4G 
50 
55 

56 

54 

50 

50 

50 

45 

50 
50 

50 
50 

50 
50 
50 

50 

1 
O 

57 

57 
52 

56 
57 

57 

48 
57 
57 
57 

52 

52 
54 
52 
57 
57 
57 
57 

57 

57 

52 
55 
52 

50 
50 

52 
56 
57 

52 

57 

57 

^ 

55 

57 

50 

54 
55 

55 
55 

55 
60 

50 

58 

55 
42 

55 

60 
60 
60 

50 

60 
50 
55 

60 
55 

42 

60 

60 

50 
50 

60 
56 
60 

50 

60 
50 

60 
50 

1 

60 

55 

60 

60 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

02 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 

60 

60 
60 
60 

62 
60 

60 
60 

1 

60 
60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 

60 
60 

60 
60 

60 

< 

50 
48 
48 
45 

48 

48 

44 

48 
48 
50 

48 
45 

50 

48 

50 
50 

45 

48 

50 
45 

46 

45 

50 

24 
24 
25 

24 

24 

28 
24 
25 
24 
24 
24 

25 
22 
28 
26 
24 

24 

25 
25 

24 
28 
25 

24 

28 
28 
25 

25 

S 
1 

s. 
-s 

•c 

Q 

33 

33 
33 

33 

28 
33 
33 
33 
33 

'' 

1 

a 

50 

48 

46 
46 
46 
46 
45 

46 

46 
46 

46 
46 

56 

56 
55 

56 

56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

55 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 

55 

55 
55 
56 
56 
56 

56 

56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 

1 

o. 

I: 

II 
II 

1 

V 

1 

1 

1 

1 

United  States 

Alabama , . 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

44 

)660 
!45 

14 
14 

60 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

60 
60 

Delaware 

Dist.  Col 

44' 

)6" 
.45 

ii 

Florida 

Georgia . .      . 

60 

Hawau 

Idaho 

60 

IlIinniB 

Indiana 

44 

44. 

44. 

44. 

44. 

44. 

50^ 

44. 

Ut 

44 

44! 

.45 

)045 
)045 
)045 
)045 

^45 
)045 
1845 
)045 
)045 

.45 
)045 

14 
14 
14 
14 
14 

14 
14 
14 
14 
14 
14 

50 
50 
50 

50 
48 
50 
48 
50 
50 

60 
60 

60 

K-anaaa  ,  , 

60 

Kentucky.... 

60 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan.... 

Minnesota 

Mississioni 

60 
60 
60 

60 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire  — 
New  Jersey 

60 
60 
60 

64 

New  Mexico.. 

New  York 

North.  Carolina 

.'.  . 

!45 

•• 

60 
60 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  CaroUna 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

1 
44^ 

44  S 

44  £ 
445 

445 

045 
045 
.42 

045 

!42 
045 
045 

!45 
045 

14 
14 

50 

48 
48 

48 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

60 
60 

44  5 

.  45 
045 

•• 

48 

60 
60 

Note. —  Rye  meal  takes  48  pounds  to  the  bushel  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  50  in 
New  York,  Rhode  Island,  and  Wisconsin.  Peeled  dried  peaches  take  38  pounds  to  the 
40  in  Virginia.    The  metric  system  is  used  in  the  Philippines  and  Porto  Rico. 


Maine,  Massachusetts, 
bushel  in  Alabama  ana 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


569 


STEAM   PRESSURE   AND    TEMPERATURE. 


Pressxire 

Corresponding 

Pressure 

Corresponding 

Pressure 

Corresponding 
Temperature, 

in  Lbs.  per 

Temperature, 

in  Lbs.  per 

Temperature, 

in  Lbs.  per 

Sq.  In. 

Fahrenheit. 

Sq.  In. 

Fahrenheit. 

Sq.  In*: 

Fahrenheit. 

10 

192.4 

65 

301.3 

140 

357.9 

15 

212.8 

70 

306.4 

150 

363.4 

20 

228.5 

75 

311.2 

160 

368.7 

25 

241.0 

80 

315.8 

170 

373.6 

30 

251.6 

85 

320.1 

180 

378.4 

35 

260.9 

90 

324.3 

190 

382.9 

40 

269.1 

95 

328.2 

200 

387.3 

45 

276.4 

100 

332.0 

210 

391.5 

50 

283.2 

110 

339.2 

220 

395.5 

55 

289.3 

120 

345.8 

230 

399  4 

60 

295.6 

130 

352.1 

240 

403.1 

Degree  of  Fahr. 

2,786 

1,996 

1,947 

1,873 

1,750 

1,000 

980 

941 . .  . 

773 

644. 

640.......... 

630 

617 

600 

518 

442 

380. 

366 

315 

302 

257 

266 

239 

238 

221 

220.... 

218 

216 

214 

213  or  (213.5). 

212 


TABLE    OF    TEMPERATURE. 
Degree  of  Fahr. 


of 


Cast  iron  melts  (Daniell), 
Copper  melts  (Daniell). 
Gold  melts. 
Silver  melts  (Daniell). 
Brass    (containing    25% 

zinc)  melts  (Daniell). 
Iron,  bright  cherry  red  (Poil- 

let). 
Red  heat,  visible  in  daylight 

(Daniell). 
Zinc  begins  to  bum  (Daniell). 
Zinc  melts  (Daniell). 
Mercurv  boils  (Daniell),  662 

(Granam). 
Sulphuric    acid     boils   (Ma- 

grigfnac),  620  (GrahamV 
Whale  oil  boils  (Graham). 
Pure  lead  melts  (Rudberg). 
Linseed  oil  boils. 
Bismuth  melts  (Gmelin). 
Tin  melts  (Crichton). 
Arsenious  acid  volatilizes. 
Metallic  arsenic  sublimes. 
Oil      of      turpentine      boils 

(Kaure). 
Etherification  ends. 
Saturated  sol.  of  sal  ammo- 
niac boils  (Taylor). 
Saturated  sol.  of  acetate  of 

soda  boils. 
Sulphur  melts  (Miller),   226 

(Fo  wiles). 
Saturated  sol.  of  nitre  boils. 
Saturated  sol.  of  salt  boils 

(Paris  Codex). 
Satiu*ated  ^ol.  of  alum,  carb. 

soda,  and  sulph.  zinc,  boil. 
Saturated  sol.  of  chlorate  and 

prussiate  potash,  boil. 
Saturated  sol.  of  sulph.  iron, 

sulph.    copper,   nitrate   of 

lead,  boil. 
Saturated    sol.     of  •  acetate 

lead,    sulph.    and    bitar- 

trate  potash,  boil. 
Water    begins    to    boil    in 


Water  boils  in  metal,  barom- 
eter at  30°. 


211 Alloy  of  5  bismuth,  3  tin,  2 

lead,  melts. 

201 Alloy  of  8  bismuth,  5  lead,  3 

tin,  melts  (Kane). 

207 Sodium  melts  (Regnault). 

185 Nitric  acid  1.52  begins  to  boil. 

180  (about). . .   Starch    forms    a    gelatinous 
compound  with  water. 

176 Rectified  spirit  boils,  benzol 

distils. 

173 Alcohol  <sp.  gr.  .796  to  .800) 

boils. 

151 Beeswax  melts  (Kane),   142 

(Lepage). 
150 Pyroxylic  spirit  boils  (Scan- 
Ian). 
145 White  of  egg  begins  to  coag- 
ulate. 

141.8 Chloroform,  and  ammonia  of 

.945;  boil. 

132 Acetone    (pyroacetic    spirit) 

boils  (Kane). 

122 Mutton    suet    and    styracin 

melt. 

116 Bisulphuret  of  carbon  boils 

(Graham). 

115 Pure  tallow  melts  (Lepage), 

92  (Thomson). 

112 Spermaceti    and    stearin    of 

lard  melt. 

HI. Phosphorus  melts  (Miller). 

98 Temperature  of  the  blood. 

95 Ether  (.720)  boils. 

95 Carbolic    acid    crystals    be- 
come an  oily  liquid. 

88 Acetous  fermentation  ceases, 

water  boils  in  vacuo. 

77 Vinous   ferm.   ends,   acetous 

ferm.  begins. 

64.4 Oil  of  anise  liquefies. 

59 Gay      Lussac's      Alcoomitre 

graduated  at. 

55 Sirups  to  be  kept  at. 

30  (about).  . .   Olive   oil  becomes  partially 
solid. 

32 Water  freezes. 

5 Cold   produced   by   snow   2 

parts  and  salt  1  part. 

-  37.9 Mercury  freezes. 

—Coolev. 


570 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


APPROXIMATE  PERCENTAGE  VARIA- 
TION  IN   RESISTANCE   AT 
ABOUT  20°  C.  (68°  F.) 


Metal  or  Alloy. 

(a) 
Per 
1°C. 

(«) 
Per 
1°F. 

Platinum  Silver  ( 1  pt.  Plati- 
num to  2  pts.  Silver),  hard 
or  annealed. 

0.031 

0.044 
0.072 
0.354 
0.365 
0.365 
0.365 
0.377 
0.387 
0.428 
0.5 

0  017 

German  Silver,  hard  or  an- 

0  024 

0  040 

Bismuth,  pressed.  . 

0  197 

Gold,  annealed 

0.203 

Zinc,  pressed 

0.203 

Tin.    ••  :.:::: 

0  203 

0  209 

Lead,  pressed 

0  215 

Copper,  annealed.  . 

0  238 

Iron  (about) 

0.278 

— Practical  Engineer's  Electrical  Pocket-.Book 
and  Diary. 


HEAT    AND    ELECTRICAL 
CONDUCTIVITY. 


Substances. 

Heat 
Conductiv- 
ity. 

Electrical 

Conductiv- 

ity. 

Silver 

Copper,  .  .  . 

100.0 
73.6 
53.2 
23.6 
19.9 
14.5 
12.0 
11.9 
8.5 
6.4 
6.3 
1.8 

100.0 
73.3 
58.5 
21.5 

Gold  ....:. :::::: 

Brass 

Zinc 

Tin 

22.6 

Steel.  .  .  . 

■l3.0 
10.7 
10.3 

Lead 

Platinum.  .  .  . 

Palladium.  . 

Bismuth , .  , 

1  9 

RESISTANCE  AND  WEIGHT  TABLE. 

American  gauge  for  cotton  and  silk-covered  and  bare  copper  wire. — The  resistances  are 
calculated  for  pure  copper  wire. 

The  number  of  feet  to  the  pound  is  only  approximate  for  insulated  wire. 


Diameter. 

Feet  per  Pound. 

Resistance,  Naked  Copper. 

No.  - 

" 

Cotton 

Silk 

Naked. 

Ohms  per 

Ohms  per 

Feet  per 

Ohms  per 

Covered. 

Covered. 

1,000  Feet. 

Mile. 

Ohm. 

Pound. 

g 

.12849 
.11443 
i 10189 
.09074 
.08081 

20 
25 
32 
40 
50 

6259 

.7892 

.8441 

1.254 

1.580 

3.3 
4.1 
4.4 

6.4 
8.3 

1600 
1272 
1185 
798 
633 

.0125 

9 

.0197 

10 

.0270 

11 

.0501 

12 

42 

46 

.079 

13 

.07196 

55 

60 

64 

1.995 

10.4 

504 

.127 

14 

.06408 

68 

75 

80 

2.504 

13.2 

400 

.200 

15 

.05707 

87 

95 

101 

3.172 

16.7 

316 

.320 

16 

.05082 

110 

120 

128 

4.001 

23 

230 

.512 

17 

.04525 

140 

150 

161 

5.04 

26 

198 

.811 

18 

.0403 

175 

190 

203 

6.36 

33 

157 

1.29 

19 

.03539 

220 

240 

256 

8.25 

43. 

121 

2.11 

20 

.03196 

280 

305 

324 

10.12 

53 

99 

3.27 

21 

.02846 

360 

390 

408 

12.76 

68 

76.5 

5.20 

22 

.02535 

450 

490 

514 

16.25 

85 

61.8 

8.35 

23 

.02257 

5C0 

615 

649 

20.30 

108 

48.9 

13.3 

24 

.0201 

715 

775 

81'8 

25.60 

135 

39.0 

20.9 

25 

.0179 

910 

990 

1,030 

32.2 

170 

31.0 

•33.2 

20 

01594 

1.165 

1,265 

1,300 

40.7 

214 

24.6 

52.9 

27 

01419 

1,445 

1,570 

1,640 

51.3 

270 

19.5 

84.3 

28 

.01264 

1,810 

1,970 

2,070 

64.8 

343 

15.4 

134 

29 

.01126 

2,280 

2,480 

2,617 

81.6 

432 

12.2 

213 

30 

.01002 

2,805 

3,050 

3,287 

103 

538 

9.8 

338 

31 

.00893 

3.605 

3,920 

4,144 

130 

685 

7.7 

539 

32 

.00795 

4,535 

4,930 

5,227 

164 

865 

6.1 

856 

33 

.00708 
.0063 
.00561 
.005 

6,200 
7,830 
9,830 
12,420 

6,590 
8,330 
10,460 
13,210 

206 
260 
328 
414 

1033 
1389 
1820 
2200 

4.9 
3.8 
2.9 
2.4 

1357 

34 

2166 

35 

3521 

36 

-5409 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


573. 


WEIGHT 

IN   POUNDS   PER 

MILE 

OF  COPPER   WIRE. 

Num- 

Roeb- 

Bir- 

Brown 
& 

Sharpe. 

English 
Legal 

'  Num- 

Roeb- 

Bir- 

Brown 

& 
Sharpe. 

English 
Legal 

ber. 

ling. 

ham. 

Stand- 
ard. 

ber. 

ling. 

ming- 
ham. 

Stand- 
ard. 

(KWO 

2,466 

3.286 

3,375 

2,555 

14 

102 

110 

65 

102 

000 

2,092 

2,884 

2,677 

2,210 

15 

83 

83 

52 

83 

00 

1,750 

2,305 

2,123 

1,933 

16 

64 

68 

41 

05 

0 

1,504 

1,846 

1,684 

1,682 

17 

47 

53i 

33 

5a 

1 

1,278 

1,437 

1.335 

1,437 

18 

35 

38 

26 

37 

2 

1,104 

1,287 

1,058 

1,216 

19 

27 

28 

20i 

26 

3 

950 

1,071 

839 

1,012 

20 

\n 

m 

16i 

20i 

4 

808 

904 

665 

860 

21 

16i 

13 

16i 

5 

684 

773 

528 

718 

22 

12 

12i 

10 

12^ 

6 

588 

657 

418 

588 

23 

8i 

lOi 

8  ■ 

7 

500 

517 

332 

495 

24 

7i 
6^ 

6 

7  • 
6 

8 

419 

435 

263 

409 

25 

6 

H 

9 

350 

350 

209 

332 

26 

5 

S 

4 

5 

10 

291 

287 

166 

263 

27 

4i 

4 

3i 

4 

11 

230 

230 

131 

215 

28 

4 

H 

2i 

3^ 

12 

176 

190 

104 

173 

29 

3f 

2f 

2 

3 

13 

135 

144 

83 

135 

30 

3i 

2i 

U 

2* 

WIRE 

GAUGES.  IN 

DECIMAL    PARTS 

OF   AN    INCH. 

Num- 

Bir- 

Eng- 

Old 

ber  of 

Roeb- 
ling. 

Brown 

mmg- 

lish 

Eng- 

Wire 

& 

ham 

Legal 

lish, 

Gauge. 

Sharpe. 

or 

Stand- 

orLon- 

Stubs. 

ard. 

don. 

000000 

0.46 
0.43 

- 

0.464 
0.432 

00000 

0000 

0.393 

0.46 

0.454 

0.4 

0.454 

000 

0.362 

0.40964 

0.425 

0.372 

0.425 

00 

0.331 

0.3648 

0.380 

0.348 

0.38 

0 

0.307 

0.32495 

0.340 

0.324 

0.34 

1 

0.283 

0.2893 

0.3 

0.3 

0.3 

2 

0.263 

0.25763 

0.284 

0.276 

D.284 

3 

0.244 

0.22942 

0.259 

0.252 

9.259 

4 

0.225 

0.20431 

0.238 

0.232 

0.238 

6 

0.207 

0.18194 

0.22 

0.212 

0.22 

6 

0.192 

0.16202 

0.203 

0.192 

0.203 

7 

0.177 

0.14428 

0.18 

0.176 

0.18 

8 

0.162 

0.12849 

0.165 

0.16 

0.165 

9 

0.148 

0.11443 

0.148 

0.144 

.148 

10 

0.135 

0.10189 

0.134 

0.128 

0.134 

11 

0.12 

0.09074 

0.12 

0.116 

0.12 

12 

0.105 

0.08081 

0.109 

0.104 

0.109 

13 

0.092 

0.07196 

0.095 

0.092 

[).095 

14 

0.08 

0.06408 

0.083 

0.08 

3.083 

15 

0.072 

0.05706 

0.072 

0.072 

0.072 

16 

0.063 

0.05082 

0.065 

0.064 

0.065 

17 

0.054 

0.04525 

0.058 

0.056 

0.058 

18 

0.047 

0.0403 

0.049 

0.048 

0.049 

19 

0.041 

0.03589 

0.042 

0.04 

0.04 

20 

0.035 

0.03196 

0.035 

0.036 

0.035 

21 

0.032 

0.02846 

0.032 

0.032 

0.0315 

22 

0.028 

0.02534 

0.028 

0.028 

0.0295 

23 

0.025 

0.02257 

0.025 

0.024 

0.027 

24 

0.023 

0.0201 

0.022 

0.022 

0.025 

25 

0.02 

0.0179 

0.02 

0.02 

0.023 

26 

0.018 

0.01594 

0.018 

0.018 

0.0205 

27 

0.017 

0.01"419 

0.016 

0.016' 

0.01875 

28 

0.016 

0.01264 

0.014 

0.014J 

0.0165 

29 

0.015 

0.01125 

0.013 

0.013( 

0.0155 

30 

0.014 

0  01002 

0.012 

0.0124 

0.01375 

31 

0.0135 

0.00893 

0.010 

o.oue 

0.01225 

82 

0.013 

0.00795 

0.009 

0.01  OS 

0.01125 

B3 

0.011 

0.00708 

0.008 

O.Ol 

0.01025 

34 

0.01 

0.0063 

0.007 

0.0092 

3.0095 

35 

0.0095 

0.00561 

0.005 

0.008' 

0.009 

36 

0.009 

0.005 

0.004 

0.0076 

0.0075 

TABLE  INDICATING  SIZE,  WEIGHT, 

AND  LENGTH  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL 

WIRE. 


Gauge 

Num- 
bers. 

Diam- 
eter, 
Ins. 

Wight 
of  100 
Feet. 
Lbs. 

Wight 

of  One 

Mile, 

Lbs. 

Feet 

in  2000 

Lbs. 

Area. 

Square 

Ins. 

3-0 

.362 

34.73 

1834 

5,759 

.102921 

2-0 

.331 

29.04 

1533 

6,886 

.086049 

1-0 

.307 

25.00 

1318 

8,000 

.074023 

1 

.283 

21.23 

1121 

9,425 

.062901 

2 

.263 

18.34 

968 

10.905 

.054325 

3 

.244 

15.78 

833 

12,674 

.046759 

4 

.225 

13.39 

707 

14,936 

.039760 

5 

.207 

11.35 

599 

17,621 

.033653 

6 

.192 

9.73 

514 

20,555 

.028952 

7 

.177 

8.30 

439 

24,906 

024605 

8 

.162 

6.96 

367 

28,734 

.020612 

9 

.148 

5.80 

306 

34,483 

.017203 

10 

.135 

4.83 

255 

41,408 

.014313 

11 

.120 

3.82 

202 

52,356 

.011309 

12 

.105 

2.92 

154 

68.492 

.008659 

13 

.092 

2.24 

118 

89.286 

.006647 

14 

.080 

1.69 

89 

118.342 

.005026 

15 

.072 

1.37 

72 

145.985 

.004071 

16 

.063 

1.05 

55 

190,476 

.003117 

17 

.054 

0.77 

41 

259,740 

.002290 

18 

.047 

0.58 

31 

344,827 

.001734 

19 

.041 

0.45 

24 

444,44'! 

.001320 

20 

.035 

0.32 

17 

625  .OOC 

,000962 

21 

.032 

0.27 

14 

740,741 

.000804 

22 

.028 

0.21 

11 

952,381 

.000615 

23 

.025 
.023 

0.175 
0.140 

9.24 
7.39 

.000491 

24 

.000415 

25 

.020 

0.116 

6.124 

.000314 

26 

.018 

.017 

.016 

.015 

.014 

.0135 

.013 

.011 

.010 

.0095 

.009 

0.093 
0.083 
0.074 
0.061 
0.054 
0.050 
0.046 
0.037 
0.030 
0.025 
0.021 

4.91 

4.382 

3.907 

3.22 

2.851 

2.64 

2.428 

1.953 

1.584 

1.32 

1.161 

.000254 

27 

.000227 

28 

.000201 

29 

.00017G 

30 

.000154 

31 

.000143 

32 

.000132 

33 

.000095 

34 

.000078 

35 

.000071 

36 

.000064 

572 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LINEAR   EXPANSION   OF   SOLIDS   AT   ORDINARY   TEMPERATURES. 


Substance. 


Aluminium  (cast).. .  . 
Antimony  (cryst.)  .  .. 

Urass,  ca.st 

English  plate. 

sheet 

Brick,  best  stock.  .  .  . 
Bronze  (Baily's).  .  .  . 

Copper,  17 

Tin.  2* 

Zinc,  1 


Cement,  Roman,  dry. 
Cement,  Portland 

(mixed),  pure 

Cement,        Portland, 

mortar,  with  sand.. 
Concrete :         cement 

mortar  and  pebbles 

Copper 

F^bonite 

Glass,  English  flint.  . 

' '     French  flint. .  . 

'*     white,     free 
from  lead. .  . 

' '     blown 

'*     thermometer  .. 

"     hard.  .  .' 

Granite,  gray,  dry.  .  . 
'*       red      "... 

Gold,  pure 

Iridium,  pure 

Iron,  wrought 

* '    Swedish 

' '    cast 

' '    soft 

Lead 

Marble,  moist 

dry 

"       white  Sicil- 
ian, dry, .  . 
Marble,  black  Galway 

' '       Carrara .... 
Masonry,  of  brick  in 

cement     mortar: 

headers 


Forl°Fahr.  For  1°  Cent, 


Length  =  I. 
.00001234 
.00000627 
.00000957 
.00001052 
.00001040 
.00000310 

.00000986 

.00000975 
.00000797 

.00000594 

.00000656 

.00000795 
.00000887 
.00004278 
.00000451 
.00000484 

.00000492 
.00000498 
.00000499 
.00000397 
.00000438 
.00000498 
.00000786 
.00000356 
.00000648 
.00000636 
.00000556 
.00000626 
.00001571 
.00000663 
.00000363 

.00000786 
.00000308 
.00000471 


.00000494 


Length  =  1. 
.00002221 
.00001129 
.00001722 
.00001894 
.00001872 
.00000550 

.00001774 

.00001755 
.00001435 

.00001070 

.00001180 

.00001430 
.00001596 
.00007700 
.00000812 
.00000872 


.00000897 
.00000714 
.00000789 
.00000897 
.00001415 
.00000641 
.00001166 
.00001145 
.00001001 
.00001126 
.00002828 
.00001193 
.00000654 

.00001415 
.00000554 
,00000848 


.00000890 


Substance. 


Masonry,  of  brick  in 
cement  mortar: 
stretchers 

Mercury  (cubic  ex- 
pansion)  

Nickel 

O.smium 

Palladium,  pure 

Pewter 

Plaster,  white 

Platinum 

Platinum,  90  per  cent. 
Iridium,      10      per 

cent 

hammered  and  an 


Platinum,       85       per 

cent 

Iridium,      15      per 
cent 

Porcelain 

Quartz,  parallel  to 
major  axis,  t  0°  to 
40°  C 

Quartz,  perpendicu- 
lar to  major  axis,  t 
0°  to  40°  C 

Quartz,  cubic  expan- 
.sion  at  16°  C 

Silver,  pure 

Slate 

Steel,  cast 

' '     tempered 

Stone  (sandstone), 
dry 

Stone  (sandstone), 
Rauville 

Stone  (sandstone). 
Caen 

Tin 

Wedgwood  ware 

Wood,  pine 

Zinc 

Zinc,  8 

Tin,  1 


Forl°Fahr.  Fori ° Cent 


Lenath-  1 


.00000256 

.00009984 
.00000695 
.00000317 
.00000556 
.00001129 
.00000922 
.00000479 


1 

I 

y  .00000476 

I 

J 


.00000453 


.00000200 


.00000434 


.00000788 

.00001924 
.00001079 
,00000577 
.00000636 
.00000689 

.00000652 

.00000417 

.00000494 
.00001163 
.00000489 
.00000276 
.00001407 

00001496 


Lengths  1. 


.C0000400 

.00017971 
.00001251 
.00000570 
.00001000 
.00002033 
.00001660 
.00000863 


.00000857 


.00000815 
.00000360 

.00000781 

,00001419 

.00003463 
.00001943 
,00001038 
.00001144 
,00001240 

.00001174 

,00000750 

.00000890 
,00002094 
,00000881 
.00000496 
.00002532 

,00002692 


— Clark's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


EXPANSION  OF  LIQUIDS. 
The  cubical  expansion,  or  expansion  of  vol- 
ume, of  water,  from  32°  F.  to  212°  F.  and  up- 
wards, is  given  in  the  following  Table.  The 
rate  of  expansion  increa.=ie.s  with  the  tempera- 
ture. The  expansion  for  the  range  of  tem- 
perature from  32°  to  212°  is  .0466,  or  fully  4^ 
per  cent,  of  the  volume  at  32°;  or  an  average 
of  .000259  per  degree,  or  ^-^  part  of  the  vol- 
ume at  32°  F. 

Expansion  of  Liquids  from  32°  to  212°  F. 
Volume  at  32°  =  1. 


Liquid, 

Volume 
at  212°. 

Expan- 
sion. 

Alcohol 

Nitric  acid 

1.1100 
1.1100 
1 . 0800 
1.0700 
1.0500 
1.0466 
1.018 

I 

Olive  oil, ,  . 

i 

Turpentine 

Sea  water 

Water 

t 

Mercury 

t 

SMEATON  DIVING  BELL. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


573 


AREA  OF  CIRCLES  IN  SQUARE  FEET. 


Diam- 
eter. 

TENTHS  OF  INCHES.                                         1 

0.0    1    0.1    1    0.2 

0.3    1    0.4    1    0.5    1    0.6    1    0.7    |    0.8    |  0.9 

AREA-SQUARE  FEET. 

Inches. 

1 

0.006 

0.007 

0.008 

0.009 

0.011 

0.012 

0.014 

0.016 

0.018 

0.020 

2 

.022 

.024 

.026 

.029 

.031 

.034 

.037 

.040 

.043 

.046 

3 

.049 

.052 

.056 

.059 

.063 

.067 

.071 

.075 

.079 

.083 

4 

.087 

.092 

.096 

.101 

.106 

.111 

.115 

.121 

.126 

.131 

5 

.136 

.142 

.147 

.153 

.159 

.165 

.171 

.177 

.184 

.190 

6 

.196 

.203 

.210 

.216 

.223 

.230 

.238 

.245 

.252 

.260 

7 

.267 

.275 

.283 

.291 

.299 

.307 

.315 

.323 

.332 

.340 

8 

.349 

.358 

.367 

.376 

.385 

.394 

.403 

.413 

.422 

.432 

9 

.442 

.452 

.462 

.472 

.482 

.492 

.503 

.513 

.524 

.535 

10 

.545 

.556 

.568 

.579 

.590 

.601 

.613 

.625 

.636 

.648 

11 

.660 

.672 

.684 

.697 

.709 

.721 

.734 

.747 

.760 

.772 

12 

.785 

.799 

.812 

.825 

.839 

.852 

.866 

.880 

.894 

.908 

13 

.922 

.936 

.950 

.965 

.979 

.994 

1.009 

1.024 

1.039 

1.054 

14 

1.069 

1.084 

1.100 

1.115 

1.131 

1.147 

1.163 

1.179 

1.195 

1.211 

15 

1.227 

1.244 

1.260 

1.277 

1.294 

1.310 

1.327 

1.344 

1.362 

1.379 

16 

1.396 

1.414 

1.431 

1.449 

1.467 

1.485 

1.503 

1.521 

1.539 

1.558 

17 

1.576 

1.595 

1.614 

1.632 

1.651 

1.670 

1.689 

1.709 

1.728 

1.748 

18 

1.767 

1.787 

1.807 

1.827 

1.847 

1.8C7 

1.887 

1.907 

1.928 

1.948 

19 

1.969 

1.990 

2.011 

2.032 

2.053 

2.074 

2.095 

2.117 

2.138 

2.160 

20 

2.181 

2.204 

2.226 

2.248 

2.270 

2.292 

2.315 

2.337 

2.360 

2.383 

21 

2.405 

2.428 

2.451 

2.475 

2.498 

2.521 

2.545 

2.568 

2.592 

2.616 

22 

2.640 

2.664 

2.688 

2.712 

2.737 

2.761 

2.786 

2.810 

2.835 

2.860 

23 

2.885 

2.910 

2.936 

2.961 

2.986 

3.012 

3.038 

3.064 

3.089 

3.115 

24 

3.142 

3.168 

3.194 

3.221 

3.247 

3.275 

3.301 

3.328 

3.355 

3.382 

Diam- 
eter. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Area. 

Inches 
25 

Sq.ft. 
3.41 

Inches. 
32 

Sq.ft. 
5.59 

Inches . 
39 

Sq.ft. 
8.30 

Inches. 
46 

Sq.ft. 
11.54 

Inches 
53 

Sq.ft. 
15.32 

26 

3.69 

33 

5.94 

40 

8.73 

47 

12.05 

54 

15.90 

27 

3.98 

34 

6.30 

41 

9.17 

48 

12.57 

55 

16.50 

28 

4.28 

35 

6.68 

42 

9.62 

49 

13.10 

56 

17.10 

29 

4.69 

36 

7.07 

43 

10.08 

50 

13.64 

57 

17.72 

30 

4.91 

37 

7.47 

44 

10.56 

51 

14.19 

58 

18.35 

31 

5.24 

38 

7.88 

45 

11.04 

52 

14.75 

59 

18.99 

PULLING  STRENGTH   OF  MEN  AND  ANIMALS. 
Compiled  from  a  test  made  by  Barniim  &  Bailey's  Circus. 


Number. 

Description. 

Weight  of 
eA  in 

Total  Pullin 
Lbs. 

Pull  per 
Unit. 

Pull  per 
Pound  of 
Weight. 

2 

Horses 

1,600 

150 

150 

1,800 

1.800 

12,000 

3,750 
8,750 
12,000 
8.875 
2,750 
8,750 

1,S75 
175 
120 
1,479 
1:375 
8,750 

1.172  lbs. 

60 
100 

Men. 

Men 

1.166  " 
0.8      •• 

6 

Horses ... 

0.822  •• 

2 

Camels 

0.764  •• 

1 

Elephant 

0.729  •• 

574 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE    AMERICAN    EXPERIENCE   TABLE   OF    MORTALITY. 


Expectation 
of  Life  in 

Number 

Expectation 

Number 

Age. 

Dying  in 

Age. 

of  Life  in 

Dying  in 

Years. 

Each  1,000. 

Years. 

Each  1,000. 

20 

42.20 

7.81 

60 

14.10 

26.69 

21 

41.53 

7.86 

61 

13.47 

28.88 

22 

40.85 

7.91 

62 

12.86 

31.29 

23 

40.17 

7.96 

63 

12.26 

33.94 

24 

39.49 

8.01 

64 

11.67 

36.87 

25 

38.81 

8.07 

65 

11.10 

40.13 

26 

38.12 

8.13 

66 

10.54 

43.71 

27 

27.43 

8.20 

67 

10.00 

47.65 

28 

36.73 

8.26 

68 

9.47 

52.00 

29 

36.03 

,8.35 

69 

8.97 

56.76 

30 

35.33 

8.43 

70 

8.48 

61.99 

31 

34.63 

8.51 

71 

8.00 

67.67 

32 

33.92 

8.61 

7? 

7.55 

73.73 

33 

33.21 

8.72 

73 

7.11 

80.18 

34 

32.50 

8.83 

74 

6.68 

87.03 

35 

31.78 

8.95 

75 

6.27 

94.37 

36 

31.07 

9.09 

76 

5.88 

102.31 

37 

30.35 

9.23 

77 

5.49 

111.06 

38 

29.62 

9.41 

78 

5.11 

120.83 

39 

28.90 

9.59 

79 

4,74 

131.73 

40 

28.18 

9.79 

80 

4.39 

144  47 

41 

27.45 

10.01 

81 

4.05 

158.61 

42 

26.72 

10.25 

82 

3.71 

174.30 

43 

26.00 

10.52 

83 

3.39 

191.56 

44 

25.27 

10.83 

84 

3.08 

211.36 

45 

24.54 

11.16 

85 

2.77 

235.55 

46 

23.81 

11.56 

86  • 

2.47 

265.68 

47 

23.08 

12.00 

87 

2.18 

303.02 

48 

22.36 

12.51 

88 

1.91 

346.69 

49 

21.63 

13.11 

89 

1.66 

395.86 

50 

20.91 

13.78 

90 

1.42 

454.55 

51 

20.20 

14.54 

91 

1.19 

532.47 

52 

19.49 

15.39 

92 

.98 

634.26 

53 

18.79 

16.33 

93 

.80 

734.18 

54 

18.09 

17.40 

94 

.64 

857.14 

55 

17.40 

18.57 

95 

.60 

1000.00 

56 

16.72 

19.89 

57 

16.05 

21.34 

58 

15.39 

22.94 

59 

14.74 

24.72 

IMPORTANT  INFORMATION  ABOUT  OLD  COINS. 


The  Invention  and  use  of  coins  is  attributed 
to  the  Lydians,  a  Greek  nation,  about  862 
B.  C,  whose  money  was  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  dating  of  coins  was  first  adopted  about 
the    fifteenth    century. 

OLD  COINS.  Coins  are  not  always  valuable 
on  account  of  their  age.  The  old  Spanish 
silver  coins  which  passed  current  in  this  coun- 
try from  1700  to  1800  have  no  premium  value, 
neither  do  common  dates  of  cents  in  ordinary 
condition  of  1798,  1802  and  1803,  or  old  Half 
Dollars  of  the  common  dates  between  the  years 
1805  and  1835.  In  America  it  is  the  fashion 
to  make  up  sets  of  the  different  coins  com- 
prising each  year  of  their  issue,  In  as  fine 
condition  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain  them, 
and  it  is  the  demand  for  the  coin  by  collectors 
which    makes    the    value. 

THE  PRICES  paid  for  rare  coins  are  chiefly 
regulated  by  their  state  of  preservation,  the 
number  of  pieces  issued  of  a  certain  date, 
and  the  demand  for  same.  But  neither  the 
metal  out  of  which  the  coin  Is  made,  nor  the 
age,   has  anything  to  do  with  the  prices  paid. 

THE  PRICES  quoted  in  this  book  are  the 
prices  paid  by  a  prominent  dealer  for  coins 
in    good    to    proof    condition,    hence    $5.00    to 


$10.00  means  that  they  will  pay  anywhere 
between  those  prices,  according  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  coin.  When  applied  to  a  cent, 
one  having  the  date  distinct,  hair  not  worn 
off,  and  all  the  letters  legible  on  both  sides; 
applied  to  a  silver  coin  means  a  good  bold 
impression;  and  to  a  gold  coin  one  that  pre- 
sents a  handsome  appearance  and  does  not 
show    signs    of    wear. 

NEVER  CLEAN  A  RARE  COIN.  A  some- 
what corroded  coin  is  oftentimes  more  valu- 
able than  a  cleaned  one.  The  cleaning  of  a 
rare  coin  considerably  decreases  its  value. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE   CONDITION 
OF  COINS. 

THE     STATE     OF     PRESERVATION     OF  COINS   IS 
CLASSIFIED    AS    FOLLOWS! 
"PROOF." 
Proof    coins    are    especially    struck    for    col- 
lectors   from    polished     blanks     and  dies     and 
finished   by  hand,    which   gives  them  a  mirror- 
like,  smooth,   reflective  surface.     The  most  per- 
fect    condition     known.       The     mint  makes     a 
small    charge    for    the    proof    coins,  and    they 
can  only  be  had   during  the  year  of  the  issue. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


575 


"UNCIRCULATED." 

Uncirculated  coins  are  coins  struck  for  cir- 
culation. But  coins,  to  be  classified  as  "un^ 
circulated"  must  be  as  new  and  bright  as 
when  dropped  from  the  coinage  press;  a  coin 
that  has  been  In  circulation,  no  matter  whether 
it  shows  no  marks  of  wear,  cannot  be  classi- 
fied   as   uncirculated. 

"FINE." 

Fine  coins  are  those  that  have  been  in  cir- 
culation and  have  lost  their  original  mint 
brightness,  but  they  must  not  show  any 
scratches    or    nicks. 

"GOOD." 
Good    coins    are   those   which    have    seen   con- 
siderable  circulation,    but   every   feature   of   the 
coin    must    show    plainly.      It    must    not    show 
any    bad    scratches    or    nicks. 

"FAIR." 
Fair  coins   are   those   which   are   much    worn, 
but    on    which    the    design,    lettering    and    date 
are   clearly   visible. 

"POOR." 

Poor    coins    are    those    on    which    the    design, 

lettering     and     date     are     almost     obliterated. 

Poor    coins,    unless    of    a    very    rare    date,    are 

worth    their    intrinsic    value    only. 

MUTILATED    COINS. 
Mutilated    coins    are    those    with    holes,     bad 
cuts    or    scratches,    or    otherwise    damaged    and 
are    worth    their    intrinsic    value    only. 

"OVER-DATES." 
When  a  die,  made  In  one  year,  is  used  in 
a  later  year,  by  engraving  one  figure  over 
another,  the  piece  struck  therefrom  is  called 
an  "over-date."  For  Instance,  the  same  die 
from  which  the  Cents  of  1810  were  struck 
was  used  in  1811,  by  sinking  a  1  over  the 
0,  and  portions  of  the  latter  figure  are  plainly 
visible. 

COUNTERFEIT  RARE  COINS. 

COUNTERFEITS    OF     RARE     COINS    MAY    BE     DI- 
VIDED AS  follows: 
"RE-STRIKES." 

Re-strikes  are  pieces  made  from  the  orig- 
inal dies,  but  at  a  later  period  than  the  date 
on  the  coin.  Among  the  American  coins  we 
find  re-strikes  of  the  dollar  of  1804,  and  of 
the  half  cents  of  1831,  1836  and  1840  to  1849. 
The  re-strikes,  of  course,  do  not  command 
near  the  price  of  the  originals.  At  present 
the  dies  are  destroyed  after  the  expiration  of 
each    year. 

'  *  ALTERED-D  ATES. ' ' 

Altered  dates  are  original  coins  which  have 
been  altered  or  tooled  from  one  date  to  an- 
other, and  these  may  justly  be  classed  as 
forgeries.  The  rarer  dates  of  the  American 
coins  are  at  times  tampered  with;  especially 
the  dollars  of  1801,  which  are  altered  to  the 
1804.  But  an  altered  date  can  easily  be  de- 
tected by  the  aid   of  a  good  magnifying  glass. 

"ELECTROTYPES." 
The  front  and  back  of  electrotype  coins  are 
made  separate  and  are  then  stuck  together, 
and  they  may  be  easily  recognized  by  the 
mark  on  edge  showing  where  the  two  sides 
haye  been  joined  together.  They  are  also  of 
wrong  weight.  The  electrotypes,  as  a  rule, 
are  not  made  to  deceive  the  uninitiated,  but 
are  simply  made  as  copies  of  very  rare  coins, 
where  the  two  sides  have  been  joined  to- 
gether chased.  Electrotypes  may  generally  be 
split    in   two   with   a   strong   knife. 


"CAST    COINS." 

Casts,  made  from  the  original  dies,  are 
easily  detected  by  their  light  weight  or  thick- 
ness. The  lettering  on  cast  coins  is  not  as 
sharp  as  on  struck  coins,  and  the  surface  has 
a  soft  appearance,  or  else  is  covered  with 
minute   sand   holes. 

Forgeries  struck  from  false  dies  are  mostly 
found  of  the  rarer  Colonial  and  U.  S.  Pieces, 
also  of  rare  ancient  gold  .and  silver  coins. 
They  are  easily  detected  by  anyone  somewhat 
familiar  with  rare  coins,  as  the  weight  of 
the  forgeries  is  mostly  Incorrect,  and  the 
lettering  and  design  are  sharper  than  on  the 
genuine. 

Fine  and  Perfect  U.  S.  Cents.  There  are 
here  and  there  to  be  found  cents  of  the 
early  dates  which  have  been  laid  away  care- 
fully since  the  time  they  were  coined.  These 
are  sometimes  valuable.  For  instance,  for  a 
cent  of  1799  in  good  condition  one  can  get  $5; 
but  for  a  fine  cent  of  the  same  date,  from  $15 
to  $30;  and  for  a  perfect  cent  of  1799,  that  is 
as  bright  and  sharp  as  the  day  it  was  coined, 
$50. 

Cleaning.  Do  not  attempt  to  clean  fiiie 
coins;  they  should  be  handled  only  on  the 
edge,  and  kept  wrapped  carefully  in  chamois 
skin  or  soft  tissue  paper,  or  laid  on  velvet. 
Gold  and  silver  coins  may  be  rinsed,  not 
washed,  in  hot  water  and  soap.  Copper 
coins  should  be  placed  in  sweet  oil  only  to 
remove  grease  and  dirt;  acid  and  scouring 
will    ruin    any   coin   of   value. 

"EXPLANATIONS." 

THE     TERMS     USED     TO    DEFINE    THE    VARIOUS 
PARTS    OF    A    COIN. 

The  principal  object  represented  on  a  coin  ia 
called  the  Type. 

The  space  between  the  type  and  the  circum- 
ference  is    called    the    Field. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  area  of  a  coin 
beneath  the  type,  and  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  field  by  a  horizontal  line,  la 
called  the   Exergue. 

Small  objects  represented  either  in  the  field 
or  exergue  as  adjuncts  to  the  main  type  are 
called   Symbols. 

Portions  of  a  coin  which  are  sunk  below 
the  level   of  the  surface  are  said  to  be  Incuse. 

Obverse  means  the  head  or  face  of  the  coin, 
or    the    side    having   the   principal    device. 

Reverse  means  the  tail,  or  less  important 
side. 

Legend   means  the   reading  on   the  coin. 

Flowing  Hair  denotes  the  hair  flowing  loose- 
ly  at   the   back    of  the   head. 

Liberty  Cap  denotes  a  bust  supporting  a  pole 
on   which    is   mounted   a   cap   of   Liberty. 

Fillet  Head  denotes  the  hair  tied  in  a  knot 
at    the    back    of    the    head. 

Turban  Head  denotes  a  head  surmounted 
by    a   turban    inscribed    "Liberty." 

Dies.  A  thick  die  usually  has  lettering  on 
the  edge  of  the  coin;  a  thin  die  has  none. 

First  Regular  Coinage  denotes  the  first  year 
a  coin  was  issued  for  circulation.  Patterns 
are    coins   struck    off   but    not   Into    circulation. 

Mint  Marks  consist  of  small  letters  on  the 
coin.  O.,  for  New  Orleans;  D.,  for  Dahlonega; 
C.  C,  for  Carson  City;  S.,  for  San  Francisco, 
while  those  coined  at  the  Philadelphia  mini 
have   none. 

Arrows  and  Rays.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
year  1858,  arrow  points  were  added  at  e»ch 
side    of   the   date,    and    rays    around   the   eagle. 

Milled  Edge.  In  the  early  part  of  1836  the 
Half  Dollars  were  coined  with  lettered  edge, 
and  in  the  latter  part  with  milled  or  ribbed 
edge,    Rs  they  are  to-day. 


676 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  MOTTO  ON  U.  S.  COINS. 

"In   God   We  Trust." 

Since  the  new  1907  issues  of  $10.00  and 
$20.00  gold  pieces  appeared,  many  are  of  the 
belief  that  all  U.  S.  coins  without  the  motto 
command  a  premium.  This  is  not  true.  The 
motto  was  not  placed  on  coins  till  1864;  the 
two-cent  piece  being  the  first  coin  bearing 
the  motto.  So,  of  course,  all  U.  S.  coins 
prior  to  1864  are  without  the  motto. 

WEIGHTS  AND   FINENESS    OF  COINS. 

A  gold  dollar  weighs  25.8  grains  9/10  pure 
gold,    or  23.22    grains. 

An  ounce  of  gold  1000  fine  is  worth  $20.- 
671834  4-, 

An  ounce  of  silver  1000  fine  is  worth  (coin- 
age  value)    $1.292929  +  . 

All  American  gold  and  silver  coins  are  9/10, 
or   .900  fine. 

A  pound  sterling  weighs  123.274+  grains, 
11/12    pure    gold,    or    113.0016+    grains. 

A   pound   sterling  is  worth    $4.8665635287  +  . 

An  ounce  of  silver,  English  standard,  is 
.925    fine:=444    grains    pure    silver. 

An  ounce  of  silver,  American  standard,  is 
.969   fine  =  432    grains   pure    silver. 

An  ounce  of  silver,  "fine"  standard,  is  1.000 
fine=:480  grains  pure   silver. 

A  United  States  silver  dollar  weighs  412^/^ 
grains  .900  fine;  contains  371.25  grains  pure 
silver. 


A  dollar  of  fractional  silver  weighs  25  grains 
=385.80  grains,  .900  fine;  contains  347.22  grains 
pure   silver. 

An  English  shilling  weighs  87.273  grains, 
.900  fine;   contains  80.729  grains  pure  silver. 

The  pure  gold  in  gold  coins  of  the  United 
States  is  worth  the  face  value  of  the  coin. 

The  alloy  in  gold  coins  of  the  United  States 
is  pure  silver  and  copper. 

The  alloy  in  silver  coins  of  the  United 
States   is  pure   copper. 

U.  S.  MINT  TEST  FOR  GOLD  AND 
SILVER, 

The  following  is  a  test  for  determining 
whether  a  coin  is  good  or  bad.  Use  the 
liquids  as  near  the  edge  of  the  coin  as  pos- 
sible, as  that  is  the  part  most  worn.  A  drop 
of  the  preparation  will  have  no  effect  on  a 
genuine  coin,  while  it  can  be  plainly  seen 
on  counterfeits.  Heavily  plated  coins  should 
be   scraped    slightly    before   testing. 

TEST    FOR    GOLD. 
Strong  Nitric   Acid,    6I/2    drachms. 
Mur.   Acid,    %    drachm,    or  15  drops. 
Water,    5    drachms. 

TEST  FOR  SILVER. 

24    Grains    of    Nitrate    of    Silver. 

30   Drops    Nitric    Acid. 

Water,    1    ounce. 

The  above  test  should  conform  with  diam- 
eter, thickness  and  weight,  the  test  used  at 
the  mint. 


PREMIUM  COIN  LIST. 


$20.00   GOLD    PIECES. 
DOUBLE   EAGLES. 

Coinage  commenced  in  1849;  only  one  speci- 
men   of   this   date   is   known. 

1881,  $20.50  to  $21.00—1882,  $21.00  to  $22.50— 
1883,  $22.00  to  $25.00—1884,  $21.00  to  $25.00— 
1885,  $20.50  to  $21.00—1886,  $20.50  to  $21.00— 
1887,  $21.00  to  $22.50—1891.  $20.50  to  $21.00— 
1907,  Flying  eagle,  the  date  in  Roman  letters 
—$21.00  to  $22.50— Flying  eagle,  the  date  in 
numerals,  $20.50—1908,  Flying  Eagle,  com- 
mands   no    premium. 

The  other  dates  of  the  $20.00  gold  pieces 
command    no    premium. 

$10.00    GOLD   PIECES. 
EAGLES. 

Coinage  commenced  in  1795.  None  issued 
in  1802,  1805  to  1837  inclusive.  Coined  at 
the  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
Carson   City   and   Denver  mints. 

1795.  $11.00  to  $13.00—1796,  $12.00  to  $15.00 
—1797,  small  eagle,  $15.00  to  $20.00—1797,  large 
eagle,  $11.00  to  $12.00—1798,  six  stars  before 
Liberty  head,  $13.00  to  $18.00—1798,  four  stars 
before  Liberty  head,  $13.00  to  $20.00—1799  to 
1803.  $11.00  to  $12.00—1804,  $12.00  to  $15.00— 
1838,  $10.50  to  $12.50—1863  to  1877,  $10.25  to 
$11.00.  1907.  without  the  motto,  commands 
no  premium. 

$6.00   GOLD   PIECES. 

Coinage  oommenoed  In  1795.  None  were 
coined  In  1801,  1816  and  1817.  Coined  at  the 
Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
Charlotte,  N.  C,  Dahlonega,  Ga.,  Carson  City 
and  Denver   mints. 

1795,  Small  eagle,  $6.50  to  $7.50—1795,  Large 
eagle,  $10.00  to  $20.00—1796,  $7.00  to  $10.00— 
1797,  small  eagle,  15  stars,  $10.00  to  $18.00— 
1797,    large    eagle,    16    stars,    $10.00   to    $22.00— 


1798,  1799,  1800,  $5.50  to  $6.50—1798,  small 
eagle,  $20.00  to  $30.00—1802  to  1814,  turban 
head,  left,  $5.25  to  $5.75—1815,  $75.00  to 
$100.00—1818,  $5.50  to  $6.50—1819  and  1832, 
$8.00  to  $18.00—1820,  $7.00  to  $9.00—1821,  $10.00 
to  $15.00—1822,  $75.00  to  $100.00—1823,  $8.00 
to  $10.00—1824,  $15.00  to  $20.00—1825,  1826, 
1827,  1830,  1831,  1833,  $8.00  to  $13.00—1828, 
$15.00  to  $25.00—1829,  $15.00  to  $25.00—1834, 
with  "E  Pluribus  Unum"  over  eagle,'  $7.50  to 
$10.00—1834,  without  "E  Pluribus  Unum,"  no 
premium— 1875,  $7.50  to  $9.00—1876,  $5.50  to 
$6.00—1877,  $5.50  to  $6.00—1877,  $10.00  to 
$13.00.  The  dates  of  $5.00  gold  pieces  not 
mentioned  in  this  list  do  not  command  a 
premium. 

$4.00— STELLA. 
1879,     $20.00—1880,     $35.00. 

$3.00. 
1864-65,  Indian  Head,  $4.00  to  $5.00—1873, 
$10.00  to  $15.00—1875,  $15.00  to  $20,00—1876, 
$5.00  to  $10.00—1877,  $5.00  to  $8.00.  $3.50  to 
$4.00  is  paid  for  $3.00  gold  pieces  of  any 
date,  if  in  perfect  condition.  PMrst  regular 
issue,    1854;    last,    1889. 

$2.50— QUARTER  EAGLE, 
1796,  without  stars,  $7.50  to  $10.00—1796, 
with  stars,  $9.00  to  $15.00—1797,  $9.00  to 
$15.00—1798,  $6.00  to  $10.00—1802-4-5-7-8,  $3.00 
to  $5.00—1806,  $7.00  to  $15.00—1821-24-25-27. 
$5.00  to  $8.00—1826,  $10.00  to  $30.00—1829-30-31- 
82-33,  $3.00  to  $5.00—1834,  With  "E  Pluribus 
Unum,"  $4.00  to  $6.00.  First  regular  coinage, 
1796;  none  coined  1799.  1800,  '01,  '08,  '09  to 
'20,  '22,  '23,  '28  bearing  little  or  no  premium, 
1835  to   date. 

ONE  DOLLAR. 
1863,    '64  and  '65,   Indian  head,    $4.00  to   $6.00 
—1866,    Indian    head,     $2.50    to    $4.00—1875,    In- 
dian   head,    $10.00   to    $12.00.      Any    other   dates 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


from  1849  to  date,  $2.00  to  $3.00.  First  reg- 
ular Issue,  1849;  last,  1889;  1903,  Louisiana 
Purchase.      St.    Louis    gold    dollars,    $1.75. 

U.  S.  SILVER  COINS, 
ONE  DOLLAR, 
The  rarest  and  most  desirable  coin  of  the 
regular  mint  series  is  the  Silver  Dollar  of 
1804.  Of  this  coin,  however,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  authenticity  should  be  fully  proven, 
as  there  are  many  altered  dated  in  the  mar- 
ket, as  well  as  re-strikes  made  at  a  later 
period.  1794,  flowing  hair,  small  eagle,  $25.00 
to  $50.00—1795,  flowing  hair,  small  eagle,  $1.50 
to  $2.00—1795,  '96,  Fillet  head,  small  eagle, 
.$1.50  to  $2.00—1797,  fillet  head,  small  eagle, 
$1.50  to  $2.00—1798,  fillet  head,  13  stars,  small 
eagle,  $2.00  to  $2.50—1798,  fillet  head,  15  stars, 
small  eagle,  $2.00  to  $3.50—1798,  fillet  head, 
13  stars,  large  eagle,  $1.25  to  $1.75—1799,  fillet 
head,  5  stars  facing  eagle,  $1.50  to  $2.00— 
1799,  fillet  head,  6  stars,  $1.25  to  $1.75—1800, 
fillet  head,  large  eagle,  $1.25  to  $1.75—1801, 
fillet  head,  large  eagle,  $1.25  to  $2.00—1802, 
1803,  $1.25  to  $1.50 — 1804,  no  originals  known 
—1836,  Liberty  seated,  fiying  eagle,  stars, 
$4.00  to  $7.00—1836,  C.  Gobrecht's  name  in 
field,  $15.00  to  $25.00—1838,  Liberty  seated, 
flying  eagle,  stars,  $25.00  to  $40.00—1839,  Lib- 
erty seated,  flying  eagle,  stars,  $25.00  to 
$35.00—1840,  Liberty  seated,  eagle,  $1.15—1851, 
1852,  $20.00  to  $30.00—1854,  $2.00  to  $3.00— 
1855,  $1.50  to  $1.75—1856,  1857,  $1.25  to  $1.50— 
1858,  $10.00  to  $15.00—1900,  Lafayette  dollar, 
perfect  only,  $1.10.  First  regular  coinage, 
1794;  none  coined  1805  to  1835;  1874  to  1877; 
little  or  no  premium  on  dates  not  mentioned 
except   on  proofs  only,    70c. 

TRADE    DOLLARS. 

Proofs  only,  75c.  Coinage  commenced  In 
1873;    repudiated    in    1884.      Redeemed    in    1887. 

HALF  DOLLARS. 

1794,  flowing  hair,  $2.50  to  $4.00—1795,  $.60 
to  $1.00—1796,  fillet  head,  15  stars,  $15.00  to 
$30.00—1796,  16  stars,  $20.00  to  $35.00—1797, 
$20.00  to  $35.00—1801,  1802,  $2.00  to  $3.00— 
1803,  1805,  55c  to  60c— 1815,  head  to  left,  $1.50 
to  $2.50—1836,  milled  edge,  not  lettered,  $1.00 
to  $2.00—1838,  having  a  small  o  under  the 
bust  and  over  the  date— $25.00  to  $50.00—1852, 
Liberty  seated,  $1.00  to  $2.00—1853,  without 
arrowheads  each  side  of  date,  or  rays  back 
of  eagle— $25.00  to  $30.00.  First  regular  coin- 
age, 1794;  none  coined  1798,  '99,  180O,  1804,  '16. 
otherwise  to  date  little  or  no  premium  on 
dates  not  mentioned.  1892,  Columbia  Half- 
no   premium. 

QUARTER  DOLLARS. 

1796,  1804,  fillet  head,  $1.00  to  $2.00—1815, 
35c  to  50c— 1823,  head  to  left,  $20.00  to  $40.00 
—1824,  head  to  left,  50c  to  75c— 1827,  head  to 
left,  $30.00  to  $50.00—1853,  no  arrow  points 
at  each  side  of  date  and  no  rays  around  eagle, 
$3.00  to  $4.00— Columbia  Isabella,  30c  to  40c. 
First  regular  coinage,  1796;  none  coined  1797 
to  1803,  1808  to  '14,  1817  and  '26;  otherwise  to 
date  little  or  no  premium  on  dates  not  men- 
tioned. 

TWENTY   CENT   PIECES. 

1877  and  1878,  each,  $1.50.  First  Regular 
coinage,  1875;  last,  1878;  there  Is  no  premium 
on    1875    and    1876. 

DIMES. 

1796,    fillet  head,    small   eagle,    $1.00  to    $2.00 

—1797,    fillet    head,    13    and    16    stars,  $2.00    to 

$4.00—1798,     fillet    head,     large    eagle,  $1.50    to 


$2.00—1800  and  1802,  large  eagle,  $1.50  to 
$2.50—1801  and  1803,  large  eagle,  $1.00  and 
$2.00—1804,  large  eagle,  $4.00  to  $10.00—1805 
and  1807,  large  eagle,  25c  to  50c— 1809  and 
1811,  turban  head,  25c  to  50o— 1822,  turban 
head,  50c  to  $1.50—1846,  Liberty  seated,  25o 
to  75c.  First  regular  coinage,  1796;  none 
coined  in  1799,  1806,  '08,  '10,  '12,  '13,  '15  to 
'19  and  '26;  otherwise  to  date  little  or  no 
premium   on   dates   not   mentioned. 

HALF  DIMES— 5  CENTS. 
1794,  flowing  hair.  $1.00  to  $2.00—1795,  flow- 
ing hair,  50c  to  $1.00—1796,  fillet  head,  $1.50 
to  $3.00—1797,  fillet  head,  13  stars,  $1.00  to 
$2.00—1797,  fillet  head,  15  and  16  stars,  $1.00 
to  $2.00—1800,  fillet  head,  50c  to  $1.00—1801, 
fillet  head,  75c  to  $1.00—1802,  fillet  head,  $20.00 
to     $40.00—1803,     fillet    head,     $1.00    to     $2.00— 

1805,  fillet  head,  $2.00  to  $3.00—1846,  Liberty 
seated,  75c  to  $1.00.  First  regular  coinage, 
1794;  last,  1873;  none  coined  1798,  '99,  1804, 
'06,  to  '28;  little  or  no  premium  on  dates  not 
mentioned. 

SILVER    3    CENT    PIECES. 
1863   to    1869,    each,    25c   to   75c— 1870   to    1872, 
each,     15c    to    40c — 1873,     coinage    discontinued, 
50c  to  75c. 

NICKEL   5   CENT    PIECES. 
1877,     $1.00    to    $2.00—1878,     10c    to    20c— 1883, 
without  the   word    "Cents"    does  not  command 
a    premium. 

NICKEL    3     CENT    PIECES. 
1865    to    1876,    proofs    only,     5c— 1877,     50c    to 
$1.00—1878   to   1889,    proofs   only,    5c  to   10c. 

NICKEL    CENTS. 

1856,  flying  eagle,  $3.00  to  $5.00.  Nickel 
cents  were  coined  from  1856  to  1864;  from  '56 
to  '58  design  was  a  flying  eagle;  from  '59  to 
'64  an  Indian  head;  all  except  1856  bear  no 
premium. 

HALF   CENTS. 

1793,  Liberty,  $1.00  to  $3.00—1794  and  1795, 
Liberty  cap,  25c  to  50c — 1796,  Liberty  cap, 
$10.00  to  $25.00—1795  and  1797,  Liberty  cap, 
lettered  edge,  25c  to  $1.00—1797,  Liberty  cap, 
thin  die,  25c  to  50c— 1800  fillet  head,  5c  to 
30c— 1802,  fillet  head,  75c  to  $1.00—1803  to 
1809,  fillet  head,  5c  to  15c— 1810,  turban  head, 
5c  to  15c— 1811,  turban  head.  25c  to  75c— 1831. 
1836.  1840  to  1848,  each.  $3.00  to  $12.00—1849, 
small  date,  and  1852.  $3.00  to  $10.00.  AH 
other  dates  command  a  small  premium. 

BRONZE   2   CENTS. 
1872,    3c    to    15c— 1873,    20c    to    $1.00. 

U.  S.  COPPER  CENTS. 
1793,  flowing  hair,  chain  Ameri,  $2.50  to 
$10.00—1793,  flowing  hair  chain  Ameri.  $1.50 
to  $7.00—1793.  flowing  hair,  wreath,  $1.50  to 
$3.50—1793,  flowing  hair,  clover  leaf,  $2.50  to 
$10.00—1794,  liberty  cap,  25c  to  $1.00—1795, 
liberty  cap  lettered  edge,  50c  to  $1.00—1795, 
liberty  cap  thin  die,  25c  to  $1.00—1796,  liberty 
cap,  25e  to  $1.50—1796,  fillet  head,  25c  to 
$1.50—1797,  fillet  head,  20o  to  $1.50--1798, 
fillet  head,  10c  to  $1.00—1799,  fillet  head,  $5.00 
to  $30.00—1800,  1801,  1802,  1803,  1807,  5c  to 
50o— 1804,    fillet    head,     $3.00    to    $15.00—1805    to 

1806,  10c  to  75(^1808.  turban  head  to  left  12 
stars.  15c  to  $1.00—1808,  13  stars,  10c  to  75c— 
1809,  20c  to  $2.00—1810-1812,  5c  to  25c— 1811. 
25c  to  $2.00—1813,  10c  to  50o— 1814,  13  stars,  2c 
to  25c— 1821,  15  stars,  head  of  Liberty,  3c  to 
50c— 1823,    10c    to   75c— 1857,    5c    to    25c. 


578 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SILVER. 
(1652)  XII.  Pence,  $20.00— VI.  Pence,  $20.00 
—III.,  but  two  specimens  known,  $75.00.  The 
above  were  coined  about  the  year  1652  (no 
date  on  the  coin),  for  New  England.  The  ob- 
verse has  N.  E.,  and  the  reverse  either  XII.  or 
VI.  or  III.  at  the  top  of  the  coin;  otherwise, 
it  is  perfectly  plain.  New  England  comprised 
New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island 
and    Connecticut. 

PINE    TREE    COINS. 
1652,     III.     Pence,     $1.50    to     $2.50—1652,     VI. 
Pence,    $2.00   to    $3.00—1652,    XII.    Pence    (shil- 
ling),   $3.00   to    $6.00. 

OAK  TREE. 
1652,  II.  Pence,  $1.00  to  $2.00—1652,  III. 
Pence,  $1.50  to  $3.00—1652,  VI.  Pence,  $2.00  to 
$3.00—1652,  XII.  Pence  (shilling),  $3.00  to 
$5.00.  These  coins  come  with  the  dates  1650- 
1652  and  1662,  but  were  coined  for  several 
years  without  changing  the  date.  Some  of 
them  had  an  oak  or  willow  tree,  and  they  are 
frequently  clipped,  and  an  early  series  of 
counterfeits  by  one  Wyatt  are  plentiful,  hav- 
ing fine  lines  across.  The  obverse  have:  A 
pine  or  oak  tree  in  centre;  the  legend:  "Ma- 
sathvsets."  The  reverse:  XII.  and  date;  with 
legend:    "New  England.     An  dom." 

SOMMER    ISLANDS. 
BRASS. 

First  coin  made  for  America,  in  memory  of 
Sir  George  Sommers,  who  was  shipwrecked 
upon  the  Bermudas  or  Sommer  Islands  in 
1612.  They  are  made  of  copper — shilling, 
sixpence  and  threepence.  They  bear  no  date, 
but  are  supposed   to   have  been   coined   in   1616. 

Shilling— ship  sailing,  running  boar,  $20.00 
to  $40.00.  Sixpence — ship  sailing,  running 
boar,  $15.00  to  $35.00.  Threepence — ship  sail- 
ing,   running  boar,    $15.00   to    $35.00. 

LOUISIANA  AND  CANADA. 
SILVER. 
1670.  Crown,  $25.00—1670,  half  franc,  $4.00. 
These  were  coined  in  France  for  use  in  their 
colonies  in  America,  and  have  on  the  obverse: 
"Lud  XIIII,  D  G  Fr  et  Nav  Rex;"  reverse; 
"Gloriam  Regni   Tui    Dicent,    1670." 

COPPER. 
1670,   Double  L  Crowned,   $5.00—1721,  Two  L's 
crossed,    50c — 1722,    Two    L's    crossed,    50c— 1767, 
Two   Scepters   crossed,    40c. 

CAROLINA  AND  NEW  ENGLAND. 
COPPER. 
1694,  Carolina,  $20.00—1694,  New  England, 
$40.00.  The  above  were  coined  in  England  for 
the  colonies.  The  obverse  has  an  Elephant; 
the  reverse:  God  preserve  New  England  (or 
Carolina)    and    its   Lords   Proprietors,    1864. 

MARYLAND. 
SILVER. 

XII  Pence,  Lord  Baltimore  (1659),  $10.00— VI 
Pence,  Lord  Baltimore,  $10.00—111  Pence,  Lord 
Baltimore,  $10.00.  Obverse:  Bust;  legend: 
Coecilivus  Dus  Terrae,  Mariae  &  Ct.  Reverse, 
a  crowned  shield.  XII  Crescite  et  Mvltiplica- 
mini.  No  date  on  coin.  Coined  in  England, 
for   and    circulated    in    Maryland    about    1659. 

1790,  III  Pence,  Standish  Barry,  $10.00—1783, 
Shilling,  Annapolis,  $3.00—1783,  Sixpence.  An- 
napolis, $3.00—1783,  Three  pence,  Annapolis, 
$3.00. 


ROSA  AMERICANA. 
COPPER. 
1722,  Penny,  uncrowned  rose,  $1.00 — 1722, 
V4  Penny  uncrowned  rose,  25c — 1722,  Farthing, 
uncrowned  rose,  50c — J/^  Penny,  no  date,  un- 
crowned rose,  $10.00 — Penny,  no  date,  un- 
crowned rose,  $10.00 — 1723,  Penny,  crowned 
rose,  $1.50—1723,  y^  Penny,  crowned  rose,  50c 
—1723,  Farthing,  crowned  rose,  50c— 1724,  J^ 
Penny,  crowned  rose,  $10.00 — 1733,  Penny  (two- 
pence size),  $20.00.  The  above  bears  on  the 
obverse  a  bust;  legend:  Georgius:  D:  G:  Mag: 
Bri:  Fra:  et:  Hib:  Rex.  Reverse:  a  rose, 
either  crowned  or  uncrowned;  legend:  Rosa 
Americana  and  date.  Some  will  be  found 
without  date.  Of  English  origin  and  coined 
for  the  American  colonies. 

CONNECTICUT. 
COPPER. 
1737,  Threepence,  Connecticut,  $25.00—1737, 
Threepence,  I  am  Good  Copper,  $25.00.  Of 
the  above  there  are  two  varieties;  one  bears 
the  date  and  the  other  does  not,  but  both 
were  coined  about  the  same  period.  The  ob- 
verse has:  A  Deer  in  standing  position:  Le- 
gend: "The  Value  of  Threepence,"  or  "Value 
me  as  you  please."  The  reverse:  Three 
crowned  hammers:  I  am  good  copper  1737  or 
an  Ax.  I  cut  my  way  through.  Circulated  in 
the   colonies. 

1785,  Cent.  Auctori  Connec,  10c— 1786,  Cent. 
Auctorl  Connec,  10c — 1787,  Cent.  Auctori  Con- 
nec, 5c— 1788,  Cent.  Auctori  Connec,  10c.  The 
obverse  of  these  four  bear  a  bust,  either  fac- 
ing right  or  left:  Legend:  Auctori  Connec  or 
Connect.  The  reverse  Liberty  seated  "Inde  et 
Lib."  (Independence  and  Liberty.)  Coined 
and  circulated  in  the  Colonies  after  their  inde- 
pendence. 

FLORIDA. 
SILVER. 
1760,    Half  Dollar,    $10.00.     This  has  the  head 
of   Charles   III    of    Spain   on   the    obverse,    and 
on  the  reverse   a  rose. 

PITT    HALF   PENNY. 
COPPER. 
1766,    no  stamps,   50c. 

VIRGINIA. 
1773,     Half    Dollar,    silver,     $2.00—1773,     Half 
Penny,      copper,      15c— 1774,      Shilling,      silver, 
$12.00.      Obverse,    Bust    of   George    III,    Coat    of 
Arms    1773,    Virginia. 

CONTINENTAL  COINS. 
PEWTER. 
1776,  Dollar,  $3.00.  The  obverse:  Sun  blaz- 
ing on  a  sun  dial;  legend:  Fugio,  Mind  your 
business.  Continental  Currency  and  drte.  Re- 
verse, chain  of  13  links;  each  link  has  the 
name  of  one  of  the  original  states  upon  it; 
legend:    America   Congress,    We   Are   One. 

NEW   YORK, 
GOLD. 
1787,    Doubloon,    Nova   Eboraca,    $100.00.      Ob- 
verse:  Rising  sun;    legend:   Nova  Eboraca,    Co- 
lumbia.      Reverse:      Spread     eagle,      Unum     E 
Pluribus,    1787. 

COPPER. 

1786,  Non  vi  virtue  vici,  $25.00.  The  obverse 
has  a  bust  facing  to  left;  legend:  Non  Vi  Vir- 
tue Vici.  The  reverse:  Justice  seated.  Neo 
Eboracensis  and  date,  1787,  Excelsior  $10,00. 
The  obverse  has:  An  Eagle,  E  Pluribus  Unum 
and   date.     The  reverse:   The  Coat  of  Arms  of 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  FEFERENCE  BOOK. 


579 


New  York,  Excelsior— 1787,  George  Clinton, 
$50.00.  Obverse:  Bust  Geo.  Clinton.  Reverse: 
Arms  of  New  York,  date  and  Excelsior — 1787, 
Nova  Eborac,  50c.  Obverse:  Bust,  "Nova 
Eborac."  Reverse:  Liberty  seated,  "Virt  et 
Lib,"  and  date — 1778,  Non  Dependens  Status, 
$10.00—1787,  Inimica  Tyrannis,  $10.00—1787. 
Neo  Eboracus,  $15.00 — 1787,  Emunis  Columbia, 
$2.00. 

GEORGIA. 
COPPER. 
1783    Georgius    Triumpho,    30c. 

VERMONT. 
COPPER. 

1785,  Doubloon,    Immune  Columbia,    $200.00. 

SILVER. 

1783,  Half  Dollar  U.  S.  1000,  $100.00— Quar- 
ter Dollar,  300,  $50.00—1783,  Shilling  250, 
$50.00. 

COPPER    CENTS. 

1783-85,  Nova  Constallatio,  15c— 1786,  Nova 
Constallatio,  $5.00.  Obverse:  An  eye;  legend: 
Nova  Constellatio.  Reverse:  U.  S.  Liberties 
et  Justitia,  with  date— 1785,  Immune  Columbia, 
$5.00.  Obverse:  a  bust  or  an  eye;  legend: 
Vermontis  Republica  and  date.  Reverse:  Jus- 
tice, seated,  Immune  Columbia— 1785,  Vermont 
Republica,  50c— 1786,  Vermontensium  Republica, 
50c.  Obverse:  An  eye,  legend:  Vermonts  Res 
Publica.  Reverse:  a  hill  with  trees;  legend: 
Steela  Quarta  Decima,  and  date— 1786-87-88, 
Vernon  Auctori,  15c.  A  bust,  Vermon  Auctori. 
Reverse:  Liberty  seated,  inde  et  lib.,   and  date. 

KENTUCKY. 
SILVER. 
1796,  Myddleton  token,  $10.00.  The  obverse: 
A  group;  legend:  British  Settlements  in  Ken- 
tucky and  date.  Reverse:  Britannia  seated  on 
a  globe;  legend:  "Payable  by  P.  P.  Mydle- 
ton.      Coined   in   England   for  the   colonies. 

COPPER. 

1796,  same  in  copper,  $10.00—1796,  same  in 
copper  Y-i  penny,  $10.00  (1785),  Copper,  $1.00. 
The  above  have  on  the  obverse  fifteen  stars 
forming  a  triangle.  Each  star  contains  a  let- 
ter, being  the  initial  letters  of  each  State  of 
the  Union;  legend:  E  Pluribus  Unum.  Re- 
verse: A  hand  holding  a  scroll.  "Unanimity 
is  the  strength  of  society."  Coined  about  1785 
in  England,  and  circulated  in  the  colony.  No 
date. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
CENTS    AND    HALF    CENTS. 

1776,  Half  Penny,  three  heads,  $5.00  to 
$10.00—1787,  Half  Cent,  Indian,  Eagle,  25c  to 
60c— 1788,  Half  Cent,  Indian,  Eagle,  25c  to  75c 
—1787,  One  Cent,  Indian,  Eagle,  10c  to  25c— 
1788,  One  Cent,  Indian,  Eagle,  10c  to  25c— 
1787,  One  Cent,  Arrows  in  left  claw  $5.00  to 
$7.00.  The  obverse:  An  Indian;  legend:  Com- 
monwealth. Reverse:  An  eagle,  upon  its  breast 
the  value  of  the  coin;  above  its  head,  Massa- 
chusetts; below,  the  date;  olive  branch  and 
bunch  of  arrows  in  its  claws— 1788,  Cent, 
$10.00,   same  but  arrows  in  eagle's  right  claw. 

NEW   HAMPSHIRE   CENT. 
1776,    Cedar  Tree,   American   Liberty,    $3.00  to 
$5.00. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

1786,  '87,  '88,  5c.  The  obverse:  A  horse 
head  over  a  plow;   legend:   Nova  Caesarea  and 


date.      Reverse:   a   shield,    E   Pluribus   Unum— 
1788,    horse   head   to    left,    50c— 1786,    $10.00. 

Same  as  above  but  with  the  date  above  the 
beam  of  the  plow,  while  in  the  above  It  ap- 
pears below  the  plow.  1786,  Justice.  Immunis 
Columbia,    $10.00. 

UNITED  STATES  COINS. 

1787,  Silver,  $5.00— 1787,  Copper  cent,  10c.  The 
obverse:  Sun  blazing  upon  a  sun  dial.  Fuglo 
and  date,  "Mind  your  business."  Reverse:  A 
chain  of  13  links;  in  centre:  "We  are  one — 
United  States."  The  above  was  the  first  coin 
legally  authorized  by  act  of  Congress  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  called  the  Franklin  Cent, 
on  account  of  the  legend,  "Mind  your  Busi- 
ness." U.  S.  A.  Bar  cent,  50c— 1792,  Liberty. 
Parent    of   Science,    $10.00. 

WASHINGTON  PIECES. 
SILVER. 

1792,  15  stars,  $30.00—1792,  no  stars,  $30.00. 
Obverse:  Bust  of  G.  W. ;  legend:  G.  Washing- 
ton, President,  1792.  Reverse:  Eagle,  stars 
and  no  stars.  United  States  of  America — 1792, 
Dime,  $15.00—1792,  Half  Dime,  $5.00.  Obverse: 
A  head  (representing  Martha  Washington) ; 
legend:  Liberty,  Parent  of  Science  and  Indus- 
try, 1792.  Reverse:  Eagle,  United  States  of 
America. 

COPPER. 

1783,  United  States  (brass),  15c— 1783.  United 
States,  15c.  Obverse,  Bust  of  Washington; 
legend:  Washington  and  Independence  and 
date.  Reverse:  United  States  and  also  Unity 
States.  No  date,  double  head,  15c— 1791,  small 
eagle  cent,  8  stars,  $3.00—1792,  small  eagle,  6 
stars,  $20.00 — 1791,  large  eagle,  no  stars,  $2.00 
—1792,  eagle  13  and  15  stars,  $15.00.  Bust  G. 
W.  legend:  Washington,  President,  and  date. 
Reverse:  An  eagle  holding  a  scroll  in  its  beak 
—1791-93,  Ship  Half  Penny,  $1.00—1791-93,  Ship, 
Liverpool  Penny,  $3.00—1795,  Grate  Cent,  50c— 
1795,  Liberty  and  Security,  50c.  Nearly  all 
the  Washington  pieces,  especially  the  Cents 
and  Half  Dollars,  were  coined  in  England  as 
patterns  for  the  American  coinage,  but  the  de- 
signs were  not  accel)ted,  as  it  was  considered 
contrary  to  the  principles  of  our  government 
to  stamp  the  head  of  our  President  upon  the 
National   coinage. 

CALIFORNIA    GOLD    AND    PRIVATE    ISSUES. 
$50.00   GOLD    PIECES. 

1851,  Augustus  Humbert,  octagon,  $75.00  to 
$100.00. 

The  California  gold  issues  are  of  consider- 
able interest,  including  as  they  do  $50  gold 
pieces,  oblong  gold  pieces  of  approximately  the 
value  of  $40,  $25  pieces,  $16  oblong  pieces,  $10 
pieces,  $9.43  oblong  pieces,  $5  pieces,  $2.50 
pieces,  $1  round  and  $1  octagon,  half  dollars 
round,  half  dollars  octagonal,  quarter  dollars 
round,  quarter  dollars  octagonal.  The  value  of 
these  coins  varies  from  75c  to  $100.  The 
amount  of  bullion  contained  in  the  coin  hav- 
ing a  considerable  bearing.  Carolina  and  Geor- 
gia gold,  also  Colorado  and  Oregon  gold  pieces 
command  considerable  premium.  There  are 
also  gold  pieces  from  Utah  and  Mormon  gold 
pieces.  The  whole  subject  is  taken  up  in  de- 
tail in  Lehrenkrauss's  pocket  manual  and 
premium  coin  list,  which  can  be  obtained  from 
the  publishers  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  In  the  same 
booklet  the  prices  are  given  of  the  issues  of 
paper  currency.  Also,  the  value  of  foreign 
money,  both  coins  and  bank  notes.  The  book 
is  sold  at  the  merely  nominal  price  of  ten 
cents,  and  the  Editor  acknowledges  his  in- 
debtedness. 


580 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Weights  of  the  U.  S.  Coins 

And  the  Amounts  for  Which  They 
are  Legal  Tender. 

GOLD. 


Dekominations 


Double  Eagle,  $20.  .. 

Eagle,  $10 

Half  Eagle,  $5 

Three  Dollars 

guarter  Eagle,  $2.50 
ollars 


Weight, 
Grains 


516. 

258. 

129. 
77.4 
64.5 
25.8 


Amount  for  which 
legal  tender 


Gold  coins  of  de- 
nomination are  legal 
tenders  for  any 
amount. 


SILVER. 


Dekominations 


Weight, 
Grains 


Amount   for  which 
legal  tender    


Standard  Dollar. 
Trade  Dol  Jar 


Half  Dollars 

Quarter  Dollars .... 
Twenty-Cent  Pieces, 

Dimes 

Half-Dimes 

Three-Cent  Pieces. . 


412.5    ■ 
420. 

192.9 
96.45 
77.16 
38.58 
19.29 
11.52 


Unlimited. 
Demonetized — Not 

legal  tender 
Ten  dollars. 
Ten  dollars. 
Five  dollars. 
Ten  dollars. 
Five  dollars. 
Five  dollars. 


MINOR  COINS. 


Denominations 

Weight. 
Grains 

Amount   for  which   a 
legal  tender 

77.6 
30. 
96. 
48. 

Twenty-five  cents. 
Twenty-five  cents. 
Twenty-five  cents. 
Twenty-five  cents. 

Three  Cents 

Two  Cents 

Cents 

Wedding  Anniversaries. 

1st  year Paper 

2d  "  Calico 

3d  "  Muslin 

4th  "  SUk 

5th  "  Wood 

6th  "  Iron 

7th  "  Copper 

8th  "  Bronze 

9th  "  Pottery 

10th  "  Tin 

15th  "  Rock-crystal 

20th  "  China 

25th  "  Silver 

30th  "  Pearl 

35th  "  Coral 

40th  "  Ruby 

45th  "  Sapphire 

50th  "  Gold 

55th  "  Emerald 

60th  "  Diamond 

75th  " Diamond 

Birth  Stones. 

Month.  Stone. 

January Garnet 

February Amethyst,  Hyacinth,  Pearl 

March Jasper,  Bloodstone 

April Diamond,  Sapphire 

May Emerald,  Agate 

June Cat's-ej^e,  Turquoise,  Agate 

July Turquoise,  Onyx 

August Sardonyx,      Camelian,      Moon- 
stone, Topaz 
September. .  .  Chrysolite 

October Beryl,  Opal 

November. .  .Topaz,  Pearl 
December Ruby,  Bloodstone 

Courtesy  of  Tiffany  &  Co. 


THE  EIFFEL  TOWER  WASHINGTON  MONUMENT. 

Photographed   to   scale:   1   lnch=500   feet. 

THE  'STEEL  AGE"  AND  THE  "STONE  AGE." 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


581 


STATE  HOLIDAYS,  NICKNAMES  AND  FLOWERS.* 

STATE    OF  ALABAMA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Robert  B.  Lee's  Birthday;  February  22,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday;  April  13,  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son's Birthday;  April  26,  Memorial  Day;  June 
3,  Jefferson  Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  Inde- 
pendence Day;  1st  Monday  in  September,  La- 
bor Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day;  last 
Thursday  in  November,  Thanksgiving  Day; 
December  25,  Christmas  Day;  Tuesday  before 
Ash    Wednesday,     "Mardi    Gras    Day." 

State   Nickname:      "Cotton   State." 

State   Flower:      Goldenrod. 


STATE    OF    ARIZONA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  14, 
Admission  Day;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  1st  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day;  last  Thursday  in  November, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock  for 
State  and  county  officers  during  June,  July 
and  August;  every  day  on  which  an  election 
is  held  throughout  the  State;  every  day  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
or  the  Governor  of  the  State,  as  a  public  fast, 
thanksgiving,  or  holiday. 

State  Flower:     Sequoia  Cactus. 

STATE  OF  ARKANSAS. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colum- 
bus Day;  Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas    Day. 

State   Nickname:      "Bear    State." 

State   Flower:     Apple   Blossom. 

STATE    OF    CALIFORNIA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  Jul> 
4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  September  9,  Admission  Day; 
October  12,  Columbus  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day;  every  day  on  which  an  elec- 
tion is  held  throughout  the  State;  every  day 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  or  by  the  Governor  of  the  State,  for 
a  public  fast,  thanksgiving,  or  holiday.  Every 
Saturday  from  12  o'clock  noon  until  12  o'clock 
midnight  is  a  holiday  as  regards  the  trans- 
action of  business  in  the  public  offices  of  the 
State. 

State    Nickname:       "Golden    State." 

State    Flower:      Golden    Poppy. 

STATE   OF  COLORADO. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Decoration  Day;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  August  1,  Colorado  Day; 
1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  October 
12,  Columbus  Day ;  (one)  day  in  November, 
Election    Day;     December    25,     Christmas    Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Centennial    State." 

State    Flower:      Columbine. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 
January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  March  4,  Inauguration 
Day,  every  fourth  year;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  the  first 
Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Thanks- 
giving  Day;    December   25,    Christmas   Day. 


STATE  OF  CONNECTICUT. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  1st  Monday  of  September, 
Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day;  De- 
cember 25,  Christmas  Day;  the  day  designated 
by  the  Governor  as  a  day  of  fasting  and 
prayer,  customarily  Good  Friday;  the  day 
designated  by  the  Governor  as  a  day  of 
Thanksgiving,  customarily  the  last  Thursday 
of    November. 

State    Nickname:    "Nutmeg    State." 

State    Flower:     Mountain    Laurel. 

STATE  OF  DELAWARE 
January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  third  Tuesday  of  Febru- 
ary, Election  Day;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  Good  Friday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Mon- 
day of  September,  Labor  Day;  the  first  Tues- 
day after  the  first  Monday  of  November, 
Election  Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day; 
every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock  noon  until  12 
o'clock  midnight;  any  day  appointed  or  rec- 
ommended by  the  Governor  of  the  State  or 
the  President  of  the  United  States  as  a  day 
of  thanksgiving  or  fasting  and  prayer,  or  other 
religious  observance. 
State  Nickname:  "Blue  Hen  State." 
State   Flower:     Peach   Blossom. 

STATE    OF    FLORIDA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday;  February  22,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday;  April  26,  Memorial  Day; 
June  3,  Jefferson  Davis'  Birthday;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  first  Monday  In  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  General  Election  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  in  cities  or  towns  where  carnival  asso- 
ciations are  organized  for  the  purpose  of 
celebrating  the  same,  the  day  in  each  year 
known    as    Shrove    Tuesday. 

State    Nickname:      "Peninsular    State." 

State    Flower:      Orange   Blossom. 

STATE    OF    GEORGIA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Georgia  Day;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  April  26,  Confederate  Memorial  Day; 
June  3,  Jefferson  Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  In- 
denendence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day;  last  Thursday  in  November, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  every  day  on  which  an  election  is  held 
throughout  the  State;  every  day  appointed  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States  or  the 
Governor  of  the  State,  as  a  public  fast  or 
Thanksgiving   day,    or   holiday. 

State    Nickname:       "Cracker    State." 

State    Flower:      Cherokee    Rose. 

STATE    OF    IDAHO. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Decoration 
Day;  June  15,  Idaho  Pioneer  Day;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  first  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day;  De- 
cember 25,  Christmas  Day;  every  day  on 
which  an  election  is  held  throughout  the 
State,  and  every  day  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  or  by  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State,  for  a  public  fast,  thanks- 
giving,   or  holiday. 

State    Flower:      Syringa. 


■    *  Copyright  1912,  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc.    This  matter  has  been  prepared  after  much  painstaking  inves- 
tigation and  must  not  be  reprinted. 


582 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATE    OF    ILLINOIS. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  in  cities  of  200,000  inhabitants  or  more, 
from  12  o'clock  noon  to  12  o'clock  midnight 
on    Saturday. 

State    Nickname:      "Sucker    State." 

State    Flower:      Violet. 

STATE.    OF    INDIANA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  Labor  Day;  Thanksgiving 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  the  day 
of  any  General   National   or   State   Election. 

State    Nickname:       "Hoosier    State." 

STATE    OF    IOWA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  The  day  of  the  general  elec- 
tion; Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christ- 
mas   Day. 

State   Nickname:      "Hawkeye    State." 

State  Flower:     Goldenrod. 

STATE    OF    KANSAS. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  any  day 
recommended  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  or  the  Governor  of  the  State  as  Thanks- 
giving Day,  and  any  day  which  may  hereafter 
be  declared  a  legal  holiday  for  the  purposes 
of   negotiable    instrument   act. 

State    Nickname:      "Sunflower    State." 

State    Flower:      Sunflower. 

STATE  OF  KENTUCKY. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colum- 
bus Day;  last  Thursday  in  November,  Thanks- 
giving   Day;    December   25,    Christmas    Day. 

State   Nickname:      "Blue   Grass   State." 

State  Flower:     Goldenrod. 

STATE    OF    LOUISIANA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  8, 
Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans; 
February  22,  Washington's  Birthday;  Good 
Friday;  June  3,  Confederate  Memorial  Day; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day;  Thanksgiving  Day  (as  desig- 
nated by  the  President) ;  all  general  election 
days  (in  localities  where  elections  are  held) ; 
Mardl  Gras  Day  (in  the  Parish  of  Orleans); 
first  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Sat- 
urday from  12  noon  to  12  midnight  (in  cities 
and  towns  where  the  population  is  fifteen 
thousand    or    more). 

State    Nickname:      "Pelican    State." 

State    Flower:      Magnolia. 

STATE  OF  MAINE. 
January  1,  New  Year's  Day  (bank  holiday 
only);  February  22,  Washington's  Birthday; 
April  19,  Patriots'  Day;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
In  September,  Labor  Day;  last  Thursday  in 
November,  Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas   Day;    every   day   on   which   an   elec- 


tion  is   held   throughout   the   State,    and   everj 
day  appointed   by  the   President   of  the   United 
States,    or    the    Governor    of    the    State,    for    a 
public   fast   or  thanksgiving   day,    or  holiday. 
State    Nickname:      "Pine    Tree   State." 
State   Flower:     Pine   Cone  and  Tassel. 

STATE  OF  MARYLAND. 
January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22 
Washington's  Birthday;  Good  Friday;  Arboi 
and  Highway  Day;  May  30,  Memorial  Day 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in 
September,  Labor  Day;  September  12,  De- 
fenders' Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day 
General  Election  Day;  Congressional  Election 
D^y;  November  23,  Repudiation  Day;  Decem- 
ber 25,  Christmas  Day;  all  special  days  that 
may  be  appointed  or  recommended  by  the 
Governor  of  the  State,  or  the  President  of  the 
United  States  as  the  days  of  thanksgiving, 
fasting  and  prayer  or  other  religious  observ- 
ance, or  for  the  general  cessation  of  business; 
Saturday  half-holidays  (in  some  cities). 
State  Nickname:  "Old  Line  State." 
State    Flower:      Black    Eyed    Susan. 

STATE    OF   MASSACHUSETTS. 

February  22,  Washington's  Birthday;  April 
19,  Patriots'  Day;  May  30,  Memorial  Day; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in 
September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;  last  Thursday  in  November,  Thanksgiv- 
ing Day;   December  25,    Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Bay    State." 

STATE    OF    MICHIGAN. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  1st  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day;  Elec- 
tion Days  (embracing  National,  State,  County 
and  City  Elections) ;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  any  day  appointed  by  the  Governor  of 
this  State,  or  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  as  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer  or 
thanksgiving;  Saturday  afternoons  a  legal  holi- 
day for  banks  unless  voted  to  the  contrary 
by    the    directors. 

State    Nickname:      "Wolverine    State." 

State    Flower:      Apple    Blossom. 

STATE    OF    MINNESOTA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  Good  Friday;  May  30,  Me- 
morial Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  Labor 
Day;  Election  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State   Nickname:      "Gopher  State." 

State    Flower:      Moccasin. 

STATE.    OF    MISSISSIPPI. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday;  February  22,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday;  April  26,  Memorial  Day; 
June  3,  Jefferson  Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  first  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day;  last  Thursday  in  November, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State  Nickname:      "Bayou   State." 

State    Flower:      Magnolia. 

STATE  OF  MISSOURI. 
January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colum- 
bus Day;  any  general  State  election  day;  any 
Thanksgiving  Day  appointed  by  the  President 
of   the    United    States    or    by    the    Governor    of 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


583 


the      State;     December     25,      Christmas     Day; 
every  Saturday  from  12   o'clock  noon    in   cities 
of  300,000  population  for  county  and  municipal 
officers. 
State    Flower:      Goldenrod 

STATE    OF    MONTANA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;    December   25,    Christmas   Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Stub    Toe    State." 

State    Flower:      Bitter    Root. 

STATE  OF  NEBRASKA.  , 
January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  April  22,  Arbor  Day; 
May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  Independence 
Day;  1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day; 
any  day  designated  by  Governor  or  President, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 
State    Flower:      Goldenrod. 

STATE  OF  NEVADA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  of  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day ;  October  31,  Admission 
Day;  Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christ- 
mas Day;  the  day  on  which  the  primary  elec- 
tion is  held  throughout  the  State,  the  day  on 
which  the  general  election  is  held,  any  day 
that  may  be  appointed  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  or  by  Governor  of  the 
State,  for  public  fast,  thanksgiving  or  holi- 
day. 

State    Nickname:      "Silver    State." 

STATE,   OF    NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  Fast  Day  (in  April, 
whenever  appointed  by  the  Governor) ;  May 
30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Thanks- 
giving  Day;    December  25,    Christmas   Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Granite    State." 

STATE    OF    NEW    JERSEY. 

January  1,  commonly  called  New  Year's 
Day;  February  12,  called  Lincoln's  Birthday; 
February  22,  known  as  Washington's  Birthday; 
Good  Friday;  May  30,  known  as  Decoration 
Day;  July  4,  called  Independence  Day;  the 
first  Monday  of  September,  known  as  Labor 
Day;  October  12,  known  as  Columbus  Day; 
December  25,  known  as  Christmas  Day;  any 
general  election  day  in  this  State;  every  Sat- 
urday from  twelve  o'clock  at  noon  until 
twelve  o'clock  at  midnight,  and  any  day  ap- 
pointed or  recommended  by  the  Governor  of 
this  State,  or  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  or  fasting 
and    prayer,    or   other   religious    observance. 

State   Nickname:      "Jersey   Blue   State." 

State    Flower:      Sugar    Maple    (tree). 
STATE    OF   NEW  MEXICO. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
October  12,  Columbus  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day;  and  all  days  designated  by 
proclamation  of  the  Governor  of  the  State  as 
fast    days   or   thanksgiving   days. 

State    Flower:      Cactus. 

STATE    OF    NEW    YORK.       * 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washington's 


Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  first  Monday  of  September, 
Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day;  De- 
cember 25,  Christmas  Day;  each  general  elec- 
tion day  and  each  day  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  or  by  the  Governor 
of  this  State  as  a  day  of  general  thanksgiving, 
general  fasting  and  prayer,  or  other  general 
religious  observances;  from  noon  to  midnight 
of    each    Saturday. 

State    Nickname:      "Empire    State." 

State   Flower:     Rose. 

STATE    OF    NORTH    CAROLINA. 

January  1,  commonly  called  New  Year's 
Day;  January  19,  Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday; 
February  22,  known  as  Washington's  Birth- 
day; April  12,  Halifax  Independence  Resolu- 
tions; May  10,  Confederate  Memorial  Day; 
May  20,  Anniversary  of  Signing  of  Mecklen- 
burg Declaration  of  Independence;  July  4, 
called  Independence  Day;  the  first  Monday 
of  September,  known  as  Labor  Day;  Thanks- 
giving Day;  December  25,  known  as  Christ- 
mas   Day;    General    Election    Day. 

State   Nickname:      "Old  North   State." 

STATE     OF     NORTH     DAKOTA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  Arbor  Day;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day;  Election  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Flickertail    State." 

State   Flower:     Goldenrod. 

STATE    OF    OHIO. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Decoration 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
of  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colum- 
bus Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  any 
day  appointed  and  recommended  by  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State  or  the  President  of  the 
United  States  as  a  day  of  fast  or  thanks- 
giving. 

State    Nickname:      "Buckeye    State." 

State  Flower:     Scarlet   Carnation. 

STATE    OF    OKLAHOMA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in 
September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  every  day 
on  which  an  election  is  held  throughout  the 
State;  every  day  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  or  by  the  Governor  of 
the  State,  for  a  public  fast,  thanksgiving  or 
holiday. 

State    Flower:      Mistletoe. 

STATE    OF    OREGON. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday 
in  September;  October  12,  Columbus  Day; 
December  25,  Christmas  Day;  every  day  on 
which  election  is  held  throughout  the  State; 
every  day  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  or  by  the  Governor  of  the 
State,  as  a  day  of  public  fasting,  thanksgiv- 
ing,   or   holiday. 

State    Nickname:      "Beaver    State." 

State    Flower:      Oregon    Grape. 

STATE    OF    PENNSYLVANIA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  Good  Friday;  May  30,  Me- 
morial   Day;    July    4,    Independence    Day;    1st 


584 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12, 
Columbus  Day;  1st  Tuesday  after  1st  Monday 
in  November,  Election  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day;  every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock 
noon  until  12  o'clock  midnight;  any  day  ap- 
pointed or  recommended  by  the  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania  or  the  President  of  the  United 
States  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  or  fasting  and 
prayer,     or    other    religious    observance. 

State    Nickname:      "Keystone    State." 
STATE   OF   RHODE,  ISLAND. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  2d  Friday  in  May, 
Arbor  Day;  May  30th,  Memorial  Day;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day; 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November, 
Election  Day;  Last  Thursday  in  November, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State    Nickname:       "Little    Rhody." 

State    Flower:      Violet. 

STATE    OF    SOUTH    CAROLINA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday;  February  22,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday;  May  10,  Confederate  Me- 
morial Day;  June  3,  Jefferson  Davis'  Birthday; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day;  December  25,  Christmas; 
National  Thanksgiving  and  all  general  elec- 
tion days;  the  first  Monday  in  September  and 
Thursday  of  Fair  Week  in  each  and  every 
year,  in  all  the  counties  in  the  State  in  which 
the  State  Agricultural  Mechanical  Society  holds 
an  annual  Fair.  In  Charleston  and  Richland 
Counties,  each  and  every  Saturday  from  12 
o'clock   noon    until    12   o'clock   at   midnight. 

State     Nickname:       "Palmetto     State." 

STATE     OF     SOUTH     DAKOTA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day, 
and  every  day  on  which  an  election  is  held 
throughout  the  State,  and  every  day  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
or  by  the  Governor  of  the  State,  for  a  public 
fast,    thanksgiving,    or    holiday. 

State    Nickname:      "Swinge    Cat    State." 

State  Flower:  Anemone  Patens. 

STATE    OF    TENNESSEE. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  Good  Friday;  2d  Fri- 
day in  May,  Confederate  Day;  June  3,  Jeffer- 
son Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  Independence 
Day;  1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day; 
last  Thursday  in  November,  Thanksgiving 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  every  day 
on  which  an  election  is  held  throughout  the 
State,  and  every  day  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  or  by  the  Gov- 
ernor  of  the  State,  for  a  public  fast,  thanks- 
giving  day,    or   holiday. 

State    Nickname:      "Big    Bend    State." 
STATE    OF   TEXAS. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  March  2,  Anniversary 
of  Texan  Independence;  April  21,  Anniversary 
of  Battle  of  San  Jacinto;  June  3,  Jefferson 
Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
first  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Octo- 
ber 12,  Columbus  Day;  December  25,  Christ- 
mas Day;  all  days  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  or  by  the  Governor,  as 
days  of  fasting  or  thanksgiving,  and  every  day 
on  which  an  election  is  held  throughout  the 
State. 

State    Nickname:      "Lone    Star    State." 

State    Flower:      Blue    Bonnet. 


STATE    OF    UTAH. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing 
ton's  Birthday;  April  15,  Arbor  Day;  May 
30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day 
July  24,  Pioneer  Day;  first  Monday  in  Septem 
ber.  Labor  Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day 
all  days  which  may  be  set  apart  by  the  Pres 
ident  of  the  United  States,  or  the  Governor 
of  the  State,  by  proclamation,  as  days  of 
fast    or    thanksgiving. 

State    Flower:     Sego   Lily. 

STATE    OF    VERMONT. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  August  16, 
Bennington  Battle  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  and  a 
day  appointed  or  set  apart  by  the  Governor, 
or  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  as 
a  day  of  thanksgiving,  prayer  or  other  special 
observance. 

State    Nickname:      "Green    Mountain    State." 

State   Flower:     Red   Clover. 

STATE    OF    VIRGINIA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Lee-Jackson  Day;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Confederate  Memorial  Day; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in 
September,  Labor  Day;  the  Tuesday  next  fol- 
lowing the  first  Monday  in  November,  Elec- 
tion Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  and 
any  day  appointed  or  recommended  by  the 
Governor  of  the  State,  or  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  or 
fasting  and  prayer,  or  other  religious  ob- 
servance. 

State   Nickname:      "The    Old    Dominion." 

STATE    OF    WASHINGTON. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Chinook    State." 

State    Flower:    Rhododendron. 

STATE    OF    WEST    VIRGINIA. 

January  1,  commonly  called  New  Year's 
Day;  February  12,  called  Lincoln's  Birthday; 
February  22,  Washington's  Birthday;  May  30, 
Decoration  Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Octo- 
ber 12,  Columbus  Day;  Election  Day;  Thanks- 
giving   Day;    December    25,    Christmas   Day. 

State    Nickname:      "The    Panhandle." 

State    Flower:      Rhododendron. 

STATE    OF    WISCONSIN. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Decoration 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  Primary  Elec- 
tion Day;  General  Election  Day;  Thanksgiv- 
ing  Day;    December  25,    Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Badger   State." 

State  Flower:    Violet. 

STATE   OF    WYOMING. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12. 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  Arbor  Day;  May  30,  Me- 
morial'Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day:  Gen- 
eral Election  Day;  Thank.sgiving  Day;  Decem- 
ber  25.    Christmas   Day. 

State    Flower:      Gentian. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


585 


OCCURRENCES   DURING   PRINTING.* 


The  printing  of  a  volume  like  the  Scientific 
American  Reference  Book  naturally  takes 
several  months.  During  this  time  changes 
are  constantly  occurring,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  go  back  and  make  corrections  after  the 
book  has  gone  to  press;  therefore,  advantage 
is  taken  of  inserting  in  the  last  "form"  what- 
ever corrections  and  additions  are  necessary  to 
bring  the  matter  in  the  book  up  to  date. 

Population. — The  population  of  England 
and  Wales  (1910)  was  36,070,492;  the  popu- 
lation of  London  proper  was  4,521,685  and 
Greater  London,  7,251,687. 

7  hunters  were  killed  and  14  injured  in  17 
days  of  the  hunting  season  with  only  the 
duck  season  open.     (Page  23.) 

Two  negroes  were  lynched  in  Southern 
towns  on  Sept.  26,  1913,  one  in  Litchfield,  Ky., 
and  the  other  in  Henchcliffe,  Miss.  (Page  56) ; 
also  two  negroes  were  lynched  at  Harriston, 
Miss.,  Sept.  28  after  a  race  battle  in  which  11 
were  killed. 

Farms,  Foods  and  Forests. — Twenty-two 
states,  including  Hawaii,  now  employ  state 
Foresters. 

An  inspection  of  hemlock  and  tamarack 
ties  showed  that  ties  put  in  track  without 
preservatives  were  decayed  after  5J^  years  of 
service;  those  which  had  been  treated  were 
practically  as  good  as  when  first  laid. 

Preliminary  reports  to  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1913  showed  that  57,628,491  animals  were 
slaughtered  under  Federal  inspection,  an 
increase  of  nearly  5,000,000  over  1912. 
There  were  7,245,585  cattle,  2,277,954  calves, 
14,979,354  sheep,  72,871  goats,  and  33,052,727 
hogs.  Slaughtering  establishments  and  meat 
food  factories  increased  from  919  to  940  in 
the  fiscal  year  (Page  105.) 

Commerce. — 11,221,624,084  cigarettes  were 
smoked  in  the  United  States  i  during  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1912.  The  con- 
sumption of  whiskey  and  rum  was  133,377,458 
gallons  and  of  beer  62,108,733  barrels. 

A  preliminary  report  on  the  internal  rev- 
enue of  the  United  States  shows  an  increase 
of  $22,208,559.16  for  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1913.  Of  the  total  increase  $6,423,- 
040.03  came  from  the  corporation  tax.  The 
collections  exceeded  the  best  previous  year, 
1911,  by  $21,898,154.12. 

Merchant  Marine. — The  largest  motor- 
ship  yet  constructed  is  being  built  for  the 
Standard  Oil  Company,  at  Kael,  Germany. 
It  is  420  feet  long  and  65  feet  wide,  having  a 
carrying  capacity  of  15,000  tons. 

On  Aug.  19  several  persons  were  drowned 
when  the  Government  steamer  Henry  Boase 
was  overturned  in  a  storm  in  the  Mississippi 
River  near  Keokuk,  Iowa.     (Page  219.) 


The  Hamburg-American  Line  has  laid  the 
keel  for  the  construction  of  a  sister  ship  to  the 
Imperator  to  be  called  the  "Vaterland." 
(Page  203.) 

The  North-German  Lloyd  began  a  regular 
passenger  and  freight  service  between  Bremen 
and  Boston  and  New  Orleans  on  Sept.  17. 
(Page  204.) 

Railroads. — A  30,000-foot  tunnel  costing 
$10,000,000  is  being  dug  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  by  the  Harriman  System.  (Page 
263.) 

Sept.  6-8.  (1912)  Dr.  Barker  covered  1,331 
miles  in  40  hours,  48  minutes  from  a  camp  in 
the  North  Carolina  Woods  to  Bar  Harbor, 
Me.     (Page  253.) 

Panama  Canal. — The  work  of  the  steam 
shovels  in  the  bed  of  the  canal  has  been  com- 
pleted. Dredges  will  do  the  rest  of  the  clear- 
ing out  after  water  is  let  in. 

Wireless. — Up  to  June  30,  1913  almost 
1,300  amateurs  had  been  granted  licenses 
to  operate  wireless  stations. 

A  wireless  communication  was  sent  over 
10,000  miles  on  Sept.  6  as  follows:  From 
Wellington  to  the  high  power  station  at 
Sydney,  thence  to  Perth,  and  thence  via  the 
steamship  Australia,  in  mid-ocean,  to  Cape 
Town  and  Durban. 

A  wireless  telegraph  station  erected  by  the 
Anglo-French  Wireless  Co.,  Ltd.,  for  the 
Bahamas  Government,  was  opened  on  Aug. 
28. 

Post  Office. — Point  Barrow,  Alaska,  is  the 
northernmost  Post  office  in  the  United  States. 

The  Post  Office  Department  is  the  largest 
business  of  the  Government,  practically  one 
out  of  every  one  hundred  inhabitants  of  the 
United  States  being  employed  by  this  de- 
partment. 

Navy. — The  world's  record  for  submarine 
diving  is  held  by  a  United  States  submarine, 
having  reached  a  depth  of  283  feet  ofif  Point 
Diablo,  in  San  Francisco  Bay. 

Army. — In  Germany,  by  recent  law,  60,000 
men  have  been  added  to  the  colors,  and  the 
same  number  will  be  added  each  year  until 
Oct.  1,  1914,  when  the  peace  strength  will  be 
between  860,000  and  870,000  men.  The  new 
three-year  service  law  in  France  will  increase 
the  peace  strength  from  462,000  to  600,000 
men.     (Page  395.) 

Miscellaneous. — 1,000  persons  were  re- 
ported as  dead  in  a  typhoon  which  raged 
over  Japan  for  several  days,  beginning  Aug. 
30. 

On  Sept.  14,  Prof.  Malladra  took  the 
temperature  of  Vesuvius,  in  its  depths,  and 
found  it  to  be  625°  F.  (Page  586). 

18  miners  perished  as  a  result  of  a  double 
explosion  in  a  coal  mine  at  East  Brookaide, 
on  August  2.     (Page  86.) 


*The  latest  information  given  in  this  book  bears  date  Oct.  1,  1918. 


586 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


GREATEST  EARTHQUAKES  AND  VOLCANIC  ERUPTIONS. 


A.  D.  79.  Eruption  of  Vesuvius  destroyed 
PompeM,    Herculaneum    and    Stabiae. 

Severe  eruptions  of  Vesuvius  occurred  in  the 
5th,  6th  and  11th  centuries.  There  was  an 
alarming  outbreali  in  1631  following  a  long 
period  of  quiet.  The  18th  century  witnessed 
numerous  eruptions.  One  of  the  most  serious 
outbreaks  of  the  19th  century  was  that  which 
took  place  in  1871-2.  There  was  also  a  vio- 
lent eruption  in  1906,  when  some  hundreds  of 
lives  were   lost  and  great  devastation  wrought. 

1169.  Eruption  of  Mount  Etna.  Catania  and 
15,000  of   its  inhabitants  destroyed. 

1318.     Earthquake   in  England. 

1692.  Port  Royal,  Jamaica,  engulfed  forty 
fathoms  deep;    3,000  killed. 

1693.  Earthquake  in  Sicily;  more  than  50 
towns  and  cities  destroyed.  Catania  with  18,- 
000  inhabitants  totally  engulfed.  More  than 
100.000  lives   lost. 

1755.  Great  Earthquake  in  Lisbon;  city  al- 
most entirely  destroyed  and  more  than  40,000 
people  supposed  to  have  perished. 

1822.  Aleppo  in  Syria  destroyed  by  earth- 
quake;   more   than    half   its    inhabitants  killed. 

1860.  Earthquake  in  Mendoza,  South  Amer- 
ica,   in  which  many  thousands   lost  their  lives. 

1868.  Disastrous  earthquake  in  Peru  and 
Ecuador;  many  towns  destroyed. 

1883.  Eruption  of  Krakatoa,  Java;  more 
than   30,000  perished. 

1886.  Eruption  at  Talawera,  New  Zealand, 
deBtroying  the   celebrated    •'Pink  Terraces." 


1891.  Terrible  earthquake  in  Japan;  300,000 
persons  homeless. 

1902.  St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  destroyed  by 
eruption  of  Mount  Pel6e;  all  the  ■  inhabitants 
perished. 

1902.  Eruption  of  Mount  Soufridre,  St.  Vin- 
cent, destroyed  nearly  all  the  buildings  in  one- 
third   of  the   island. 

1902.  Earthquake  in  Turkestan;  the  victims 
numbered   10,000. 

1905.  Earthquake  at  Dharmsala,  India;  na- 
tive regiment  and  several  Europeans  lost;  some 
10,000  natives  killed  in  Lahore  and  other 
places. 

1906.  Earthquake  in  Formosa,  towns  .  and 
villages   wiped   out. 

1906.  Alarming  earthquake  in  San  Francisco, 
followed  by  a  devastating  fire  that  completed 
its  ruin.  265,000  made  homeless;  60,000  build- 
ings destroyed,  resulting  in  a  property  loss  ot 
about    $350,000,000. 

1906.  Earthquake  reduced  Valparaiso,  Chile, 
to  ruins;   3,000  perished. 

1907.  Earthquake  destroyed  Kingston,  Ja- 
maica;   1,100  persons   killed   and   2,000    injured. 

1908.  Earthquake  in  and  around  Messina, 
Sicily;  destroyed  Messina,  Faro,  Santa  Teresa, 
Scalleta,  Reggio,  Gallico,  and  many  other 
cities  and  towns.  76,483  persons  killed,  95,470 
injured    and    1,100,000   made   homeless. 

1910.  Earthquake  at  Cartaga,  Costa  Rica; 
1,500   lives    lost. 

1912.  Earthquake  on  both  sides  of  the  Dar- 
danelles,   Turkey;    1,000  killed. 


SPARKLESS  WIRELESS  SYSTEM. 


A  system  of  sparkless  wireless  telegraphy 
has  been  invented  by  a  young  French  engi- 
neer, Julien  Bethenod,  by  which  it  is  said  to 
be  possible  to  establish  wireless  stations  in 
close  proximity  to  one  another  without  the 
messages  being  confused  and  also  to  exchange 
communication  ten  times  faster  than  by  sub- 
marine  cables  at   about   one-tenth  the  expense. 


This  system  necessitates  as  a  plant  only  an 
alternator  and  antennae  of  a  special  char- 
acter. Bethenod' s  discovery  also  makes  wire- 
less telephony  more  possible.  With  a  spark, 
only  2,000  oscillations  per  second  can  be 
produced;  by  sparkless  wireless  telephony, 
20,000  oscillations  can  be  produced,  which  is 
about   the  same  as   the   human  voice. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  CIVIL  SERVICE. 


The  United  States  Civil  Service  Act  ap- 
proved January  16,  1883,  provides  for  the 
appointment  of  three  Commissioners,  a  Chief 
Examiner,  a  Secretary,  and  other  employes, 
by  the  President,  to  assist  him  in  classifying 
the  government  offices  and  positions,  formu- 
lating  rules   and    enforcing   the    law. 

GENERAL  RULES.— The  purpose  of  the 
Civil  Service  act  is  "to  regulate  and  improve 
the  Civil  Service  of  the  United  States."  The 
act  requires  the  rules  to  provide  for  free  and 
open  examinations  of  applicants  for  positions 
in  the  public  service;  that  appointments  shall 
be  made  from  those  graded  highest  in  com- 
petitive examinations;  for  the  apportionment 
of  appointments  at  Washington  among  the 
States  upon  the  basis  of  population;  for  a 
period  of  probation  of  six  months  before  any 
absolute    appointment    is    made. 

APPLICATIONS.— All  applicants  for  exami- 
nations must  be  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
and  of  the  proper  age.  No  person  will  be  ex- 
amined who  is  physically  disqualified  for  the 
service  which  he  seeks;  who  has  been  guilty 
of  criminal,  infamous,  dishonest  or  disgrace- 
ful conduct;  who  is  addicted  to  the  use  of 
intoxicating  liquors  to  excess;  who  has  been 
dismissed  from  the  public  service  for  delin- 
quency and   misconduct  and  who  has  failed  to 


receive  absolute  appointment  after  probation. 
No  discrimination  is  made  on  account  of  race, 
color,    or  political   or   religious   opinions. 

EXAMINATIONS.— The  examinations  are 
opened  to  all  persons  qualified  as  above.  The 
examinations  are  held  twice  a  year  in  each 
State  and  Territory,  before  boards  of  examiners 
chosen  from  among  persons  in  government  em- 
ploy. The  dates  and  places  of  examination  are 
publicly  announced  through  the  newspapers  or 
other  means.  Full  information  as  to  rules 
governing  examinations,  manner  of  making  ap- 
plication, etc.,  is  given  in  the  "Manual  of 
Examinations,"  which  may  be  obtained  free  by 
writing   to   the    commission    in    Washington. 

APPOINTMENTS.— It  is  necessary  to  obtain 
an  average  of  70  per  cent,  to  be  eligible  for 
appointment.  In  case  of  a  vacancy,  ;  the 
names  of  three  persons  standing  highest  of 
the  sex  desired  on  the  eligible  list  are  given 
to  the  appointing  ofllcer  who  chooses  any  one 
of  the  three  names,  returning  the  other  two 
to  the  register  to  await  further  consideration. 
No  person  can  be  removed  from  a  competitive 
position  except  for  such  cause  as  will  pro- 
mote the  efficiency  of  the  public  service  and 
for  reasons  given  in  writing.  The  salaries 
vary  in  the  different  departments  and  cannot 
be  given  in  the  short  space  allotted  to  the 
subject. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


587 


FROM  CRUISER  TO  RACING  MACHINE. 


GROWTH   OF   THE  AMERICAN   CUP  DEFENDER  FROM   CRUISER  T^ 
RACING  MACHINE. 


THE  DEVEL 

OPMENT 

OF  THE  90-FOOT  RACING  YACHT. 

yachts. 

Water- 
line 
Length. 

Base  of 

Fore 
Triangle. 

Hoist 

from 

Boom  to 

Topmast 

Sheave. 

Boom. 

Gaff. 

Spinna- 
ker 
Boom. 

Total 
Sail 
Area. 

Puritan            .... 

ft.    in. 
81     li 
85    7 

85  10 

86  2 

88  5* 

89  7i 

89  9 

90  0 

ft.     in. 
62       0 
67       0 
67       0 
69       0 
73       3 
73       3 
78      0 
84      0 

ft.     in. 
104      0 
111       0 
111       0 
122       0 
129       5 
138       5 
142       0 
155      0 

ft.     in. 
76       6 
80      0 
84       0 
98      0 

106  0 

107  0 
110      0 
115      0 

ft.     in. 
47       0 

50  0 

51  6 
57       0 
64     10 
64     10 
72      0 
72      0 

ft.     in. 
62      0 
67      0 
67       0 
69      0 
73      4 
73      4 
78       0 
84      0 

sq.  ft. 
7  370 

Mayflower 

Volunteer 

Vigilant. 

8.824 
9,107 
11,312 
12,640 
13,211 
14,400 
16.247 

Defender 

Colunnbia 

Constitution.  .... 
Reliance. 

588 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


589 


RACING    YACHT    FROM    1885   TO  1903. 


INDEX, 


Abandoned  Applications 353 

Abstracts  of  Patent  Decisions  364 

Accidents,   Coal  Mine 82 

Accidents,    Railway 255-258 

Acreage  of  Farms 43 

Adams  Express  Co 259 

Aerology     496 

Africa,    Railways    235,    239 

Agriculture,  Department  of.  .192 
Agricultural  Implements  114,  133 

Agricultural    Papers    127 

Air  Accidents  31,  585 

Air   Craft,    Evolution   of 437 

Alabama,    Holidays    581 

Aliens   Admitted    27 

Aliens,  Future  Residence  of.  33 

Aliens.    Occupation    of 34 

Allan   Line    205,   207 

Altitude    Record    585 

Altitudes,    Continental    162 

Altitudes,    U.    S 181 

Aluminum    88 

Ambrose  Channel   151 

American  Association  for  the 

Advancement  of  Science.. 454 
American  Aviation  Records.. 448 

American    Express    Co 259 

American  Inventors   362 

American  Line  ....200,  202,  206 
American  Museum  of  Safety.450 

Anchor   Line    200,    202 

Ancient      Wonders      of     the 

World     189-192 

Angle,  To  Bisect  551 

Angles    547 

Angular  Measure  563 

Antarctic     Explorations 158 

Aphelion   463 

Apothecaries'  Liquid  Measure  562 

Apples    60 

Arbitration,   Court  of  83 

Arc    Lamps    124 

Arc    of    Circle     547 

Arc,   To   Plot  Out    552 

Area,     Comparative     of     the 

U.    S 1 

Areas,  Keppler's  Laws,  Equal  463 

Area  of   States    16 

Area  of  States  by  Size 17 

Area  of  States  of  World  148,  157 
Area  of  the  United  States...     5 

Argentina   138,  140,   142,  144 

Argentina,    Railways. .  ..235,    239 

Arizona,    Holidays    &81 

Arkansas,    Holidays    581 

Armies,     Cavalry     389 

Armies,    Coast  Artillery    389 

Armies,   Mobilization   390 

Armies,    Field    Artillery 389 

Armies,    Fortress    Artillery.. 389 

Arm  ies,    Infantry    389 

Armies  of  Leading  Powers.. 391 

Armies  of  Minor  Powers 390 

Armies     of    World 389 

Armor    Plates     112 

Army    Gun    for    Air-craft 401 

Army,  Medals 404,  405,  406 

Around  the  World    222 

Artificial  Flowers,  etc 133 

Artificial     Stone     133 

Artists'    Materials    133 

Asbestos    95 

Asphalt    92 

Asses  on   Farms    57 

Astronomical   Symbols   463 

Astronomy     463 


Atlantic    Cable,     First 296 

Atlantic  Transport  Line  200,  202 
Atmosphere,  Circulation  ...499 
Atmosphere,         Composition, 

etc 485 

Atmospheric   Electricity    505 

Atmosphere,    Heating,    etc.  ..487 

Atmosphere,    Moisture   in 502 

Atmospheric  Pressure   489 

Atmosphere,    Profile    484 

Atomic    Weights     457 

Australasia....  138,   140,    142,   144 

Australia,    Patent    Law 367 

Australia,  Railways 235,   239 

Austria,    Army    390-396 

Austria-Hungary  138, 140, 142, 144 

Austrian  Money   177 

Austria,    Navy 410,    411 

Austria,    Patent    Law ! ...  367 

Austria,  Postal  Service.  .326-329 
Austria,  Railways.  .235,  236,  238 
Austro-American     Line.. 200,  202 

Automobile    Industry 116 

Automobiles    133 

Aviation    437 

Aviation  Records,  Alighting  449 
Aviation     Records,     Altitude 

449,    452 
Aviation  Records,   American, 

448-450,  453 
Aviation  Records,  Cross  Coun- 
try     453 

Aviation    Records,     Distance 

449,    451,  453 
Aviation    Records,    Duration 

449,   452,  453 
Aviation       Records,       Speed 

448,  451,  453 
Aviation     Records,     Weight- 
carrying   449 

Aviators   Killed    585 

Avoirdupois   Weight    563 

Axle    Grease    133 

Awnings,   Tents  and- Sails. .  .133 


Babbitt    Metal    133 

Bags     133 

Bags,   Paper   133 

Baking  Powders  133 

Bail-Bearing  Devices    542 

Balloon,    Pilot    511 

Balloons,  Growth  of  Passive. 437 
Balloons,  Growth  of  Power.. 438 

Balloons,  Records 449,  452 

Bank,    Clearings    2 

Bank    Line    210 

Bankruptcy,     Patent     Rights 

in    375 

Banks,    National    2 

Banks,    Private    163 

Baskets     133 

Bass    66 

Batteries,    Primary    121 

Batteries,   Storage  124 

Beaufort  Wind  Scale    510 

Bees    54 

Beet  Sugar    133 

Belgium    138,140,142,144 

Belgium,   Patent  Law  367 

Belgium,   Postal  Service  326-329 
Belgium  Railways  ..235,  236,  238 

Bell,    Alexander  G 363 

Bells,    Heaviest    567 

Belting    120 

Belting    -.  133 


Berliner,    Emile    364 

Bessemer    Converters    114 

Bicycles,    Motorcycles. .  .116,  133 

Billiard    Tables    133 

Biplanes    444 

Birth    Stones    580 

Blacking,        Cleansing       and 

Polishing      133 

Blanchard,    Thomas    362 

Blank    Books    127 

Block    Signals    255 

Blotting    Paper    125 

Bluing     133 

Boiler    Explosions    28 

Boiling  Points  of  Elements  458 

Bolivia  138,   140,  142,  144 

Bolts     113 

Bone,  Carbon  and  Lampblack  133 

Book   Binding    127 

Book  Production    • 130 

Book     Production,      Interna- 
tional     129 

Books     127 

Booth    Steamship    Co 207 

Boots    and    Shoes    122,. 133 

Boxes,     Cigar    133 

Boxes,   Fancy  and  Paper — 133 
Brass  and  Bronze  Products.  .133 

Brazil    138,    140,    142,    144 

Brazil,     Railways     235,  239 

Bread,    etc 133 

Bread,    Composition  of   51 

Brick   and    Tile    133 

Bridges,    Longest    567 

British   India,    Patent   Law.. 368 
Brittsh   India,    Railways 

235,    236,    239 

Bromine   92 

Brooms   and    Brushes    133 

Brush,    Charles    F 363 

Building   and   Loan   Associa- 
tions      170 

Building   Operations    118 

Building   Paper    125 

Buildings,    Highest    ....546,    585 

Bulgaria   138,   140,  142,   144 

Buoys     225 

Bureau    of    Mines    95 

Burros    on    Farms    57 

Bushel,    Statutory  Weights.. 568 

Butter     53 

Butter,     Cheese,      Condensed 

Milk    133 

Buttons     133 


Cable    Alphabet    296 

Cable  Letters   294 

Cable  Lines  of  World 286 

Cable    Messages,    Cipher 291 

Cable    Messages,    Code 291 

Cable  Messages,    Plain 291 

Cable    Messages,    Rules 291 

Cable    Rates,    Press 292 

Cables    and    Telegraphs 279 

Cables,     Submarine    288 

Cable  Word   Rates   2f93 

Calcium   Lights    133 

Calendar,    Perpetual   564 

Calendar,    200   Years    483 

California,    Holidays 581 

Cams  and  Cam  Movements.  536 

Canada    138,  140.  142,  144 

Canada,    Patent   Law    365 

Canada,    Population    of    39 

Canada,   Railways  ..235,  236,  239 


590 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


591 


Canada,    Railways    261 

Canadian-Australian   Line    ..209 

Canadian  Express  Co    259 

Canadian  Northern  Express. 259 
Canadian      Pacific      Railway 

Co 206,     207.  212 

Canadian  South  African  Line  207 

Canal,  Panama  265,  271 

Canal,    Suez   271 

Canal  Zone,   Population  of..  17 

Candles    133 

Canning  and  Preserving  105,  133 
Card   Cutting,    Designing   ...133 

Carnegie    Institution    450 

Carnegie  Peace  Fund  82 

Carpets  and  Rugs   108,  133 

Carnages  and   Wagons.  .118,  133 

Cars,    Railroad     116 

Cars,    Steam-railroad    133 

Cars,    etc.,    St.    Railroad 133 

Cash,    Registers,    etc 133 

Cattle    on    Farms 57 

Cement  89,  118,  133 

Census   Bureau    454 

Cereal    Crops    46 

Charcoal     133 

Cheese    53 

Chemicals    133 

Chemicals,    etc 122 

Chemical   Substances    459 

Chemistry     457 

Cherries    60 

Chile     138,  140,  142,  I44 

Chile,    Railways    235,  239 

China   138,   140,  142,   144 

China    Decorating    133 

China,    Railways   235,   239 

Chocolate  and  Cocoa  133 

Chord     547 

Christian    Associations    13 

Cigarettes    585 

Circle     547 

Circles,     Area     556,  573 

Circle,    Diameter   556 

Circle,    Formulas    for 556 

Circle,    The    556 

Circle,   To  Find  Center 551 

Circulation    of    Money    2 

Circumference,   To  Square... 560 

Cities,    Manufacturing    101 

Cities    of    the    World 42 

'Cities    of   U.    S 11 

Civil    War    Figures 399 

Clams  66 

Clay    and    Stone 118 

Clay    Products    92 

Climate     509 

Clocks  and  Watches   133 

Clothing     133 

Cloth,    Sponging,    etc    133 

Clouds     494 

Clutches     526 

Clyde   Line    207 

Coal     83,     86 

Coal  Consumption,  Steamers  221 

Coal,    First   Use    114 

Coal    Stations,    Africa    123 

Coaling  Stations,  Europe  ...123 
Coaling        Stations,        North 

America     273 

Coaling        Stations,        South 

America    273 

Coal  Mine  Accidents 82,  585 

Coal,    Price    of    87 

Coal,   Production   of   3 

Coast  Defense  Battery  402 

Cocoa,    Production    156 

Codfish     66 

Coffee   and    Spice    133 

Coffee,    Production    179 

Coffins    133 


Coinage  159 

Coin   List,    Premium    576 

Coins,    Old    574 

Coins,   Weight  of  U.   S 580 

Coins,    Weights,    etc 576 

Coke    88,   133 

Coke,  Production  of  114 

College   Attendance    40 

College    Publications    127 

Colorado,    Holidays    581 

Colossus    of    Rhodes    190 

Colt,    Samuel    ,....363 

Columbia    138,  140,  142,  144 

Columns,    Highest 546 

Combustion,    Heat   of   459 

Comets,    Periodic    466 

Command   of    Sea    412 

Commerce    137 

Commercial    Statistics    138 

Commodities,  Relative  Prices  161 
CompafiiaTransatlantica  202,207 
Conductivity,     Electrical     ...570 

Conductivity,    Heat    570 

Confectionery     133 

Conflagrations,    Notable    166 

Connecticut,    Holidays    581 

Conservation    Association 74 

Consumption,   Mortality  from  19 

Copper,    Production    of 3,  61 

Copper,     Tin,     Sheet-iron 134 

Copyright    Law    384 

Copyrights,        Patents       and 

Trade-Marks     351 

Cordage,    Twine,    etc.    .  .108,  134 

Cordials    and    Syrups    134 

Cork,    Cutting    134 

Corn,    Acreage    45,    47 

Corn    Drill*    114 

Corn    Huskers    Il4 

Corn  Planters   114 

Corn,   Production  of   3 

Corn    Shellers     114 

Corporations     172 

Corsets     134 

Costa  Rica  . . .  .138,  140,  142,  144 

Cotton    Acreage     52 

Cotton   Consumed    3 

Cotton  Goods    108,  134 

Cotton    Planters    114 

Cotton,    Production   of 3,  52 

Cotton    Seed    Products    54 

Couplings,    Angle    Shaft 528 

Cows,     Dairy     53 

Crops,    Enormous    47 

Crucible   Furnace    114 

Crucibles     134 

Cuba    138,  140,   142,    144 

Cuba,    Patent    Law    368 

Cube     547 

Cubic    Measure     562 

Cultivators     114 

Cunard  Line  200,  202,  205,  206,  207 
Currency,    Gold   and   Silver.. 161 

Currency,    Foreign    176 

Curve     547 

Customs     182 

Customs  Receipts   2 

Customs    Tariffs    183 

Cutlery   Tools    134 

Cuts    of   Meats    62 

Cycloids     556 

Cyclones   500 

Cylinder   547 

Cyma,    To    Draw.... 552 


Dairymen's   Supplies    134 

Darwinian   Theory    102 

Date  Line    481 

Day    Letters    284,285 

Deaths  in  Registration  Area.  22 


Debt,  U.  S 2 

Decimal    Equivalents   .567 

Decimal    System    564 

Declination     465 

Deferred    Cables    294 

Delaware,   Holidays   581 

Denrhark     138,  140,  142,  144 

Denmark,   Patent  Law 367 

Denmark,  Postal  Service  326-329 
Denmark,  Railways  235,  236,  238 
Denominations,    Order  of   ...  37 

Dentist's   Materials   134 

Department    of    Agriculture. 192 

Department    of    War 403 

Department    Post    Office 344 

Depth    of   Sea    198 

Depths   of   World's   Ports.... 212 

Design    Patents    354 

Designs     375 

Deutschland,    Record   of 216 

Diagonal      547 

Diameter    547 

Diamond    Measure    563 

Diamond  Production   95 

Digestion     Race     61 

Disasters,  Marine  219 

Disasters,     Mining    86 

Disasters,  Submarine  434 

Disk  Drills   114 

Distances  from  New  Orleans 

274-277 
Distances  from  New  York  274-277 
Distances    from     San     Fran- 
cisco     274-277 

Distances    in    Knots    218 

D.    of  C.    Holidays  581 

Diving    Bell     572 

Divorces  and   Marriages   23 

Docks,    Floating    197 

Domes,    Largest     518 

Donaldson    Line    206,  207 

Drafting    Devices     544 

Drills,    Corn    114 

Drop   Letters    333 

Dry  Measure,   U.    S 562 

Duration  Records    456 

Dusty   Trades    20 

Dutch     Money     176 

Dyeing    Textiles    134 

Dyestuffs    122,    134 

Dynamos    124 


Eads,  James  B 363 

Earth    463 

E3arthquakes  586 

Earth,     Section    of 464 

Ecliptic     465 

Ecuador  138,  140,  142,  144 

Edison,   Thomas  A 363 

Education     40 

Educational   Journals    127 

Education    Disbursements    . .     2 

Eels     66 

Egg  Statistics   60 

Egypt     138,  140,  143,  144 

Eiffel    Tower    580 

Elder,    Dempster   Line 207 

Electrical    Industry    124 

Electrical     Machinery     134 

Electrical  Symbols  372,  376 

Electric   Locomotives    244 

Electricity     495 

Electroplating    134 

Electrotyping     127 

Elements,    Distribution    ^459 

Elements     457 

Elevated    Railways    260 

Elevated   Sidewalk    32 

Elevations     232 

Elevator   Safety   Device    ....543 


592 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Elevators,    Electric    124 

Ellipse   547 

Ellipse,    To    Construct    554 

Emery,    etc 134 

Ems    in    Page,    Number    546 

Enameling  Japanning  134 

Engines    and    Power    105 

England,   Army   390-396 

England,    Navy 410,   411 

English  money    176 

Engravers'    Materials    134 

Engraving    127 

Engraving,     Dyesinking    ....134 

Engraving,    Wood    134 

Ericsson,   John    363 

Escapements     530 

Essential   Oil    Industry    122 

Evaporation    492 

Evolute    of    Circle     550 

Expansion,    Linear    572 

Expansion,    Liquid    572 

Explosives    122,    134 

Explosives,   Accidents  with..  84 

Exports     146 

Express    Companies    259 

Express  Rates,    Domestic 182 

Express    Rates,    Foreign    ...182 


Fabre   Line    200,  203 

Factories    98 

Failures  3.  159 

Fanning    Mills    114 

Farm    Animals    56 

Farm    Lands    44 

Farm  Products   2 

Farm   Property    2,  43 

Farms    43 

Farms,    Foods    and    Forests..  43 
Farms,   Wealth  Production  of  45 

Fatalities  of  Sport 31 

Felt    Goods     108 

Fertilizers  122,   134 

Files     134 

Financial    Statistics    138 

Firearms,    Ammunition    134 

Fire   Engines,    Steam    170 

Fire    Extinguishers    134 

Fire   Losses,    Annual   170 

Fire    Prevention    Day 585 

PMres   in   U.    S 169 

Fires,    Urban  and  Rural 169 

Fireworks    134 

Fisheries   of  the   U.    S 66 

Flags,   Banners,  etc 134 

Flatirons,    Electric    124 

Flavoring   Extracts    134 

Flax    and    Hemp    134 

Flaxseed    Crop    54 

Florida,    Holidays    581 

Florist   Products    54 

Flour-mill   Products    134 

Flour   Products    107 

Flowers,    State    581 

Flying    Records,    World's    ..450 

Foods 61,   63,    105,   134,  585 

Food,    Farms  and  Forests   ..  43 

Food   Sources   of  World 51 

Foreign    Coins,    Value    of... 180 

Foreign    Patents    365 

Forests,    Farms  and   Food   . .  43 

Forests,     National    68 

Forests  of  the  U.    S 67,  585 

Foundry    Products    134 

Foundry    Supplies    134 

Fourth  of  July  Fatalities   ..  37 

Fowls    on    Farms    59 

France  138,  140,  143,  144 

France,    Army    390-396,   585 

France,   Navy  410   411 

France,     Patent    Law .'.367 


France,   Postal  Service   ..326-329 
France,  Railways   ..235,  236,  238 

France,    Record   of   S.    S 215 

Franklin,    Benjamin    362 

Fruits  60 

Fruits,  Composition  of  44,  53,  55 

Freight    Mileage    247 

Freight    Revenue    247 

French  Line  200,  203,  206 

French    Money    176 

Fuel,    Manufactured    134 

Fuel    Oil,    Consumption 249 

Fulton,    Robert    362 

Fur    Goods    1S4 

Furnishing   Goods,    Men's    ..134 

Furs,    Dressed    134 

Fuses,    Electric    124 

Galvanized    Plates    113 

Galvanizing     134 

Garrisoned  Posts   399 

Gas     134 

Gas,    Elec.    Fixtures    134 

Gas.    First    in    U.    S 81 

Gas,    Illuminating    131 

Gas  Meter;   How  to  Read  a. 561 

Gas,    Natural    S8 

Gatun     Dam     265 

Gatun   Lake    265 

Gatun   Locks    267 

Gearing     532 

Gears,    Chain    526 

Gears,    Differential    534 

Gears,    Friction    524 

Gears,    Mangle    534 

Gears,    Rope    526 

Gears,    Toothed    523 

Gems     94 

Geodesy,     International     Bu- 
reau       84 

Geographical    Measure     563 

Geologic   Times    76 

Geometrical  Constructions 

547,  550 

Geometrical   Figures   547 

Georgia,     Holidays 581 

German  Empire  139,  141,  143,  145 

German    Money    177 

Germany,    Army    390-396,  585 

Germany,    Navy    410,411 

Germany,    Patent    Law    367 

Germany,   Postal  Service. 326-329 
Germany,   Railways  235,  236,  238 

Glass    118.  121,  134 

Globe    Express    Co 259 

Gloves    and    Mittens 122 

Gloves,    Leather    120 

Gloves,    Mittens,    Leather    ..134 

Glucose,    Starch    114,134 

Glue    134 

Gold    and   Silver    79 

Gold    and    Silver   Coin 163 

Gold     and     Silver,     Produc- 
tion      155 

Gold   Coin    2 

Gold,    Imports   and    Exports. 157 

Gold,    Production    of 3 

Gold,    Silver,    Leaf,    Foil.... 134 

Gold,     Silver,     Refining 134 

Gold,    Test    for 576 

Governors 544 

Grain,    Price   of 160 

Grain     Harvestefts 114 

Grapes     ...i% 60 

Graphite 95,  134 

Graphaphones     132 

Gravel 92 

Grease    and    Tallow . .  .*. 134 

Great   BHtain,    Railways 

235,    236,    238 


Great    Britain,    Postal     Ser- 
vice      326-329 

Great  Northern   Express  Co. 259 

Greece   139,   141,   143,   145 

Greece,    Railways 235,    238 

Greek   Alphabet    467 

Grindstones     134 

Gristmill    Products    107 

Groceries,    Prices    of 160 

Guatemala    ...138,    140,    142,    144 
Gun    Salutes    395 


Haircloth     134 

Haiti    139,   141,   143,    145 

Hall   of   Fame 408 

Hamburg-American    Line 

200,    203,    207,  585 

Hammocks   134 

Hand        Stamps,         Stencils, 

Brands     134 

Hanging    Gardens    of    Baby- 
lon      191 

Harness    120 

Harrows    114 

Harvesting    Implements    114 

Hat    and    Cap    Materials 134 

Hats    108,    134 

Hay  Carriers   114 

Hay    Crop    48 

Hay    Loaders    114 

Hayracks     114 

Haystackers     114 

Hay    Tedders     114 

Heating    Apparatus,     Elec.  ..124 

Heavens,     Northern     469 

Heavens,     Southern     475 

Height    and    Weight 132 

Helix,    To    Construct 560 

Henry,    Joseph    363 

Heptagon,    To  Construct 552 

Hexagon     547,    552 

Hides     120 

Holidays,   State  581 

Holland-America    Line.  .200,  203 

Holland,    Railways 235,   236 

Homicides  56 

Honduras     138,  140,  142,  144 

Hones    and    Wetstones 134 

Hops     59 

Horizon   at   Different  Eleva- 
tions      232 

Horseshoes     113,  134 

Horses   on   Farms   57 

Hosiery    and  Knit  Goods  108,134 
House-furnish-ng    Goods     ...134 

Howe,    Elias    363 

Human    Body,    Composition. 459 

Humidity     490 

Hungary,.     Patent    Law 367 

Hungary,    Railways  235,  236,  238 

Hunting   Accidents    23,  585 

Hurricanes    501 

Hydro-Aeroplane     444,  589 

Hyperbola,     To    Construct. .  .554 
Hypothenuse     , 547 


Implements,    Agricultural    ..114 

Ice,    Manufactured    118,134 

Idaho,    Holidays    581 

Illinois,     Holidays    582 

Illiteracy    In   the    U.    S 30 

Immigrants    Arrived     4 

Immigrants,.    State    of   Pas- 


Immigration     26 

Imperator     196 

Imperator,    Record    of 216 

Imports     146,  150 

Incandescent    Lamps    124 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


593 


Inclined  Plane,  Movable ....  522 
Inclined    Plane,    Revolving.  .522 

Inclined   Plane.    Simple 522 

India,     British.  .139,  141,  143,  145 

Indiana,    Holidays    582 

Indians     19 

Industries,    Leading    99 

Initiative     48 

Ink     134 

Insane  "^2 

Instruments     134 

Insular   Line    207 

Insulated     Wire     124 

Insurance,    Casualty    171 

Insurance,       Casualty       and 

Surety     161 

Insurance   Companies    172 

Insurance,     Fire     171 

Insurance,     Life     170 

Insurance,      Life,      Premium 

Rates     173 

Insurance,     Marine     171 

Insurance,    Ocean    Marine    ..165 
Insurance,   Ordinary  and  In- 
dustrial      174 

Interest  Tables  172,  186 

Internal    Revenue    182, .585 

Internal  Revenue  Receipts..  2 
International  Money  Orders. 337 
International    Parcels   Post.. 345 

Inventors,    American    362 

Iowa,    Holidays    582 

Iron     80 

Iron   and  Steel    Ill,   135 

Iron,    Production    of 3 

Islands,    Area    of    Largest. .  .173 

Isotherms,    Annual    499 

Italian    Money    177 

Italian    Royal    Mail    Lines 

200,  203 

Italy     139,  141,  143,  145 

Italy,     Army 390-396 

Italy,    Navy    410,  411 

Italy,     Patent    Law 367 

Italy,  Postal  Service. ..  .326-329 
Italy,     Railways.... 235,  236.  238 


Japan    139,    141,    143,    145 

Japan,    Army    390-397 

Japan,    Navy    410,  411 

Japan,    Patent   Law 368 

Japan,    Postal   Service    .  .326-329 

Japan,    Railways 235,  236,  239 

Jewelry     135 

Joint    Stock    Companies 172 

Joints,     Universal     528 


Kaiser   "Wilhelm    der   Grosse, 

Record    of    216 

Kaiser    Wilhelm    II,    Record 

of     215 

Kaiser    Wilhelm    II,     Section 

of     230 

Kansas,    Holidays 582 

Kaolin  and   Ground  Earths.  .135 

Kentucky,    Holidays   582 

Kilometres  &  Miles .567 

Knit    Goods     .....108 

Knots,     Distances    in 218 

Kronprinzessin   Cecille,    Rec- 
ord   of    215 

Kronprinz      Wilhelm,       Rec- 
ord   of    216 

Labels    and    Prints 378 

Labels    and    Tags 135 

Lakes,    Area    of    Largest 137 

Lamp    Signals.    R.    R 329 

Lamport    &    Holt    Line 2*0  7 


Land    Lines    of    World 281 

Land     Measure      562 

Languages  of  the  World.'. .  .147 

Lapidary    Work     135 

La    Provence,    Record    of 215 

Lard     135 

Lasts    135 

Latitude     465 

Laundries     132 

Law    Journals    127 

Lead    80,   135 

Leather   120,   135 

Leather     Goods     135 

Lemons   60 

Lettergrams     285 

Lever,     Bell    Crank     519 

Lever,      Common      519 

Lever,    Compound    519 

Lever,    Revolving    519 

Leyland    Line     205 

Liberia    139,    143,   145 

Life-boat     Drill     2*29 

Life-Saving    Service    221 

Lighthouses     564 

Lightning  Flashes    507 

Lights,    American    564 

Light   Year   466 

Liquid    Measure,    U.    S 562 

Liquors     135,     585 

Lime    92,   135 

Linear    Measure    562 

Lines,     Drawing    550 

Linoleum      110 

Listers    114 

Lithographing     127 

Lloyd  Sabaudo   200 

Lloyd,    Italiano    200 

Loan   and   Trust  Companies.  163 

Lobster   66 

Locomotives     135 

Locomotives,    Classification.    242 

Locomotives,     Cost     of 245 

Locomotive,      Freight,      Lar- 
gest   245 

Locomotives,    Heavy   244 

Locomotive,     Mallet     Articu- 
lated      522' 

Locomotive,    Most  Powerful   518 
Locomotive,    Piping  Arrange- 
ment     522 

Log  Measure    74 

Log    Rules    72" 

Longitude     465 

Looking-Glasses     135 

Louisiana,     Holidays     582 

Lumber   Cuts    69,   70 

Lumber,    Timber    Products.  .135 

Lusitania,    Record   of 215 

Luxemburg   141,    143,   145 

Lynchings  56 

Machine    Elements     519 

Mackerel     66 

Mail    Matter,    Classification  333 

Mail   Matter,    Domestic 333 

Mail     Matter,     Flrst- 

Class    333,  334 

Mail    Matter,    Second-Class    334 
Mail    Matter,     Fourth- 
Class    335,    336 

Mail   Matter,    Third- 

Class    334,    335 

Mail    Revenue,     Railway 253 

Mails,    Time    341 

Mail     Service     3  24 

Mail   Services,    Foreign 326 

Mall    Traffic    317 

Maine,   Holidays   582 


Malt    135 

Manufactures   97 

Manufacturing  Expenses    ....104 
Marble     and     Stone    Work..  135 
Marconlgrams,        Transatlan- 
tic    306 

Marine    Corps,    U.    S 434 

Marine  Disasters  219,  585 

Marine,    Merchant    193 

Maritime    Progress    151 

Marriages  and  Divorces   23 

Maryland,    Holidays    582 

Massachusetts,   Holidays 582 

Matches     135 

Mats  and   Matting    135 

Matson  Navigation  Co 210 

Mattresses  and  Spring  Beds  135 

Mauretania,    Record   of 215 

McC'ormick,     Cyrus    H 363 

Measures,     Weights     561 

Meat,     Cuts     of 61 

Meat    Packing    105 

Mechanical  Movements. 519,  52*3 
Medals    of    Army    and 

Navy     404-406 

Melting  Points  of  Elements  458 
Mercantile  Fleets,  Foreign  195 
Merchandise,       Imports      and 

Exports    149,    152 

Merchant    Marine     193 

Merchant  Marine  of  U.    S.  ..194 

Merchant    Ships,    Fastest 198 

Merganthaler,    Ottmar   3  64 

Meteorological    Elements   ...486 
Meteorological    Instru- 
ments     486,    487-497 

Meteorological    Services    510 

Meteorology     485 

Meteorology      and     Aeronau- 
tics    511 

Metric   Measures    566 

Metropolitan  Life  Building  366 
Mexico    ....139,    141,    143,    145 

Mexico,     Army     390-397 

Mexico,    Patent    Law 368 

Mexico,    Postal   Service  32*6-329 

Mexico,- Railways 235,   239 

Mica     95 

Michigan,    Holidays    582' 

Milk      53 

Milk,    Composition  of 60 

Millinery   and   Lace   Goods..  135 

Mineral  and  Soda  Waters 135 

Mineral    Products     78 

Mineral      Products      of      the 

U.     S 77 

Mineral    Waters    95 

Mines     and     Quarries 75 

Mining     Disasters     86 

Minnesota,    Holidays    582 

Mirrors     135 

Mississippi,    Holidays    582 

Missouri,     Holidays     582 

Models    and    Patterns 135 

Modern  Wonders  of  World... 189 

Mortality,     Table    of 574 

Monetary  Systems  of  Money.  184 

Money   by   Telegraph 285 

Money  Orders,  Domestic. .  .332" 
Money  Orders,   International. 337 

Money   Order    System 337 

Monroe    Doctrine    403 

Montana,     Holidays    583 

Months,    Foreign    Names 546 

Monuments,    National    68 

Moon    464 

Morocco     139,  145 

Morse.     Samuel    F.     B 363 

Mortality,     Table     of 574 


594 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Motorcycles    116 

Motors,     Electric     124 

Mountains,    Highest    174 

Moving     Pictures     135 

Mowing    Machinery    114 

Mucilage    and    Paste 135 

Mules    on    Farms 57 

Municipal    Building    New 

York     278 

Munson    Steamship    Line 208 

Musical    Instruments     13  5 

Music    Journals     127 

Music,     Sheet     127 

Nails    113 

National      Academy      of 

Sciences     454 

National    Banks    160 

National   Express    Co 259 

Nativity   of  Population 15 

Nautical    Measure    564 

Nautical,     Statute    Miles....  564 

Nautical    Terms    22'5 

Naval    Enlistment,    U.    S....410 

Naval   Ordnance,    U.    S 418 

Naval  Vessels,    U.    S.... 415-417 

Navies    of    World 409,425 

Navy   and    Naval    Militia 435 

Navy  Department  425 

Navy  Disbursements    2 

Navy,    Medals    404-406 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Armored  Ships 

420-424 

Navy,   U.  S.,   Cost  of 435 

Navy,   U.   S.,   Cruisers 426 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Fuel    Ships.. 43 2 

Navy,   U.   S.,  Gunboats 430 

Navy,  U.  S.,  Hospital  Ships. 43 2* 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Monitors 426 

Navy.   U.    S.,    Pay 415 

Navy,     U.     S.,     Ships    Under 

Construction    433 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Submarines 429 

Navy,  U.  S.,  Supply  Ships.. 432 
Navy,      U.      S.,      Tenders     to 

Torpedo    Boats    428 

Navy,     U.     S.,     Torpedo-boat 

Destroyers      428 

Navy,   U.   S.,   Torpedoes 429 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Transports 430 

Navy,    U.     S.,     Vessels 425 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Wireless 307 

Nebraska,    Holidays    583 

Needles,  Pins,  Hooks,  Eyes.  135 
Netherlands  139,  141,  143,  145 
Netherlands,  Patent  Law.. 367 
Netherlands,     Postal     Service 

326-329 

Nevada,    Holidays    583 

Newfoundland.     Railways 239 

New    Hampshire,     Holidays.  583 

New    Jersey,     Holidays 583 

New     Mexico,      Holidays 583 

Newspapers 4,    127,    130 

Newspaper,     Products    of 125 

Newspaper    Wrappers    332 

New     York     &     Cuba     Mall 

S.     S.     Co 208 

New    York,    Distances    in 240 

New   York,    Holidays 583 

New     York     &     Porto     Rico 

S.     S.     Co 208 

New  Zealand,  Patent  Law.. 3 67 
Nicaragua.. 138,    140,    142,    144 

Nickel     92 

Nicknames,   State  581 

Night    Letters    284,    285 

Night   Sky:   January,    Febru- 
ary     469' 


Night    Sky:    July,    August.. 473 
Night    Sky:    March,    April.. 471 

Night  Sky:   May,    June 472 

Night     Sky,     November,     De- 
cember     475 

Night    Sky:     September,     Oc- 
tober     474 

Nippon    Yusen    Kaisha    S.    S. 

Co 210 

Nodes     465 

North    Carolina,     Holidays.  .58:5 
North   Dakota,    Holidays. .  ..583 

Northern     Express     Co 259 

North    German    Lloyd, 

201,    204,    205,   585 

Nobel     Prizes     408 

Norway....  139,    141,    143,    145 

Norway,    Patent  Law 3  67 

Norway,   Postal  Service.  3  2 6-3  2'9 
Norway,     Railways, 

235,     236,    238 

Nursery    Products    54 

Nutation    465 

Nuts     113 

Oakum    135 

Oats,    Acreage    of • 49 

Occupations     102 

Oceanic    S.    S.    Co 211 

Ocean   Rates    200 

Ocean   S.    S.    Co 210 

Ocean        Vessels,        Develop- 
ment     217 

Occurrences     During     Print- 
ing      585 

Octagon,     to    Construct 554 

OflScers   of  Army  and   Navy. 3 94 

Ohio.     Holidays     583 

Oil    135 

Oilcloth    110 

Oilcloth   and  Linoleum 13  5 

Oil,     Sperm     66 

Oklahoma,    Holidays    583 

Oleomargarine     54 

Oleomargarine    135 

Olympic     197,  216 

Open-hearth    Furnace    113 

Optical    Goods    135 

Oranges     60 

Orchard    and   Vineyard   Prod- 
ucts       60 

Oregon,    Holidays    583 

Organs    132 

Oval     547 

Oysters    66 

Pacific   Coast   S.    S.    Co 201 

Pacific  Mail  S.   S.   Co.. 201,    211 

Pacific    Express    Co 259 

Paint   and    Varnish 122,135 

Pamphlets     127 

Panama.... 138.    140,    142,    144 

Panama   Canal 254,    265.  585 

Panama  Canal,  Breakwaters. 269 

Panama    Canal,     Dams 2  66 

Panama    Canal,    Excavation.  26-8 

Panama    Canal    Railroad 2'72 

Panama   Canal    Statistics 27  2 

Panama    Canal    Zone 272 

Panama       Railroad       S.       S. 

Line     208 

Panelboards     124 

Paper  and  Pulp 125 

Paper  and   Wood   Pulp 13  5 

Paper  Goods    135 

Paper  Patterns  135 

Paper,    Waste    12'5 


Parabola,  to  Construct. 554,   556 

Paraguay 139,     143,     145 

Parallelogram     547 

Parallelogram,   to  Construct. 551 

Parallelepiped    547 

Parcels   Dispatched    331 

Parcels  Post,  Domestic. 340,  342 
Parcels  Post  Information.  .345 
Parcels   Post,    International, 

343,    345 
Parcels  Post,  Rate  Zones  340.  342 

Parcels  Received  .- 331 

Passengers,    Arrival   of 2'9 

Passports     407 

Patent     Appeals 353 

Patent   Assignments    354 

Patent   Decisions    364 

Patented    Articles    3  54 

Patent  Infringement   353 

Patent    Interference    353 

Patent  Law,   United  States.. 3 68 

Patent    Medicines     135 

Patent    Reissues    353 

Patent      Rights       in      Bank- 
ruptcy      375 

Patents,    Design    354 

Patents,     Foreign     365 

Patents,      General      Informa- 
tion      351 

Patents   Issued    4 

Patents,    Number    355,     359 

Patents,      Trade-Marks,      and 

Copyrights    351 

Patent         System,  United 

States     355 

Paving   Materials    135 

Peaches     66 

Peanuts      135 

Pears    60 

Pencils,    Lead    135 

Peninsular        &       Occidental 

S.   S.   Co 208 

Pennsylvania,    Holidays    583 

Pennsylvania    R.    R 254 

Pens     135 

Pension    Act    3  8 

Pensions     38 

Pentagon    550 

Pentagon,     to     Construct 552 

Perihelion     463 

Periodicals      127 

Persia 139,    141,    145 

Perspective,   Isometric  554 

Peru 139,    141,    143.    145 

Peru,    Railways    235,  239 

Petroleum    88,    135 

Petroleum,      Production     of..     3 

Pharos   of  Alexandria    190 

Philippines.    Patent   Law.... 368 

Phonographs     132,  135 

Photo-Engraving  135 

Photographic    Apparatus    and 

Materials 135 

Pianos     132 

Pig  Iron 80.   89.  Ill 

Pigments    92 

Pipes    and    Tubes 113 

Pipes.    Tobacco    135 

Platinum    79 

Plows      114 

Plums     60 

Polygon      550 

Polygon,    to    Construct 554 

Population    and    Social    Sta- 
tistics           1' 

Population,    Center    of 10 

Population,    Density    of 257 

Population,     Increase    in 10 

Population     in     1910 8" 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


595 


Population    of   the   U.    S....    1 

Population    of   World 12 

Population    of   World's    Em- 
pires     157 

Population,      U.      S.,      1790- 

1910    6 

Population,         Urban        and 

Rural    13 

Porto   Rico,    Patent   Law 368 

Ports   of  World 153 

Portugal 139,     141,143,145 

Portugal,    Patent   Law 367 

Portugal,    Postal    Service, 

326-329 
Portugal,    Railways, 

2'35,    236,     238 

Postage  Rates    336 

Postage   Rates,    First-class.. 336 
Postage    Rates,     Foreign, 

339,  346-349 
Postage  Rates,  Fourtli-class.337 
Postage  Rates,  Second-class. 337 
Postage  Rates,  Third-class.  .337 
Postage     Stamps,     Coiling. .  .32  6 

Postage  Stamps,   Value 327 

Postage  2  Cents    340,  585 

Postal  Business,   World's 325 

Postal   Cards,    Printing 326 

Postal   Cards    332,    333 

Postal     Employees,      Reward 

to  331 

Postal      Information,      Prac- 
tical  333 

Postal   Savings  System.  164,  345 
Postal   Service,    World.  .3  27-3  29 

Post    Office    Affairs 32"3 

Post     Office     Department 344 

Post    Office    Expenditures, 

323,     324,    325 

Post  Office  Receipts 4 

Post    Office     Re  venue..  3  23,  324 

Post  Offices   3 

Post    Office,    United    States.. 323 

Potato    Crop    51 

Potato    Diggers    114 

Potato    Planters    114 

Pottery   135 

Poultry   in   the   U.    S 59 

Power,    Comparison    of 96 

Power,     Transmission    545 

Precession     465 

Precious    Metals    78 

Precious    Stones    94 

Precipitation    491 

Precipitation,      Annual. 513,  517 

Premium  Coin  List 576 

Preserving    and    Canning 105 

Presidential    Succession     454 

Press     Cable     Rates 292,  585 

Press    Cable   Rates 292* 

Printers'    Marks    322 

Printing   and    Publishing 135 

Printing,    Early    130 

Printing,     Job     127 

Prints    and    Labels 378 

Prison   Population    18 

Private    Mailing    Cards 333 

Provisions  of  Liner 226 

Provisions,    Prices  of 160 

Publications    127 

Publications.    Mailing  of.... 332* 

Public    Roads     258 

Pulley,    Compound    519 

Pulley,    Simple    519 

Pullman  Company   258 

Pulp   Goods    136 

Pulp    Wood     71,  125 

Pumps    ., 136 


Pursuits,     Distribution     of..  24 
Pyramids  of  Egypt 192 

Quadrangle     550 

Quadrant   550 

Quadrilateral  550 

Quebec    S.    S.    Co 208 

Queenstown  Records  215 

Quicksilver   80 

Races  of  Mankind 35,  163 

Radius     550 

Rags     125 

Railroad   Cars    116,244 

Railroad    Locomotives    .. 244 

Railroad    Mileage    242 

Railroads     233 

Railroad    Record    585 

Railroad   Speeds    251,  253 

Railroads,       Revenues       and    v 

Expenses    249 

Railroad    Tickets    250 

Railroad    Transportation    ...323 

Rails    112,  113 

Railway   Accidents.  .255,  256,  257 

Railway    Electric,    First 118 

Railway    Employees    246 

Railway    Mail   Revenue 253 

Railway  Progress  243 

Railway    Speed,    England 254 

Railway    Tunnels,    Long 258 

Railways,     Foreign,      Statis- 
tics     236 

Railways   of   Canada 261 

Railways  of  World,   Growth  235 

Railways,    U    S 241 

Railways,.   World's 238.  243 

Rainfall,   Bulk  and  Weight.. 103 

Range    Finding   Tower 401 

Rates.    Cable    Words 293 

Rates,    Ocean 200 

Rates    of    Postage 336 

Rates   from   Canada 207 

Rates  to  Pacific  Ports 209 

Rates     to     South     American 

Ports     207 

Rates.        Telegraph,        North 

America     283 

Rates  to  Trans-Pacific  Ports  209 
Rates  to  West  Indian  Ports  207 

Rates,    Wireless    308 

Ratchet    Movements    528 

Reapers  114 

Recall    48 

Records,    Steamship    215 

Red    "D"    Line    208 

Red    Star  Line 201,204,206 

Referendum    48 

Reflection     550 

Refractors,    Largest    477 

Registered    Mail    232,338 

Religions    of    Europe    36 

Religions  of   Mankind    36 

Religions    of   the    U.    S 36 

Religious    Papers    127 

Reply-coupons     338 

Resin      70 

Resistance..    Variation    570 

Revenue  Cfutter  Service 221 

Revenue,    Freight    247 

Revenue,    Passenger    249 

Rhode   Island,    Holidays 584 

Rhodes    Scholarships    39 

Rhomboid     550 

Rhomb, .   Rhombus   550 

Rice 136 

Rice  Crop   59 


Rice    Cleaning    106 

Right   Ascension    465 

Rigs  of  Sailing  Vessels    ....223 

Rivera  of  the  World 194 

Rivets    113 

Roofing    Materials    136 

Roofing    Paper    125 

Roosevelt    Dam    518 

Rosin  and  Turpentine    122 

Roumania    139,  141,  143,  145 

Roumania,   Railways 235,  236,  238 
Royal     Mail     Steam     Packet 

Co 208 

Rubber    Goods    136 

Rubber,    Production    179, 

Rugs,    Carpets    108 

Rules,    Ivory   and   Wood 136 

Rural    Delivery    330 

Rural   Population    14 

Russia     139,  141,  143,  145 

Russia, .    Army    390-397 

Russia,  Navy  410,  411 

Russian-American    Line. 201,  204 

Russian    Money    178 

Russia,    Patent   Law 367 

Russia,   Postal  Service.  ..326-329 
Russia,    Rys.    ..235,  236,  238.  239 


and    Vaults    136 

Safety   Appliances    253,.  255 

Sailing,    Vessels,    Rigs 223 

Sailing    Vessels,    Tonnage. .  .193 

Sailings,    Pioneer   199 

Salaries    Federal    Officials. .  .408 

Salaries,    Postmasters    331 

Salvador  138,   140,   142,   144 

Salt     92,93,122,136 

Sand    92 

Sand,    Emery   Paper,    Cloth.. 136 
Santo   Domingo. 139,  141,  143,  145 

Savings    Banks 161,    163 

Savings  Banks,  Deposits  in..     2 

Savings   Banks,    First 165 

Saws   136 

Scales   and   Balances 13'6 

Scallops    66 

Scandinavian-American    Line 

201,  204 

Scandinavian   Money   177 

School  Attendance    40 

Schools,    Special    40 

Science,    American    Associa- 
tion      587 

Scientific  American  Trophy.. 44? 

Scientific  Journals    127 

Sciences,    National    Academy 

of     587 

Screws    136 

Sea  Coast   Guns 394 

Sea   Coast   Guns 398 

Sea,    Depth    of 585 

Searchlights    124 

Secant     547 

Sector    547 

Seeders   and   Planters 114 

Seed    Separators    114 

Segment    of    Circle 550 

Selandia,    Engine    Room 232 

Semicircle    550 

Servia  139,  141,  143,   145 

Seven     Wonders     of    World, 

Ancient     189 

Seven     Wonders     of     World, 

Modern    189 

Sewing    Machines    136 

Sewing       Machines,        Early 

Types    388 

Sheep   on   Farms 58 

Shingles    69 

Shipbuilding    116,  136 


596 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Ship    Building    in   U.    S 194 

Shoddy    136 

Shovels    113 

Show   Cases    136 

Shrimp     66 

Siam   139..   141.   143.  145 

Signs.  Advertising  Novelties  13b 

Silk  Goods  110,  136 

Silver  and  Gold 79 

Silver    and    Gold,    Estimated 

g^ock     1" 

Silver  and  Gold,   Production  155 

Silver    Coin    2 

Silver,   Imports  and  Exports  15S 

Silver,    Test   for 576 

Silverware,    Plated   Ware 136 

Sine     ^50 

Singer    Building    366 

Skins    1^0 

Slate   

Slaughtering    105 

Slaughtering,   Meat  Packing. lo6 

Smelting,    Refining    136 

Smithsonian    Institution    ....454 

Soap    136 

Soap   Production    iit> 

Soda-water    Apparatus     136 

Solar    System    466 

Solar  System,  Satellites  of.. 465 
South  Africa,  Patent  Law... 368 
South    American     Republics, 

Patent   Laws    368 

Southampton    Records    21.5 

South    Carolina,    Holidays. .  .584 

South   Dakota,    Holidays 584 

Southern    Express    Co 259 

Southern  Pacific  S.    S.    Co... 208 

Spain   139,   141,   143,   145 

Spain,    Patent    Law 367 

Spain.  Postal  Service. ..  .326-329 
Spain,     Railways.... 235,  236.  238 

Spanish    Money 178 

Sparkless,     Wireless    586 

Specific    Gravitv 460,  461 

Speed,    Comparison 150 

Speed  of  Vessels 194 

Speeds,     Railroad 251 

Spikes 113 

Spiral,     Arithmetic 556 

Spiral,    Length    of 560 

Spiral,    To    Construct 556 

Spires,     Highest 546 

Spirit    Measure 562 

Sponges  66 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods  136 

Spout    501 

Springs   113,   545 

Springs,   Steel,   Car  and  Car- 
riage    136 

Square     550 

Square,    To    Construct 551 

Square,  To    Describe    About 

Circle    552 

Square,   To  Inscribe   In  Cir- 
cle     552 

Stamp    Books    332 

Stamp    Coils    332 

Stamped   Envelopes 331,    332 

Stamps  Imitations    332 

Starch   and    Glucose 115 

Stars,    Distances   of 468 

Stars.  Names  of  Principal.. 467 
Stars,    Order   of  Magnitude.. 468 

Stars,     Shooting 4P6 

Stars,   When  Added  to  Flag  518 

State    Banks , 1'63 

State  Flowers,    Holidays  and 

Niaknames 581 

States,    Thirteen    Original...     5 

Stationery  Goods    136 

Statistical    Information 1 


Statuary  and  Art  Goods 136 

Statue    of   Jupiter 191 

Statute,    Nautical   Miles    564 

Steamers    with    liquid    fuel..  194 

Steamboats,     First     199 

Steamboat     Inspection      Ser- 
vice     221 

Steam  Packet   213 

Steam    Packing 136 

Steam     Pressure,     Tempera- 
ture      569 

Steamship     Records 215 

Steamship    Routes,    Africa... 175 

Steamship  Routes,   Asia 179 

Steamship    Routes,     Austral- 
asia      183 

Steamship  Routes,  Europe.. 168 
Steamship     Routes,      North 

America    162 

Steamship     Routes,       South 

American    165 

Steamship     Speeds,     Propor- 
tional      216 

Steam  Vessels,   Tonnage 193 

Steel  and  Iron  Manufactures     111 

Steel,   Production  of 380 

Stereotyping  and  Electrotyp- 

ing     136 

Stone    92 

Storage   Batteries    124 

Storm    Signals 512 

Stoves    and    Furnaces 136 

Straw    Boards    125 

Street-railroad    Cars    116 

Street    Railways    260 

Strength,   Pulling   573 

Submarine    Cables    288 

Submarine     Disasters 434 

Submarine   Record    585 

Submarines  of  the  U.    S 586 

Suez   Canal 254,    271 

Suffrage,    Woman    13 

Sugar    ^r. 108 

Sugar   and    Molasses 136 

Sugar    Beets 51 

Sugar  Consumed    3 

Sugar,    Production    of 3 

Suicides   21,  20 

Sulphur  and   Pyrite 92 

Sulphuric,.  Nitric  and  Mixed 

Acids    136 

Sun    465 

Super-dreadnought,       Boiler- 
room  Section    421 

Super-dreadnought,     Conning 

Tower   Section 419 

Super-dreadnought,       Engine 

Section     427 

Super-dreadnought,  Gun  Sec- 
tion       431 

Super  -  dreadnought.        Stern 

Section      436 

Superficies     550 

Surgical    Appliances    136 

Sweden    139,  141,  143,  145 

Sweden,   Patent  Law 367 

Sweden,  Postal  Service.  .326-329 
Sweden,     Railways.  .235,  236,  238 

Swine   on   Farms 58 

Switchboards     124 

Switzerland  . . .  .139.  141.  143,  145 
Switzerland,  Patent  Law.... 367 
Switzerland,  Postal  Service 

326-329 
Switzerland,  Railways 


Tables,    Interest 164 

Talon,    To    Draw 552 

Tangent    550,  551 


Tanning    120 

Tantalum    Lamps    124 

Tea,     Production     149 

Telegraph,    Development  315 

Telegraph    Earnings    317 

Telegraphic    Apparatus    124 

Telegraph     Investment 317 

Telegraph       Messages,       Do- 
mestic     279 

Telegraph        Rates,        North 

America    28.3 

Telegraph    Tolls    286 

Telegraph    Traffic    317 

Telegraphs    and    Cables 279 

Telegraph    Wires    315 

Telegraphy,    Wireless    299 

Telephone   Apparatus    124 

Telephone,    Comparison   with 

Other    Industries    318 

Telephone  Conversations 

312,   318 
Telephone    Development    311-315 

Telephone     Directories 318 

Telephones,  Distribution . .  .311 
Telephone  Distribution, 

World     319 

Telephone     Earnings     317 

Telephone  Investment 

312,  315-318 
Telephone         Statistics         of 

World     311 

Telephone  System,    Bell.  .319-321 

Telephone     Traffic 317 

Telephone    Wires 314-316 

Temperature  and  Radiation. 488 
Temperature,  Distribution.  .498 
Temperature,       Low,       High, 

Normal    and    Mean    513-516 

Temperature,    Table    of 569 

Temple    of    Diana 190 

Tennessee,    Holidays 584 

Terne    Plate 115 

Tesla,     Nicola 364 

Texas,     Holidays 584 

Textiles    108 

Thermometer    Scales    462 

Thomson    Line    206 

Threshing  Machinery    114 

Thunderstorms    501 

Tides     5 

Ties   69 

Time    478,  479,  482,  563 

T'me,    Conversion  of 480 

Time,    On    Board   Ship 198 

Tin     82 

Tin   and    Terne   Plate 115 

Tin    Foil    136 

Tin,    Production    of 3 

Tissue  Paper    125 

Tobacco    Crop    48 

Tobacco    Manufactures     136 

Tolls,     Telegraph     286 

Tomb  of  Mausolus   191 

Torpedo   Boat   Destroyers. .  ..426 

Towers,    Highest    546 

Toyo  Kisen  Kaisha  S.  S.  Co.211 

Toys  and   Games ,.136 

Trade   Discount   Table 188 

Trade    Journals    127 

Trade-Marks     379 

Trade  -  Marks,       Copyrights, 

Patents     351 

Traffic,    Freight     247 

Traffic,   Passenger  247 

Training  Schools   42 

Train   Service    255 

Trains,    Long-Distance    254 

Transatlantic  Marconigrams  307 
Transatlantic  Steamship 

Lines    202 

Transformers *. . .  .124 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


597 


Transportation  Manufactures.  115 

Trapezium     5o0 

Trapezoid     550 

Triangle,  Acute- Angled   550 

Triangle,    Equ' lateral    ..547,  550 

Triangle,   Isoscelec   647 

Triangle,    Scalene     547 

Trinidad    Line     208 

Trip   Hammer   542 

Troy  Weight   563 

Tungsten   Lamps   124 

Tunnels,    Railway    263,  585 

Turbine    Engines    216 

Turbine,    First    130 

Turkey    139,    141,   143,    145 

Turkey,     Patent    Law 368 

Turkey,    Railways    235,  238 

Turpentine     70 

Turpentine    and    Rosin.. 122,  136 

Turtles     66 

Twine     331 

Type-founding    and    Printing 

Materials    136 

Typewriters    and     Supplies.  .136 
Typhoons     501 


Umbrellas    and    Canes 136 

Union  of  South  Africa.. 141,  145 

Union  S.    S.    Co 209 

United    Fruit    Co 209 

United  Kingdom  139, 141,  143,  145 
United   States  ..139,  141,  143,  145 

U.  S.  Army 390-397 

U.    S.    Civil    Service 586 

U.    S.    Copyright  Law 384 

U.    S.    Express   Co 259 

U.    S.    Marine    Corps 434 

U.    S.    Military   Academy 401 

U.    S.    Naval    Academy 435 

U.    S.   Naval  Enlistment 419 

U.   S.  Navy  410,  411 

U.  S.,  Navy  and  Naval  Mili- 
tia     *35 

U.    S.   Patent   System 355 

U.    S.    Patent    Law 368 

U.     S.    Post    Office 323 

U.    S.    Railways 235-260 

University  Attendance    40 

Upholstering    Materials 136 

Urban  Population   14 

Uruguay    139,  141,  143,  Un 

Uruguay,    Railways    ....235.  239 


Utah,    Holidays    584 

Vacuum  Tubes   124 

Vapor    Lamps    12l 

Varnish    and    Paint    122 

Vault  Lights  and  Ventilators  136 
Vegetables,  Composition  of 

44.   51,   53,  55 

Venezuela  139,  141,  143,  145 

Vermont.    Holidays    584 

Vessels.    American    3 

Vinegar    and    Cider 136 

Virginia,    Holidays   584 

Volcanic  Eruptions   586 

Volcanoes    586 

Voting    Americans    13 


Wage    Earners    100 

Wage  Earnings,   Variation  of    98 

Wage   Tables    187 

Wall    Paper    125,136 

Wall   Plaster    136 

War    Department    403 

War    Disbursements    2 

Washing   Machines,     Clothes 

Wringers    136 

Washington,    Holidays   584 

Washington    Monument    580 

Watch   on   Board   Ship    198 

Waterfalls,    Famous    455 

Water  Surface,   Total    169 

Wealth    per   Capita    2 

Wealth,    U.    S 2 

Weather    Map    508 

Weather    Prediction 510 

Wedding    Anniversares     580 

Wedge    522 

Week    End    Letters 296 

Weights    and    Measures 561 

Wells    Fargo    Express    Co 259 

Western    Express    Co 259 

Westinghouse,    George    364 

West   Virginia,    Holidays 584 

Wheat    Acreage    46 

Wheat  Crop,    What  it  Means  50 

Wheat,    Production    of 3 

Wheel    and    Axle 519 

Wheelbarrows     136 

Whalebone     66 

Whips    136 

Whitehead    Torpedo    411 

White   Star-Dominion  Line.. 207 


White    Star  Line  201,  204,  205,  206 

Whitney,   Eli    362 

Winans,    Ross    363 

Wind     49:i 

Windmills     136 

Window  Shades  and  Fixtures  136 

Winds,    Periodic    500 

Wine    Measure    562 

Wine,    Production    156- 

Wire   11.3,   115.  136 

Wire,    Copper,    Weight 571 

Wire    Gauges    571 

Wire,     Iron     571 

Wireless   Rates    307-30& 

Wireless    Sparkless    588 

Wireless   Stations    301 

Wireless    Stations,    Alaska.. 304 
Wireless   Stations,    Canada 

301,  304 
Wireless    Stations,     Imperial 

Service     300 

Wireless      Stations,       United 

States    301,  302 

Wireless    Telegraphy... 299,     585 

Wireless,    U.    S.    Navy 307 

Wire,     Steel     571 

Wirework     136 

Wisconsin,    Holidays   584 

Woman' s    Suffrage    13 

Wood   Carpet    136 

Wood    Distillation    136 

Wood,    Jethro    362 

Wood    Preserving    13>; 

Wood    Pulling    136 

Wood,    Turned  and   Carved.. 136 

Wool,   Production    3,   51 

Wool   Scouring   136 

Woolen    Goods    110 

Woolen,         Worsted.         Felt 

Goods    136 

Woolworth   Building 

Facing  page  1 

Woolworth    Building    350 

Words    in    Line    and    Page, 

Number  546 

Worsted  Goods   110 

Wrapping   Paper    12.'i 

Wright,    Orville    364 

Wright,    Wilbur    36^ 

Wyoming,    Holidays    584 

Yacht,     Development    of    90- 
foot  Racing  587 


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